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Chapter 7.4 Distillation Column 1
Chapter 7.4 Distillation Column 1
STUDENT NAME
SUPERVISOR:
PROF MADYA HASNORA JAFRI
2
7.4 ETHANOL SEPARATION TOWER, T-101
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Ethanol separation tower or denoted as T-101 in ethanol production plant is used to
separate the main product which is ethanol from the wastewater. There are total of four components
involve in this separation, but since the amount of unreacted ethylene and diethyl ether are too
small (less than 0.001 kmol/h), hence these two components are neglected in calculation and this
separation is considered as binary distillation. In this separation, the light key component which is
the component that is desired to keep out of the bottom product is ethanol. On the other hand,
heavy key component that is desired to keep out of the top product is water.
Table 1: Table of boiling point, molecular weight and density for each component at 25°C and 1 atm
Molecular
Boiling Density
No Component weight Reference
Point (°C) (kg/m³)
(kg/kmol)
(National Center for
1 Ethanol 78.29 46 789 Biotechnology Information,
2018)
2 Water 100 18 998 (Sinnot, 2005)
B) Antoine Equation
𝐵
ln 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑘𝑃𝑎) = 𝐴 −
𝑇 (𝐾) + 𝐶
3
C) Viscosity
DISTILLATE
Ethanol (A)
Water (B)
FEED
Ethanol (A)
Water (B)
BOTTOM
Ethanol (A)
Water (B)
4
In order to design tower, there are few parameters need to be considered such as physical
properties and equation used for the calculation. Several steps need involved in tower designation
and a good assumption must also be made to justify the calculation.
Firstly, in order to design distillation column, temperature at dew point and bubble point is
calculated. Dew temperature referred to distillate temperature while bubble temperature referred
to feed and bottom temperature. The value of dew temperature and bubble temperature need to be
iterated to obtain the most approximate value. The first guess for dew and bubble temperature are
taken from HYSYS.
The vapour pressure of each component need to be determined in order to calculate dew
temperature and bubble temperature followed by equilibrium constant, K and relative volatility, α.
Antoine equation is used to determine the vapour pressure at the iterated temperature. The value
of A, B and C is the Antoine constant and can be found in Table 2.
𝐵 Eq 7.1
ln 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 (𝑘𝑃𝑎) = 𝐴 −
𝑇 (𝐾) + 𝐶
Next, the value of equilibrium constant K need to be calculated by using below formula
where Ki is the equilibrium constant for each component and P is the operating pressure
(Geankoplis, 2014).
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 Eq 7.2
𝐾=
𝑃
5
Bubble point (feed)
By using goal seek method in excel programme, with constant operating pressure at feed,
the value of the bubble temperature is iterated and shown in table below.
OPERATING CONDITION
Design pressure Bubble
250 395.25
(kPa) temperature (K)
OPERATING CONDITION
Design pressure Dew temperature
200 372.50
(kPa) (K)
Mole fraction,
Component ln Psat Psat K-value Ʃx = yi/ki
xf
Ethanol 0.91 5.40 222.43 1.11 0.82
Water 0.09 4.60 99.01 0.50 0.18
1.00
Hence, the dew temperature of distillate is 375.25K
6
Bubble point (bottom)
By using goal seek method in excel programme, with constant operating pressure at feed,
the value of the bubble temperature is iterated and shown in table below.
OPERATING CONDITION
Design pressure Bubble
240 398.25
(kPa) temperature (K)
Mole fraction,
Component ln Psat Psat K-value Ʃx = yi/ki
xf
Ethanol 0.03 6.24 510.68 2.13 0.06
Water 0.97 5.45 232.73 0.97 0.94
1.00
After the value of of K is obtained, the value of relative volatility for each component is
then calculated. The equation is as shown below (Geankoplis, 2014).
𝐾𝑖
𝛼= Eq 7.3
𝐾𝐻𝐾
where 𝐾𝑖 is the equilibrium constant for each component and 𝐾𝐻𝐾 is the equilibrium constant for
Heavy Key. In this separation, heavy key component is water since it is the lowest volatility
compared to ethanol. The value of relative volatility is given in table below.
7
Table 12: Relative Volatility at bottom
Relative Volatility
Component Top Bottom Average
Ethanol 2.25 2.19 2.22
Water 1.00 1.00 1.00
Next, the value of 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 is determined next using Underwood & Fenske equation (Sinnot, 2005).
1 𝑋𝑑,𝐿𝐾 𝑋𝑑,𝐻𝐾
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( − 𝛼𝑎𝑣𝑔 [ ]) Eq 7.5
(𝛼𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 1) 𝑋𝑓,𝐿𝐾 𝑋𝑓,𝐻𝐾
According to Geankoplis (2014), the value of reflux ratio is 1.5 of the minimum reflux ratio
which can be shown as
𝑅 = 1.5𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 Eq 7.6
1 0.91 0.09
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( − 2.22 [ ])
(2.22 − 1) 0.15 0.85
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4.78
𝑅 = 1.5(4.78)
𝑅 = 7.17
8
ii) Calculation to determine number of stages using Mc-Cabe Thiele method
This gives a relation between the ratio A and B in the vapour to that in the liquid. Since with
binary mixture 𝑦𝐵 = 1- 𝑦𝐴 and 𝑥𝐵 = 1 - 𝑥𝐴 then:
𝑦𝐴 1 − 𝑥𝐴
𝑎=( )( )
1 − 𝑦𝐴 𝑥𝐴
𝑎𝑥𝐴
𝑦𝐴 =
1 + (𝑎 − 1)𝑥𝐴
2.22 𝑥
𝑦=
1 + 1.22 𝑥
𝑥𝐴 𝑦𝐴
0 0.00
0.1 0.20
0.2 0.36
0.3 0.49
0.4 0.60
0.5 0.69
0.6 0.77
0.7 0.84
0.8 0.90
0.9 0.95
1 1.00
9
Vapour-liquid equilibrium curve
1
0.9
Mole fraction of A in vapour phase, y
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Mole fraction of A in liquid phase, x
Table 15: Parameter for Feed, Distillate, Bottom & Reflux Ratio
Parameter Value
Feed Molar Flow Rate (kmol/h),F 766.8
Distillate Molar Flow Rate (kmol/h), D 282.97
Bottom Molar Flow Rate (kmol/h), B 483.83
Reflux Ratio, R 7.17
Vn = D (R + 1)
Vn = 282.97 (7.17 + 1)
Vn = 2311.87 kmole/hr
10
(ii) Liquid down flow
Ln = Vn − D
Ln = 2311.87 − 282.97
Ln = 2028.90 kmole/hr
Lm = Ln + F
Lm = 2028.90 + 766.8
Lm = 2795.70 kmole/hr
Vm = Lm – B
Vm = 2795.70 - 483.83
Vm = 2311.87 kgmole/hr
Operating line
Top operating line (Geankoplis, 2014)
𝐿𝑛 𝐷 Eq 7.8
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛+1 + 𝑥𝑑
𝑉𝑛 𝑉𝑛
2028.90 282.97
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛+1 + 𝑥
2311.87 2311.87 𝑑
𝑦𝑛 = 0.88 𝑥𝑛+1 + 0.11
11
1
VAPOUR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
0.9
0.7 q-line
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Bottom operating line
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Xb Xf Xd
12
iii) Calculation to determine number of actual stages
In order to determine the number of actual stages, plate efficiency must be determined. The
O’Connell correlation shown can be used to estimate the overall column efficiency. The equation
correlated with the product of the relative volatility of the light key and the molar average viscosity
of the feed with estimated at the average column temperature. The equation is shown below
(Eduljee, 1958).
Eq 7.10
𝐸𝑜= 51 − 32.5 log(𝜇𝑎 𝛼𝑎 )
The average viscosity can be found by using equation below where T is the average temperature
(Sinnot, 2005).
Eq 7.11
1 1
log 𝜇 = 𝑉𝐼𝑆 𝐴 × ( − )
𝑇 (𝐾) 𝑉𝐼𝑆 𝐵
360.1 + 384.65
𝑇 (𝐾) =
2
𝑇 = 372.375 𝐾
13
The average viscosity is calculated and shown in table below
Mole
Average Molar viscosity,
Component fraction,
viscosity, μ μxf
xf
Ethanol 0.36 0.15 0.05
Water 0.28 0.85 0.24
𝐸𝑜= 66.98%
10 − 1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 =
0.6689
14
iv) Determination of feed point location
The feed point location is calculated to determine in which stage feed enter the column. The
given equation to calculate the feed point location are as follow (Kirkbride, 1944).
2
𝑁𝑟 𝐵 𝑋𝑓,𝐻𝐾 𝑋𝑏,𝐿𝐾 Eq 7.14
log ( ) = 0.206 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [( ) ( )( ) ]
𝑁𝑠 𝐷 𝑋𝑓,𝐿𝐾 𝑋𝑑,𝐻𝐾
𝑁𝑟
( ) = 1.02
𝑁𝑠
Thus,
𝑁𝑟 = 1.02 𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑟 + 𝑁𝑠 = 13
𝑁𝑠 = 13 − 𝑁𝑟
15
Substituting into above equation,
Thus,
The following table shows the mole fraction, molecular weight and liquid density for each
component.
Table 17: Molecular weight, mole fraction and liquid density of ethanol and water
Composition
Molecular Weight Density
Component Feed,
(kg/kmol) (kg/m3)
Xf Distillate, Xd Bottom, Xb
Ethanol 46 0.85 0.91 0.03 789
Water 18 0.15 0.09 0.97 998
Liquid density
𝜌𝐿 = ∑ 𝑋𝑓,𝑖 𝜌𝑖 Eq 7.16
Vapour density
16
Where the value of VSTP, TSTP and PSTP are given by
𝜌𝑉 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 4.07𝑘𝑔/𝑚³
17
Vapour density at distillate
RMM ρv ρl
Feed 41.8 4.07 820.35
Top 43.48 2.90 807.81
Bottom 18.84 1.41 991.73
18
vi) Determination of column sizing
Plate spacing
Taller spacing between successive trays raises capacity, leading to a smaller tower diameter
but also raises tower height. In tower with larger than 1.5m diameter, tray spacing is typically 600
mm and is large enough to permit a worker to crawl between trays (Robert H. Perry, 2008).
FLV is defined as liquid-vapour flow factor and need to be calculated to obtain the column
diameter. Note that all the calculation involves in estimating the column diameter needs to be done
for distillate and bottom. This is because, the column diameter value will depend on the most
appropriate value which is either the diameter at distillate or diameter at bottom. The formula of
FLV is:
𝐿𝑤 𝜌𝑉 Eq 7.18
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
𝑉𝑤 𝜌𝐿
2028.90 2.90
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
2311.87 807.81
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = 0.053
2795.70 1.41
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √
2311.87 991.73
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = 0.046
19
By considering the chosen tray spacing and 𝐹𝐿𝑉 value, by using figure below, the value of
K1 can be obtained. K1 value will be used to calculate flooding velocity, 𝑈𝑓 in the next step.
Figure below shows the relationship between K1 value and FLV based on tray spacing for sieve
trays type.
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐾1 = 0.105
𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐾1 = 0.110
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾1 √ Eq 7.19
𝜌𝑉
20
𝑈𝑣 Eq 7.20
% 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑈𝑓
𝑈𝑣 = % 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑈𝑓
807.99 − 2.90
𝑈𝑓 = 0.105√
2.90
𝑈𝑓 = 1.75 𝑚/𝑠
𝑈𝑣 = 1.49 𝑚/𝑠
993.67 − 1.41
𝑈𝑓 = 0.110√
1.41
𝑈𝑓 = 2.91 𝑚/𝑠
𝑈𝑣 = 2.48 𝑚/𝑠
21
Calculation for maximum volumetric flow rate (Sinnot, 2005).
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 ( ) × 𝑅𝑀𝑀 Eq 7.21
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ
𝜌𝑉 × 3600
2311.87 × 43.48
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2.90 × 3600
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9.63 𝑚3 /𝑠
2311.87 × 18.84
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
1.41 × 3600
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8.55 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 Eq 7.22
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 =
𝑈𝑣
9.63 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 =
1.49 𝑚/𝑠
8.55 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 =
2.48 𝑚/𝑠
22
The downcomer area and plate spacing must be below the outlet weir to avoid from column
flooding. Thus, to calculate the downcomer area, an assumption of 10% from total area is taken
(Sinnot, 2005). The value will then change depending on the detailed plate designation. From this
assumption, the value of column area can be determined.
6.48 𝑚²
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝑐 =
0.9
3.45 𝑚²
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝑐 =
0.9
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷= √ Eq 7.24
𝜋
4(7.20)
𝐷= √
𝜋
𝐷 = 3.03 𝑚
23
For bottom column
4(3.84)
𝐷= √
𝜋
𝐷 = 2.21 𝑚
Therefore, the most suitable diameter for the design of column is 3.03 m
The following area terms are used in the plate design. In order to calculate the column diameter,
an estimate of net area is required. The downcomer area is assuming as 12% of total, and assume
that hole area is 10% (Sinnot, 2005).
Number of holes
𝜋𝑑² 𝜋(0.005)²
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = = = 1.96 × 10−5
4 4
24
viii) Weir dimension
Calculation to determine weir height
Weir height is used to determine the volume of liquid on plate and is to determine the plate
efficiency. Higher weir height will increase plate efficiency. However, it will also increase the
plate pressure drops (Sinnot, 2005).
Weir length, 𝐼𝑤 will depends on the percentage of downcomer area. According to Sinnot
(2005), a good initial value used is 0.75 x Dc which is equivalent to 12% downcomer area.
𝐴𝑑
× 100% = 12% Eq 7.25
𝐴𝑐
The relationship between weir length and downcomer area can be shown in Figure 4
25
Therefore,
Eq 7.26
𝐼𝑤 = 0.75 𝐷𝑐
𝐼𝑤 = 2.27 𝑚
Calculation of Lmax
𝐿𝑤 2/3 Eq 7.28
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 ( )
𝜌𝑙 (𝐼𝑤 )
Where ℎ𝑜𝑤 = weir liquid crest, mm
𝐿𝑤 = liquid flow rate, kg/s
𝜌𝑙 = liquid density, kg/m³
𝐼𝑤 = weir length, m
By taking 70% turndown ratio, the minimum liquid flowrate can be obtained as follows (Sinnot,
2005).
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 Eq 7.29
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.7 × 14.63 = 10.24 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
Therefore,
𝐿𝑤 2/3 Eq 7.30
ℎ𝑜𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 750 ( )
𝜌𝑙 (𝐼𝑤 )
2/3
10.24
ℎ𝑜𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 750 ( )
991.73(2.27)
26
ℎ𝑜𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 20.59 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Thus,
ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 50 + 20.59 = 70.59 𝑚𝑚
From the summation of ℎ𝑤 and ℎ𝑜𝑤 , a constant K2 can be obtained from the below graph
correlation.
Calculation of minimum vapour velocity through holes based on hole area can, Ub
The equation to calculate minimum vapour velocity through holes are as follows (Sinnot, 2005)
𝐾2 − 0.9(25.4 − 𝑑ℎ ) Eq 7.31
ŭℎ = [ ]
(𝜌𝑣 )1/2
Where,
ŭℎ = Minimum vapour velocity through holes (based on hole area), m/s
𝐾2 = constant, depending on the depth of clear liquid on plate, m/s
27
𝑑ℎ = Hole diameter, mm
𝜌𝑣 = Density of vapour, kg/m³
30.5 − 0.9(25.4 − 5)
ŭℎ = [ ]
(1.41)1/2
ŭℎ = 10.22 𝑚/𝑠
However, a certain condition need to be fulfilled to determine whether information in estimating
the value of plate dimension is correct or not. The condition need to be fulfilled is that:
Where
𝑚3
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒(
𝑚
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( ) = 𝑠 )
𝑠 𝐴ℎ (𝑚2 )
𝑚3
𝑚 (0.7 × 9.63 )
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( ) = 𝑠 = 12.33 𝑚
𝑠 0.55 𝑚² 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚
10.22 < 12.33
𝑠 𝑠
The condition is acceptable and the minimum operating rate is above the weep point.
Pressure drop is one of the important criteria in plate designation. Higher pressure drop
may cause higher efficiency however it is not god for the distillation process. According to
(Branan, 2005), the pressure drops across plate for sieve trays cannot exceed 22% of the space
between the trays.
28
Dry plate pressure drop
𝑢ℎ 2 𝜌𝑣 Eq 7.32
ℎ𝑑 = 51 ( )
𝐶𝑜 𝜌𝑙
Where
𝑢ℎ = Maximum vapour velocity through holes, m/s
𝐶𝑜 = Function of plate thickness, hole diameter and hole to perforated area ratio
𝜌𝑣 = density of vapour, kg/m³
𝜌𝑙 = density of liquid, kg/m³
Since 𝐶𝑜 is the function of plate thickness, hole diameter and hole to perforated area ratio, it can
be defined as the following
2
𝐴ℎ 𝑑ℎ
= 0.9 ( ) Eq 7.34
𝐴𝑝 𝐼𝑝
The value of 𝐼𝑝 must be in the range of 2.5 to 4.0 of hole diameter hence, the value of 3 is chosen
to calculate 𝐼𝑝
Eq 7.35
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝐼𝑝 = 3 × 𝑑ℎ
29
Figure 7: Discharge coefficient for sieve plates
𝑚3
9.63 𝑠 𝑚
𝑢ℎ = = 17.61
0.55 𝑚2 𝑠
To determine value of 𝐶𝑜 , take the ratio of plate thickness and hole diameter to be 1 and the
𝐴ℎ
pitch hole and ratio of is given by:
𝐴𝑝
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝐼𝑝 = 3 × 5 = 15
𝐴ℎ 5 2
= 0.9 ( ) × 100% = 10%
𝐴𝑝 15
17.61 2 1.41
ℎ𝑑 = 51 ( ) = 31.99 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
0.84 991.73
30
Calculation of residual head
12.5 × 10³ Eq 7.36
ℎ𝑟 =
𝜌𝑙
12.5 × 103
ℎ𝑟 =
991.73
ℎ𝑟 = 12.60 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
31
x) Determination of downcomer design
Calculating downcomer backup in clear liquid using equation below (Sinnot, 2005).
ℎ𝑏 = ℎ𝑡 + (ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 ) + ℎ𝑑𝑐 Eq 7.40
𝐿𝑤𝑑 2 Eq 7.41
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 ( )
𝜌𝑙 𝐴𝑚
𝐿𝑤𝑑 = Liquid flowrate in downcomer (assume same as liquid rate across the trays), kg/s
𝐴𝑚 = Either downcomer area, Ad or clearance area under downcomer, Aap (which is smaller), m²
2
14.63
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 ( )
991.73 × 0.0908
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 4.38 𝑚𝑚
Therefore,
ℎ𝑏 = 115.18 𝑚𝑚 + (50𝑚𝑚 + 20.59 𝑚𝑚) + 4.38 𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑏 = 190.15 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 0.19𝑚
By comparing ℎ𝑏 value with tray spacing
1
ℎ𝑏 < (𝐼 + ℎ𝑤 )
2 𝑡
1
0.19 𝑚 < (0.6 𝑚 + 0.05𝑚)
2
0.19 𝑚 < 0.325 𝑚
Therefore, the condition is said to be fulfilled.
𝐴𝑑 ℎ𝑏 𝜌𝑙 Eq 7.42
𝑡𝑟 =
𝐿𝑤𝑑
(0.86)(0.196)(991.73)
𝑡𝑟 = = 11.45 𝑠
(14.63)
32
xii) Calculation for perforated area
Perforation area can be reduced by the obstruction that is caused by the support rings and
beams as well as the use of calming zones. Calming zones are the unperforated strips of the inlet
and outlet sides of the plate. The recommended value is between 100 mm to 1500 mm and taking
50 mm as normal value used (Sinnot, 2005).
𝐼𝑤 2.27 Eq 7.43
= = 0.75
𝐷𝑐 3.03
Figure 8:Relation between angle subtended by chord, chord height and chord length
Therefore, 𝜃 = 105°
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 180° − 105° = 75°
33
Calculating area of unperforated edge strips, Aus
Eq 7.45
𝐴𝑢𝑠 = 𝑊𝑢𝑠 × 𝐿𝑢𝑠
𝐴𝑢𝑠 = 0.05𝑚 × 3.90𝑚 = 0.19𝑚²
By calculating the ratio of hole area, Ah and perforated area, Ap, and then referring to
figure below, the ratio of pitch hole to hole diameter. lp/dh can be obtained.
𝐴ℎ
= 0.11
𝐴𝑝
34
The normal value of 𝑙𝑝/𝑑ℎ is between 2.5 to 4. If the value is in this range, the calculation
is acceptable otherwise, all the calculation need to be repeated and recalculated. From the graph,
the value of 𝑙𝑝/𝑑ℎ is 2.9 hence the calculation is acceptable.
Main Properties
Diameter 3.03 m
Area 7.195 m²
Tray spacing 0.6 m
No. of trays 13
Height 9.8 m
Feed Location 7
Liquid flow arrangement
Cross-flow (single pass)
Material of Construction
Plate properties
Downcomer Area,
0.86 m² Pitch hole, Ip 20 mm
Ad
Active Area, Aa 5.47 m² Weir length, Iw 2.27 m
Downcomer
Weir Height, Hw 50 mm 11.45 s
residence time, tr
35
7.4.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF ETHANOL SEPARATION TOWER
110
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 Eq 7.49
100
110
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 2.5 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 2.75 𝑏𝑎𝑟
100
110
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 Eq 7.50
100
110
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = × 111.5°𝐶 = 122.65 °
100
122.65 °𝐶 ≈ 395.8 𝐾
Since one of the component involved in the separation is ethanol and said to be highly
corrode, thus, carbon steel is not suitable for material of construction. Hence, the MOC chosen is
stainless-steel 316.
The maximum allowable stress is determined based on MOC as well as the design pressure
and temperature. Below is the table for maximum allowable stress value.
36
Figure 10: Typical design stress for plate
To get the design stress at suitable material of construction, interpolation was made at the
design temperature.
𝑆 = 143.205 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
37
Figure 11: Table of welded joint efficiency
Corrosion allowance is an additional thickness to metal in case the wall of vessel corrodes
due to components flow. For carbon and low-alloy steel, corrosion allowance of 2 mm is
recommended to be used. In any case that have higher component concentration, a larger corrosion
allowance of 4 mm is recommended to be used (Sinnot, 2005).
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= Eq 7.51
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2𝑃𝑖
(0.275)(3030)
𝑡=
2(143.21)(1) − 1.2(0.275)
𝑡 = 2.91 𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 2.91 𝑚𝑚 + 2𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 4.91 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 5𝑚𝑚
38
7.4.3.5 Determination of types of domed head used
The choice of heads and closure are important for covers of manways. Besides, it must be
chosen to withstand the operating pressure. There are three types of domed head which is
hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and torispherical. The types of head used need to be determine by
calculating its thickness. The thickness should be almost the same as the minimum wall thickness
calculated previously. The thickness for the types of head used can be calculated as follow.
Hemispherical head
Hemispherical head is the strongest closure for domed head. It is used for high pressure
vessel and the cost is also much higher compared to other two closure. For cylinder-shaped vessel,
by taking Poisson’s ratio as 3 for steel, the thickness can be calculated as follows. The same
equation is to be used for spherical shaped vessel (Sinnot R. a., 2009).
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= Eq 7.52
4𝑆𝐸 − 0.4𝑃𝑖
(0.275)(3030)
𝑡=
4(143.21)(1) − 0.4(0.275)
𝑡 = 1.45 𝑚𝑚
39
Ellipsoidal head
Ellipsoidal head can also be used for high pressure vessel. For pressure above 15 bar,
ellipsoidal head is more recommended to be used (Sinnot R. a., 2009). The thickness of Ellipsoidal
head can be calculated as follows.
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 Eq 7.53
𝑡=
2𝑆𝐸 − 0.2𝑃𝑖
(0.275)(3030)
𝑡=
2(143.21)(1) − 0.2(0.275)
𝑡 = 2.91 𝑚𝑚
Torispherical head
Torispherical head is commonly used for vessel operating up to 15 bar. It can also be used for
higher pressure, however, for pressure above 10 bar, the cost of this closure will be higher (Sinnot
R. a., 2009). The thickness of Ellipsoidal head can be calculated as follows:
40
0.885𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐 Eq 7.54
𝑡=
𝑆𝐸 − 0.1𝑃𝑖
0.885(0.275)(3030)
𝑡=
(143.21)(1) − 0.1(0.275)
𝑡 = 5.15 𝑚𝑚
Since ellipsoidal has the similar thickness as the minimum wall thickness, thus,
ellipsoidal head will be chosen for the closure.
𝐶𝑤 = a factor to account for weight of nozzles, manways and internal supports where 1.08 for vessel
with only few fittings and 1.15 for distillation columns or similar vessel with several manways,
plate support rings or equivalent fittings.
𝑡 = wall thickness, m
41
However, for vessel using steel as MOC, the above equation can be rewrite as
The total weight of vessel will be affected by the types of insulation used. There many
types of insulation but the most commonly used is foam glass, mineral woo, fiberglass and calcium
silicate. Below are the types of insulation and their densities.
𝑊𝑣 = 51214.53 𝑁 ≈ 51.21 𝑘𝑁
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋(3.03)²
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = = 7.21𝑚²
4 4
𝑘𝑁
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 1.2 × 7.21 𝑚2 = 8.65𝑘𝑁
𝑚²
For 13 plates
42
Calculating weight of insulation
Types of insulation used is mineral wool which have density 130 kg/m3. By taking
thickness of insulator to be 50mm,
Eq 7.57
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋𝐷𝑖 𝐻𝑣 × 𝑡𝑤
𝑊𝑥 2 Eq 7.59
𝑀𝑥 =
2
The value of W will depend on the wind pressure at certain condition. According to Sinnot
et al. (2009), for preliminary design, a wind speed of 160 km/h can be used. Thus, by using this
value, the dynamic wind pressure can be calculated as follows:
43
Eq 7.60
𝑃𝑤 = 0.05 𝑢𝑤 ²
Therefore, by utilizing all the values calculated by using equation above, loading, W can
be calculated as (Note that W = Fw):
Eq 7.61
𝐹𝑤 = 𝑃𝑤 × 𝐷𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑘𝑚 2 𝑁
𝑃𝑤 = 0.05 (160 ) = 1280
ℎ 𝑚²
𝑁 𝑁
𝐹𝑤 = 1280 𝑚² × 3.27𝑚 = 4188.67 𝑚
Hence,
(4188.67)(9.8)2
𝑀𝑥 =
2
Pressure Stress
𝑃𝐷𝑖 Eq 7.62
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎ℎ =
2𝑡
(0.25)(3030)
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎ℎ = = 75.75 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
2(5)
44
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
(0.25)(3030)
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐿 = = 37.88 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
4(5)
𝑊𝑧 Eq 7.63
𝜎𝑤 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡)𝑡
Where Wz is the total weight of vessel. For vessel that is above support system, the value of dead
weight stress is said to be compressive (negative). Besides, if the vessel operated below the support
system, it is said to be tensile (positive). Since most vessel will operate above the support system,
the value of dead weight stress is compressive (negative) (Sinnot R. a., 2009).
(51.21 × 103 )
𝜎𝑤 = = 1.07 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
𝜋(3030 + 5)5
Bending stress
Bending stress is the result from bending moment occurred at the equipment. The value of
bending stress will be either tensile (positive) or compressive (negative) depends on their location.
Usually, for upwind, the bending stress will be tensile (positive) and at downwind, the bending
stress will be compressive (negative) (Sinnot R. a., 2009). Bending stress can be calculated as
follows:
𝑀 𝐷𝑖 Eq 7.64
𝜎𝑏 = ± ( + 𝑡)
𝐼𝑣 2
Where M is the bending moment occur due to wind loading and Iv is the second moment of area
of the vessel at the bending point. Therefore, Iv can be calculated as follows:
𝜋
𝐼𝑣 = (𝐷4 − 𝐷𝑖 ⁴) Eq 7.65
64 𝑜
45
𝜋
𝐼𝑣 = (3040⁴ − 3030⁴) = 5.49 × 1010 𝑚𝑚⁴
64
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑙 + 𝜎𝑤 ± 𝜎𝑏 Eq 7.66
The value of total longitudinal stress need to be below the design stress. The relationship is given
as follows:
𝑁
𝜎𝑧 < 𝑆 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 )
𝑚𝑚2
In some cases, when the total longitudinal stress which due to combined loading is
compressive (negative), the vessel will experience failure due to buckling (elastic instability).
Thus, for a curve plate, the critical buckling stress can be calculated as follows:
𝐸𝑌 𝑡
𝜎𝑐 = ( ) Eq 7.67
√3(1 − 𝑣 2 ) 𝑅𝑝
46
Where,
𝑣 = Poisson’s ratio
𝑅𝑝 = Radius of curvature, mm
𝑡 = wall thickness, mm
The radius of curvature is the radius from the top of curved heads to its centre. The radius
of curvature is illustrated in the figure below:
𝑟1 = crown radius
𝑟2 = knuckle radius
ℎ1 = straight flange
𝑆 = wall thickness
ℎ𝑎 = outer diameter
47
According to the above figure, Rp is denoted as h2
215 000 5
𝜎𝑐 = ( ) = 956.7𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
√3(1 − (0. 3)2 ) 680
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure
The maximum compressive stress is below the buckling stress hence the design is satisfied.
Depending on the types of insulation used for skirt, the dimension of skirt can be obtained.
The height of skirt can be taken as 1.5 x Diameter of bottom (Icarus Corporation, 1998).
Approximate weight need to be calculated by assuming the vessel is full of liquid to estimate the
maximum dead weight of load on skirt. Thus, this can be calculated as follows:
48
Where,
𝐻 = Height of vessel, m
𝜋(3.03)2 (9.8)(998)(9.81)
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑁) = = 691.83 𝑘𝑁
4
The thickness of skirt need to be sufficient to support the vessel. The thickness of vessel must not
less than 6mm and thus it is first assumed to be 10 mm (Sinnot R. a., 2009). This value may change
after detailed calculation is made. Analysis of stress for skirt can be calculated as follows:
4𝑀𝑠
𝜎𝑏𝑠 = Eq 7.71
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )
𝑊𝑣 Eq 7.72
𝜎𝑤𝑠 =
𝜋(𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑠𝑘 )𝑡𝑠𝑘
Where Wv is the total weight of vessel, N. The dead weight stress need to be calculated for test
condition and operating condition. Test conditions are when the vessel is full of water for hydraulic
test (Sinnot R. a., 2009).
691.83 × 103
𝜎𝑤𝑠 (𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡) = = 7.24 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
𝜋(3030 + 10)10
49
51.21 × 103
𝜎𝑤𝑠 (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = = 0.54 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²
𝜋(3030 + 10)10
The thickness of skirt chosen must not exceed the following condition
10
12.21 < 0.125(215 000) ( ) sin 90°
3030
50
Let the bolt diameter to be 3.5m
3500 𝜋
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 = = 18.3 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ≈ 18 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
600
Bolt area can be calculated as follows
1 4𝑀𝑠 Eq 7.74
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊]
𝑁𝑏 𝑓𝑏 𝐷𝑏
Where
𝑁𝑏 = Number of bolts
𝑊 = Weight of vessel, N
1 4(359.41 × 103 )
𝐴𝑏 = [ − 175.6 × 10³] = 104.51 𝑚𝑚²
(18)(125) 3.5
105.41 × 4
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = √ = 11.58 𝑚𝑚
𝜋
The base ring must be wide enough to distribute the load to the foundation. Total compressive
load on base rings is
4𝑀𝑠 𝑊
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ] Eq 7.75
𝜋𝐷𝑠 ² 𝜋𝐷𝑠
Where,
𝐷𝑠 = Skirt Diameter, m
51
4(359.41 × 103 ) 175.6 × 10³
𝐹𝑏 = [ + ] = 68291.51 𝑁/𝑚
𝜋(3.03)² 𝜋(3.03)
𝐹𝑏 1 Eq 7.76
𝐿𝑏 = ×
𝑓𝑐 10³
Where,
L𝑏 = Base ring width, mm
𝑓𝑐 = maximum allowable bearing pressure on the concrete (typical vaue 3.5 to 7 N/𝑚𝑚²)
68291.51 1
𝐿𝑏 = × = 13.66 𝑚𝑚
5 10³
52
Flange
Flange can be calculated based on the pipe diameter. The dimension of flange can be obtained
from the figure below (Wade):
The pipe or nozzle diameter can be calculated using the following formula since it is a stainless-
steel type:
53
Feed
21412.07
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐺 = = 5.95 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600
Distillate
12317.61
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐺 = = 3.42 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600
Bottom
9089.45
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝐺 = = 2.52 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600
54
MECHANICAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION SHEET
Vessel
Internal Diameter 3.03 m
External Diameter 3.04 m
Height 9.8 m
Design Pressure 0.25 N/mm2
Material of Construction Stainless Steel 316
Maximum allowable stress 143.205 N/mm2
Wall thickness 5mm
No of bolts 18
Head and Closure
Types of Closure Elipsoidal
Welding Efficiency (Joint Factor) 1
Minimum thickness 4.91 mm
Corrosion allowance 2mm
Material of Construction
Stainless Steel 316
Column properties
Dead weight of vessel 51.21 kN
Weight of plates 112.49 kN
Weight of insulation 11.90 kN
Wind speed 160 km/h
Wind Pressure 1280 N/m2
Bending moment 201.14 kNm
Insulation Material Mineral Wool
Insulation Thickness 75 mm
Nozzle properties
Diameter of pipe (feed) 55 mm
Diameter of pipe (distillate) 332 mm
Diameter of pipe (bottom) 33 mm
Vessel Support
Type of support Skirt support
Material of construction Stainless Steel
Angle of support 90º
Young’s Modulus 2.0 GPa
Approximate weight 691.83 kN
Bending moment 359.41 kNm
Skirt thickness 12mm
Skirt height 3.3m
55
References
B.E. Poling, J. P. (2001). The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 5th edition, Appendix A. New
York: McGraw Hil.
Branan, C. (2005). Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. Burlington: Elsevier Inc.
Eduljee, H. E. (1958). Design of sieve-type distillation plates. Brit. Chem. Eng. 53, 14. .
Geankoplis, C. (2014). Transport Processes & Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit
Operation). Pearson Education Limited.
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2018, May). Retrieved from PubChem
Compound Database; CID=702: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/702
Reid, R. C. (1977). The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 3rd edition. McGraw-Hill.
Sinnot, R. (2005). Chemical Engineering Design, Fourth Edition. Coulson and Richardson's
Chemical Engineering Series.
Wade, I. (n.d.). Wade Industrial Steam, Valve & Pipeline Specialist. Retrieved from Wade
Industrial:
http://www.wadeindustrial.co.za/downloads/Wade_Industrial_Flange_Tables.pdf
56