GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODAL VERBS

The term “modal” refers to a group of words in English sometimes called “modal auxiliaries”or “modal verbs”. Modal
verbs are used when you want to indicate your attitude towards what you are saying or when you are concerned about
the effect of what you are saying on the person you are speaking or writing to.

Attitude related to:

- information (how certain your are that what you are saying is correct)
- intention (willingness/unwillingness)
- people (formality/informality of the situation and relationship with the listener)

Primary function: (dictionary meaning) in this function modals are used to express permission, obligation, lack of necessity,
possibility, ability, prohibition, advice and probability

This function evaluates a proposition according to some moral code or someone’s opinion about whether the situation is
desirable or not.

Secondary function: nine of the modal verbs (except shall) can be used to express the degree of certainty/uncertainty a speaker
feels about a possibility.
They can be arranged on a scale from the greatest uncertainty (might) to the greatest certainty (must). The order of modals
between might and must is not fixed absolutely. It varies according to situation.

Epistemic interpretations of modals comment on the degree to which the speaker is willing to vouch for the truth of the
proposition. Modals invoke the speaker’s knowledge of the facts in forming a judgement of the probability of a situation occurring.

(Epistemic deals with a speaker's evaluation/judgment of, degree of confidence in, or belief of the knowledge upon which a proposition is based. In
other words, epistemic modality refers to the way speakers communicate their doubts, certainties, and guesses—their "modes of knowing")

Syntactic Criteria:

- Modals are followed by the infinitive form without ‘to’.

 - They occur in the sentence as OPERATOR and they can’t act as the main verb except when it is in contrast with another
full VP. In this case, it is not necessary to repeat the main verb. The effect is to draw attention to the contrast: e.g. I
haven’t told him yet but I might.
- They can’t co-occur with each other in the verb phrase.
- They precede the negative particle not in negation and precede the subject in yes-no questions.
- They do not inflect (not -ed or -ing forms). There is no progressive form for modals. But we can put the verb that follows
the modal into the progressive form.
- They are used in question tags. E.g.: You’ll stay for lunch, won’t you?
- When the sentence refers to the primary meaning (can: ability/permission, must: obligation) the past form is expressed
mainly by:
Can: could / was(were) able or was(were) allowed.
Must: had to / was(were) obliged to.
- When the sentence refers to the secondary meaning (can: possibility/probability (or sth that could have happened but
didn’t happen), must: certainty) the past form is mainly expressed by:
Can: could + have + past participle.
Must: must + have + past participle.

Types of Modality

Semantic aspect: modals can be divided into two groups

Those that denote Intrinsic (deontic or root modality): Intrinsic modality refers to people's control over, and evaluation of,
situations and events - whether these are permitted, desirable, approved of.

Intrinsic modality includes the notions of: PERMISSION, OBLIGATION and VOLITION.

‘YOU CAN’T PARK HERE’ ‘

THIS DOOR SHOULDN’T BE LEFT OPEN’

Those that denote Extrinsic (epistemic modality): Extrinsic modality refers to our assessment of the possibility, likelihood or
necessity of situations and events.
In this group we include the notions of POSSIBILITY, NECESSITY and PREDICTION.

‘YOU MUST BE THE DOCTOR’

‘IT CAN BE CHILLY HERE AT NIGHT’

Pragmatics deals with how words and phrases are used with special meanings in particular situations. From the PRAGMATIC
point of view, the modals are also associated with particular pragmatic uses, for example in REQUESTS, OFFERS,
WARNINGS, etc. , where the use of past forms tend to have the implication of tentativeness or politeness.

CENTRAL MODALS USES EXAMPLES USE IN SPEECH ACTS AND/OR SPECIAL

USES

CAN 1)IN 1) • When the meaning is “possibility”, can is

AFFIRMATIVE Possibility (theoretical) generally paraphrased as it is possible
Primary meaning: STATEMENTS -Even expert drivers can make mistakes. followed by an infinitive clause:
ability -If it is raining tomorrow, the sports can take - It is possible for even expert drivers to make
place indoors. mistakes.
Ability
(natural or learned) • Sometimes, can indicates a future
She can speak several languages.(learned) possibility; thus, it should be paraphrased as
I can walk (natural) it will be possible...
Permission: - If the oven is still working, it will be possible
You can go home if you like. for you to make me a cake.

2) • When the meaning is “permission”, can is

Absence of Ability
They can’t dance very well.
Refusing permission (speech act)
You can't run naked in the middle of the
street.
combinable with a future time adverbial.
However, when the meaning is “ability”, can is
not combinable with these adverbials :
- You can borrow my typewriter tomorrow.
• Can and could, when the meaning is
 “ability”, may be used with perception verbs
2)IN NEGATIVE Negative Possibility or Impossibility (e.g. they can see). There is also a tendency
STATEMENTS My friend can’t visit me this week. to use this auxiliary with mental state verbs
(e.g. I can’t remember / I couldn’t
3) understand).
Permission: (this is a speech act)
Can I borrow your pen? • Can ambiguously marking ability or
Ability possibility:
- Well you can get cigarettes from there, can't
you?

3)IN QUESTIONS Can you remember where they live?

Offers(this is a speech act)
Can I help you?
Can I offer you a drink?

COULD 1)IN 1) The “Ability” meaning of can/could can be

AFFIRMATIVE Possibility(theoretical) considered a special case of “possibility”
Primary meaning: STATEMENTS -His performance was the best that could be meaning in which the possibility of an action
ability hoped for. is due to some skill or capability on the part of
-There could be life on Mars. the subject referent. Can be paraphrased as
Logical possibility (academic prose): be possible:
-The two processes could well be - I could swim all across the lake. (It was /
independent. would be possible for me to swim all across
the lake.)
Ability in the past
-Mary could speak three languages at the age
In conversation, could is used most
of three.
commonly for logical possibility. Usually it
Ability with limiting adverbs (only or
expresses doubt, and shows the greatest
hardly):
degree of uncertainty or tentativeness:
-She was so exhausted she could hardly
That could be her.
speak.
Permission
-In those days only men could vote in the
 elections. Passive voice:
Suggestions (speech act) The possibility meaning is most common
-We could meet at the weekend. in passive:
- Each interpretation can be seen generally to
2)IN NEGATIVE 2)
STATEMENTS General Ability in the past flow through the abbreviated
-I couldn’t ride a bike when I was three. text as a whole. (ACAD) <possibility> (compare
Permission active voice: We can see each interpretation.
-I couldn’t go to the cinema when I was two. . .- ability.)
(more tentative and therefore more polite - The methods could be refined and made
in requests ) more accurate. (ACAD) <possibility>
(compare active voice: We could refine the
Suggestion
(speech act) methods. .. - ability.)
-Couldn’t you get up early in the morning to
finish it?

Deduction
-He couldn’t be a doctor, he isn’t wearing a
white coat.

3)IN QUESTIONS 3)
Possibility(theoretical)
-Could you sign one of these too?
Request (speech act)
-Could I have my bill please?
-Could you smoke outside?
-Could you please open the window?
Suggestion (speech act)
-Could you get an earlier train?

WILL IN AFFIRMATIVE Will Truths and facts

STATEMENTS Prediction The car will only run on unleaded petrol
Primary meaning: They’ will be here soon
Prediction Obligation and orders
Predicting the present All passengers will proceed to go out
They will be here by now
He will always try to help you no matter what Habits
Annoying habits
Volition: He will smoke when I’m trying to eat
-Willingness
I’ll give you a hand if you like
-Intention
He’ll put the letter in the post this evening Habitual predictive meaning occurs in
-Insistence or determination conditional sentences:
She ‘will do it (stressed and without If you heat water at 100` C, it will boil
contractions)
Or in timeless statements of
“predictability”
Oil will float in water

IN NEGATIVE Won’t Pressing orders:

STATEMENTS Prediction Will you be quiet!
They won’t be here for a while
Predicting the present
They won’t be there yet
Intention
I won’t come this evening I afraid

Will have
Predicting the past
They’ll have easily go there by now

Won’t have
Prediction
I won’t have finished this book by this evening Truths and fact
This car won’t start
IN QUESTIONS Asking about the future. predicting
 Will there be a cure for cancer, soon?
Refusal (speech act)
He won’t join in unless he’s first

In speech acts
Requests and offers:
Will you send me the bill, please?
Come this way, will you?
Won’t you have more wine?

WOULD IN AFFIRMATIVE Would -to show preference

STATEMENTS Prediction(future in the past)
They said they would be here soon
Predicting the present
Primary meaning: Thought they’d be there by now
prediction Describing imaginary situations
You’d look better with your hair shorter
Intention in the past. (Past form of will in
reported speech)
He said he would put the letter in the post
later
Advice (speech act)
I wouldn’t do that if I were you
I'd rather come with you.
Which would you sooner do - go swimming or
play tennis?
Habits in the past
She would always try to help you
Annoying habits in the past
He would smoke when I was trying to eat
Typical annoying behaviour
It would start raining just as we went out

IN NEGATIVE Wouldn’t
STATEMENTS Prediction
The said they wouldn’t be here for ages
Predicting the present
I thought they wouldn’t be here yet
Describing imaginary situations
You wouldn't say that if you’d met him
Refusal in the past
 He wouldn’t do what I asked
Requests
You wouldn’t open the door, would you?
Intention in the past. (Past form of won’t in
reported speech)
He said he wouldn't be coming tonight
Advice
I wouldn’t do that if I were you

IN QUESTIONS Volition: Requests (speech act)

Would you open the door?

TO REFER TO Would have/Wouldn’t have

THE PAST Events In the past which didn’t happen
I would have met you if I had known you were
there
Or which did happen
I wouldn’t have told you if I had known you
would be so upset
Tentative thoughts
I would have thought he would have gone as
soon as he could
Deductions about the past
I first when to Italy when I was at university,
that would have been in 1982
Past form of will/won’t have in reported
speech after past tense verbs
He promised the would have posted it before
five o’clock

MAY 1-IN 1- Possibility(factual) - As regards permission may/might are rather

AFFIRMATIVE We may go to France next year. formal, as a consequence, their use is less
Primary meaning: STATEMENTS Expressing hopes frequent. They are more polite and respectful
permission May you both be very happy. than can/could.
Permission They can also be used to talk about
You may go when you’ve finished. permission which has been given or refused.

Offers(speech act) - When used in formal English, both may and

May I be of any assistance?
Concession
They may live next door but we hardly ever
see them.
2-IN NEGATIVE 2- Possibility (factual)
STATEMENTS We may not go to France this year.
Prohibition
We may not go until you’ve finished.
Concession
I may not be very intelligent but I can work
out the answer to that question.
Possibility in the past
They may not have left yet
Concession in the past
might, express permission and possibility
sense like can/could.
Many birds may be observed on the rocky
northern coast of the island.
But they differ in other uses since can/could
express a general possibility or certainty
unlike may/might.
- May+have
Normally used for the speaker’s assumption
or thoughts about an event in the present or
in the past.(deduction)
He may have been delayed by the traffic jam.

He may have written books on the subject,

but that doesn’t mean he’s a world expert.

3-IN QUESTIONS 3-asking for permission

May I borrow your car?
MIGHT 1-IN 1- We use might as the past form of may - In a statement might expresses the lowest
AFFIRMATIVE after Past tenses verbs degree of certainty of an assumption.
Primary meaning: STATEMENTS He said he might come with us.
permission Possibility - May/Might as well
This expedition might be quite dangerous. This expression frequently occurs in everyday
conversations.
Suggestions (speech act)
It either agrees to a course of action:
You might try phoning directory enquiries. There comes a taxi. We may as well take it.
Requests (speech act) Or suggests a different course of action.
Might I borrow some money? This bus is so slow, we might as well walk.
Annoyance
You might at least say you’re sorry!
Concession
He might seem rude, but he’s not really.

Possibility in the past

They might have been trying to contact us. - Might+have
Annoyance in the past The speaker makes use of it when hesitating
You might have told me! (= I wish you’d told about an assumption from the present or from the
me) past. There considerable chances of something
Concession in the past. happening or not.
She might have worked hard, but you He’s late. He might have had an accident.
(it is not for sure he had an accident, perhaps he
wouldn’t know it from her results.
did)
She was lucky. She might have been killed.
2-IN NEGATIVE 2- We use might not as the past form of may (there were considerable chances of her been
STATEMENTS not after Past tense verbs. killed but it didn’t happen)
He said he might not come with us.
Possibility
He might not like it.
Concession
He might not wear glasses, but his eyesight
is not perfect either.
Possibility in the past
They might not have noticed the sign.
Concession in the past
 She might not have done all the work, but he - In this use might expresses the highest degree
only got good results. of hesitancy.

3-IN QUESTIONS 3-asking for permission (speech act)

Might I ask whether you are using the
typewriter?

SHALL IN AFFIRMATIVE Often used in formal settings to deliver For the future tense, will is more frequently
STATEMENTS obligation or requirement (speech act): used in American English than shall.
(used mainly with I -You shall abide by the law.
and WE) -There shall be no trespassing on this
property.(prohibition)
Primary meaning: -Students shall not enter this room.
prediction (prohibition)

IN NEGATIVE Prediction
STATEMENTS We shan’t get back much before ten
Intention
I shan’t let him do that again (promise)

IN QUESTIONS
Asking questions politely:
-Shall we dance?
-Shall I go now?
-Let’s drink, shall we?
Offers (speech act)
Shall I shut the door?

SHOULD IN AFFIRMATIVE Used to say something expected or We often use should in that-clauses after
(in some cases, STATEMENTS correct: verbs connected with suggestions, requests
“ought to” is or orders (I suggested that she should take a
appropriate too) -There should be an old city hall building break)
here. (should can be omitted)
Primary meaning: -Everybody should arrive by 6 p.m.
obligation -We should be there this evening.
Often used in auxiliary functions to
express an opinion, suggestion,
preference, or idea:
-You should rest at home today.
-I should take a bus this time.
-He should be more thoughtful in the
decision-making process.
-The traffic should (ought to) be lighter
today
Other verbs we can often use with should
include: demand, propose, urge, require,
recommend, decide, maintain, warn.
We also use should in that-clauses after
adjectives connected with importance (It’s
important that…) or personal reactions (I was
surprise that…) or after important, necessary,
surprising, normal, sorry, horrified, interesting,
worried.
(should can be omitted)

Used to express that you wish

Contingent use (depending on something that
something had happened but it didn’t
may happen in the future):
or couldn’t (should + have + past
If you should hear the news, please let me
participle):
know
-You should have seen it. It was really
beautiful.
-I should have completed it earlier to meet
the deadline.
-We should have visited the place on the
way.

Before certain report verbs:

-I should think it will rain today

Advice:(speech act)

-You should (ought to) go out more.

Obligation (duty):
 People should (ought to) treat each other
better

Instructions:

All visitors should report to reception

Conditional:

-If anyone should phone , tell them I’ll be

back this afternoon.

With -that clauses after certain

verbs/certain adjectives

-I suggested that he should take a break.

-It is essential that you should contact us.

In purpose clauses expressing doubt

-They spoke quietly so that nobody should

hear what they were saying

Should+ have
Advice in the past

Advice (speech act)

IN NEGATIVE -You souldn’t (oughtn’t to) drive so fast
STATEMENTS
Duty
-People shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) be so
aggressive

Giving your opinion

 -The traffic shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) be too
bad today (logical necessity)

With that-clauses after certain verbs

-I suggested that she shouldn’t work so
hard (putative use)

Expressing doubt:
-I souldn’t think he’d enjoy it.

Shouldn’t+ have
Giving your opinion about the past

IN QUESTIONS
Used to ask for someone’s opinion:
-What should we do now?
-Should we continue our meeting?
-Should we go this way?
-Where should we go this summer?

MUST IN AFFIRMATIVE Strong recommendation (inescapable . In prohibitions, if the absence of necessity is

STATEMENTS obligation) to be expressed, need not is used.
Primary meaning: Source of authority: the speaker)
Inescapable obligation - You must take some time off and get some rest.
- You must not eat that.
To have to do
something because (rule or law)
the situation forces - You must have a permit to enter the national
park.
you because of a rule
or a law or because
Logical Necessity
the speaker feels it is . In suppositions, 'Must' is only used in
The Smiths must have a lot of money.
compulsory) There must be some mistake affirmative sentences. In questions and
negatives, we use can and can’t instead.
 IN NEGATIVE Prohibition or absence of obligation Speech act:
STATEMENTS Emphatic invitations
You mustn't drink so much. It's not good for your You must come and see us soon
health.

Supposition
- That must not (can’t) be Jerry. He is supposed to
have red hair.
IN QUESTIONS
In questions
- Must I do it now?
- Must Lizzie see a doctor?

TO SPEAK ABOUT
-That must have been the right restaurant. There
THE PAST:
are no other restaurants on this street.

MARGINAL USES EXAMPLES SPECIAL USES AND/OR USE IN SPEECH

MODALS/ MODAL ACTS
IDIOMS

DARE AND NEED The modal Dare occurs (with nuclear stress),
construction is expressing a threatening rebuke in
restricted to non constructions like:
Dare expresses assertive -How DARE you do such a thing?
courage or lack of contexts, and is -Don’t you DARE speak to me like that.
courage to do constructed with
the bare infinitive -He needn’t / daren’t escape. Dare exhibits abnormal time reference. It
Need refers to logical and without the can be used, without inflection, for past as
necessity inflected forms. well as present time:
-Need / Dare we escape? -The king was so hot-tempered that no one
dare tell him the bad news.
They can both work IN NEGATIVE
as modals or s full STATEMENTS -Needn’t he escape after all? Need has no tense contrast. To express
verbs with little or no past time, “need” is placed before the
difference in meaning. IN QUESTIONS -Dare he not escape? perfective aspect:
-You need not have done it.
As full verbs they like
any normal lexical We generally use needn’t when the
verb, taking inflected authority comes from the speaker
forms and using
auxiliaries in We generally use don’t need to and don’t
questions and have to when the authority doesn’t come
negation from the speaker

NOT NECESSARY You needn’t come this evening if you don’t Needn’t have means ‘you did, but it wasn’t
want to necessary’

You don’t need to / don’t have to carry an With didn’t need to / didn’t have to only
identity card the context tells us whether it actually
happened

NOT NECESSARY You needn’t have cooked so much food

(in the past) (fulfilled action)
I didn’t need to go shopping, but I did, just for
fun (unfulfilled action) OR
I didn’t have to do any extra shopping, so I
didn’t .

OUGHT TO
IN AFFIRMATIVE To express past time reference
Primary meaning: STATEMENTS 1- Tentative interference (or logical With the perfect aspect, ought to
escapable or moral necessity) typically has the implication that the
obligation or duty The speaker does not know if his statement is recommendation has not been carried out:
true, but tentatively concludes that it is true, They ought to have met her at the station.
Sometimes used on the basis of whatever he knows. The likely implication is “...but they didn’t”.
interchangeably with NOTE: In both senses 1 and 2 it is more
“should” -The mountains ought to be visible from here. frequent to use should.
-These plants ought to reach maturity after
five years.

2-Obligation or compulsion
When expressing obligation, it has a general
and objective meaning.

-You ought to do as he says.

-The floor ought to be washed once a week.

Logical necessity: Since must has no past tense forms and no

-There has (got) to be some mistake. nonfinite forms, have to is used in many
-To be healthy, a plant has (got) to receive a contexts where must is impossible, eg
good supply of both sunshine and moisture. following a modal verb: We’ll have to be
patient.
IN NEGATIVE Obligation:
STATEMENTS -You have (got) to be back by ten o’clock. He had to report the missing medicine
-We’ll have all got to share our skills and
HAVE (GOT) TO knowledge.
-Productivity will have to be improved, if the
Meaning: obligation or nation is to be prosperous.
necessity
(Source of authority:
external forces)
USED TO
AFFIRMATIVE 1-Past habit
It is used to say that -He used to go on holiday to Scotland every
something happened year.He didn’t use to smoke.
or existed regularly in
the past, although it
no longer happens or NEGATIVE -I didn’t use to nce in those years.
exists

It has no inflected QUESTIONS -Did you use to travel when you were
forms. It is used with younger?
the auxiliary did in
questions and 2-Past State
negation
He used to live in London

HAD BETTER FORM: We use had better to refer to the present or

The verb form is always had, not have. We the future, to talk about actions we think
AFFIRMATIVE normally shorten it to ’d better in informal people should do or which are desirable in a
It denotes situations. It is followed by the infinitive specific situation.
recommendation, it without to.
introduces a Had better is a strong expression. We use it if
“recommended USE: we think there will be negative results if
alternative”. Also, to -To make recommendations. someone does not do what is desired or
give strong advice or It's five o’clock. I’d better go now before the suggested:
to tell people what to traffic gets too bad.
do (including
ourselves) Not: I’d better to go now.

You had better take your umbrella with you

today.
 We use had better to give specific advice, not
- To express desperate hope to talk about obligations or requirements;
That bus had better get here soon! (I hope the instead, we use have to, have got to or must:
bus gets here soon)

-To express desperate warning

You had better watch the way you talk to me
in the future!

-To give specific advice.

You had better watch your steps. In rapid speech, modals seem to disappear
She had better listen to you. because they are shortened and often fall on
It's getting late. I had better go. unstressed syllables.

NEGATIVE I’d better not leave my bag there. Someone We don’t use had better when we talk about
The negative of might steal it. preferences. We use would rather or would
had better is had You’d better not tell Elizabeth about the prefer.
better not (or ’d broken glass – she’ll go crazy!
better not):

Had I better speak to Joan first before I send

QUESTION this form off? What do you think?
The question form Had we better leave a note for the delivery
of had better is guy to take the parcel next door?
made by inverting Hadn’t we better ring the school and tell
the subject and them Liam is sick?
had. This means Hadn’t you better switch your computer off?
the same as It might overheat if you leave it on.
should, but is more
formal
We don’t use had better when we talk about
specific preferences. We use would rather or
Would rather/ would sooner.
 sooner is followed
by the bare We went to the theatre yesterday. Today I
infinitive. would rather go to the cinema.
I'd rather go to the cinema.
I don’t really want to go back to France again
this year. I’d sooner go to Spain.

WOULD RATHER / I'd rather have fruit juice.

WOULD SOONER / I'd sooner fruit juice. WOULD RATHER
In negative sentences with a different subject, the
It denotes preference Would rather has Same subject: negative comes on the clause that follows, not on
and introduces a two different I’d rather stay at home than go out tonight. would rather:
“preferred alternative” constructions.
Different subject: When we want to refer to the past we use would
rather + have + -ed form (perfect infinitive without
same subject (+ I’d rather you stayed at home tonight.
to).
base form)
I don’t need a lift, thanks. I’d rather walk. Much rather: We can use much with would rather
Not: I’d rather to walk. or I’d rather walking. to make the preference stronger. In speaking, we
Or stress much.
I would rather they did something about it
With different instead of just talking about it. (past simple to We often use I’d rather not as a short response to
subjects: talk about the present or future) say no to a suggestion or request:
use the past simple Would you rather I wasn’t honest with you?
to talk about the (past simple to talk about the present or WOULD SOONER:
present or future, future) We use the phrases would sooner and would just
and the past as soon when we say that we prefer one thing to
perfect to talk I’d rather you hadn’t rung me at work. (past another thing. They mean approximately the same
as would rather
about the past. perfect to talk about the past)
Would sooner is more common than would just as
We don’t use soon. However, would rather is more common
would rather or I don’t need a lift, thanks. I’d rather walk. than both of these phrases.
would sooner with Not: I’d rather to walk. or I’d rather walking.
an -ing form or a TYPICAL ERRORS:
 to-infinitive: - We don’t use would rather or would sooner with
an -ing form or a to-infinitive.
- When we use not referring to a different subject,
we attach not to the second clause, not to would
rather or would sooner

This construction makes the sentences sound

BE TO active sense = Compulsion or orders serious and formal.
‘Be appointed, I am to go to London tomorrow
It implies futurity expected,
supposed, obliged The plane is to take off at 9pm.
to VERB at some
point in the future’

passive sense = These doughnuts are to share.

‘Be worthy of
being or ‘expected These doughnuts are for sharing.
to be VERBed’.
This 'passival' You are to blame.
infinitive also
You deserve to be blamed.
appears without
BE as a
You are to do your homework without
postpositive
watching any TV.
modifier. The
phrase may also
be expressed with
an explicit
passive, BE to be
VERBed, or with
for VERBing.

conditional If he were to win the lottery he might retire

sense = ‘If
 [subject]
VERBed’. The Were he to win the lottery he might retire
past form were,
without inflection
for 3rd person
singular, may
express a
tentative or
hypothetical
condition; this may
be introduced with
if, or were may
invert with the
subject.

/ BE OBLIGED TO / Expresses Whenever an emergency like that arises,

BE SUPPOSED TO obligation you're supposed to notify your supervisor right
determined by away.
some plan or
preconceived view A true scientist is supposed to view the
(what is generally phenomena with total objectivity.
believed).
You are supposed to start work at 8.30 every
morning

BE WILLING TO It means to be I am willing to meet with you.

prepared to do
something as a I am willing to go to lunch now because the
choice, queue will get very long later.
demonstrating
eagerness (not She'd be willing to take a job someplace else.
 mind doing it, have
no objection to
doing it).

It means ‘to be Babies are apt to put objects into their

BE APT TO likely to happen mouths.
because that’s
usually the case” He is apt to get very upset when things go
wrong

It means to be The play is due to start in five minutes

BE DUE TO expected to
happen or arrive at Rose is due to start school in January
a particular time

Something that is
BE LIKELY TO likely to happen will I’m likely to be busy tomorrow
probably happen

BE MEANT TO It’s related to

MUST. If you are
meant to do We’re meant to write our names at the top of
something, you the paper
should do it,
especially because The book is meant to shock people
somebody has
told you to or Although saying goodbye was difficult for her,
because it is your she knew it was meant to be
responsibility.
BE ABLE TO
Be able to is not a I would like to be able to fly an airplane. As opposed to “could”, which expresses
modal verb. It is general ability in the past, “was/were able to”
simply the verb be I was able to drive since I was 16. (past refer to specific achievement in the past
plus an adjective simple)
(able) followed by I have been able to swim since I was five.
the infinitive.We (present perfect)
use be able to to
express You will be able to speak perfect English very
ability. "Able" is an soon. (future simple)
adjective meaning: I would like to be able to fly an airplane.
having the power, (infinitive)
skill or means to do
something.Be able
to is possible in all
tenses.

We sometimes use
it instead of can
and could to talk
about ability. Be
able to is possible
in all tenses– but
'can' only in the
present and 'could'
only in the past. In
addition, 'can' and
'could' have no
infinitive form.
I have been able to
swim since I was
five.
BE BOUND TO Used to say Mario's bound to be back soon.
emphatically that
something is It was bound to happen sooner or later.
certain to happen
in the future.

BE GOING TO Be going to + Martha is going to lend us her camera.

infinitive, with the
meaning 'future I'm going to complain if things don't improve.
fulfilment of the
present intention', She's going to have a baby.
associated with Gonna:
personal subjects You're going to get soaked. In informal speech, going to is often
and agentive pronounced gonna, esp. In Am. E
verbs.

Be going to + It's going to rain.

infinitive, with the
meaning 'future There's going to be trouble.
result of a present
cause', found with You were going to give me your address.
both personal and ('...but you didn't...')
nonpersonal
subjects.

Used in the past The police were going to charge her, but at
tense to describe last she persuaded them she was innocent.
something which is
in the future when
seen from a
viewpoint in the
past. Often with the
sense of 'unfulfilled
intention'
CATENATIVES
APPEAR TO / HAPPEN
TO / SEEM TO / GET +
-ED PARTICIPLE /
KEEP + -ING
PARTICIPLE , ETC
The term will in practice
be used to denote verbs
in such constructions as
“appear to”, “come to”,
“fail to”, “get to”, “happen
to”, “manage to”, “se
em to”, “tend to”, and
“turn out to” followed by
the infinitive
This criterion, however,
applies somewhat
marginally to agentive
verbs like
“fail” and “manage” and
does not apply at all to
“get”.
Unlike main verb
constructions such as
expect (to), want (to),
and attempt (to),
catenative constructions
are in no way
syntactically related to
transitive verb
constructions in which
the verb is followed by a
direct object or
prepositional object.
USES EXAMPLES SPECIAL USES
The adjective Sam appeared/failed/come/seemed to realize Some catenative verbs, like some semi-
catenative — derived the importance of the problem. auxiliaries, are closely related to constructions
from the verb with anticipatory it.
catenate — means
“connecting, linking, come He seems to be rich. - It seems that he is rich.
stringing together” She turned out to love horses. - It turned out
and refers to the She came to realise that things were not as that she loved horses.
connecting of one they seemed. (She underwent a slow
verb to another realisation.) She came dancing with me last
without a night. (She accompanied me in this activity.)
conjunction.
Catenative verbs are Try
verbs followed
directly by another
verb in the infinitive, I tried to open the door, but it was locked. (I
present participle, or attempted and failed in an activity.)
base form.
Catenative verbs I tried opening the door. Then I tried opening
resemble modal and the window. (I made an attempt or experiment.
quasi-modal verbs in Neither success nor failure is implied.)
both form (what the
verb looks like) and
function (what the
verb does). Like
modals and quasi-
modals, catenatives
precede another
verb.