CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Coconut

The coconut palm, Coco Nucifera L., is a member of the family Arecaceae. The

term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which

botanically not a nut but a drupe. The fruit is harvested for its white flesh, husk, and

coconut water (Lerner, 2007). It is cultivated for its various benefits, namely nutritional,

medicinal advancement against diseases and for the development of industrial products

(Mandal, 2011).

The coconut takes between 11 and 12 months to reach full maturity. At five

months, the kernel begins to form a thin layer of jelly around the inside of the endocarp

or shell. The shell encloses the tender water, a clear sweet liquid (Prades, et al., 2011).

Coconut is a fruit in which an outer skin (exocarp) and fibrous husk (mesocarp)

surrounds a hard husk (endocarp) with a coconut meat (endosperm) inside (Armstrong,

2008). Coconut fruit is shown in Fig.2.1.

Figure2.1 Coconut Fruit

 The production of coconut shows a significant role in the economy of the

Philippines. Being the world’s largest producer of coconuts, an average of 2.712 million

metric tons of said products were harvested in medium-sized farms in year 2009 up to

2012 as shown in Table 2.1 (FAO, 2011).

Table 2.1 Production of Coconut in year 2009 up to 2012

NUT
YEAR PRODUCITON EQUIVALENT
(Million MT) (Billion)
2009 2.758 15.656
2010 3.030 15.540
2011 2.550 15.207
2012 2.510 15.238

(Source: Philippine Coconut Authority)

2.1.1 Coconut water

Coconut is unique among other fruits because it contains a large quantity

of liquid. When it has not yet reach full maturity they are called tender coconut

water which can be harvested for drinking. Coconut water in its natural form is

recognized as a refreshing drink. Popularity of this drink is increasing due to its

good nutritional value, low calorie and free from added ingredients (Paniappan,

2012).

Tender coconuts after removing from the tree can be kept for 15 days

without spoilage in ambient conditions (Chandy, 2009). Once opened the

coconut water becomes off-flavored in taste and turns sour due to intense

enzymatic activity. Instead, store it inside the refrigerator if it is not used

immediately (USDA, 2009).

Coconut water became a popular drink in the tropics, especially in India,

Africa, Caribbean and here in the Philippines. It is presented in the market fresh,

canned, and bottled. It has a shelf life of 24 months when placed in bottles

(Belargo, 2010).

2.1.1.1 Benefits and Composition

Coconut water contains antioxidants, vitamins and minerals,

sugar, proteins, dietary fibre and provides an isotonic electrolyte balance.

The biologically pure, coconut water helps to replace fluids, electrolytes

and sugars lost from the body during heavy physical activities (Fife,

2008). This natural drink is believed to be useful in preventing and

relieving many health problems including dehydration, constipation,

digestive disturbances, malnutrition, fatigue, heatstroke, boils, diarrhea,

kidney stones, osteoporosis, urinary tract infections, and sterility (Fife,

2008).

Table 2.2 below shows that coconut water is also rich in many

essential amino acids including lysine, cystine, phenylalanine, histidine,

and tryptophan (Gopikrishna, 2008).

 Table 2.2 Composition of tender coconut water

(Source: Journal on Quantitative Analysis of Coconut water)

2.1.1.2 Nutritional Contents

This Table 2.3 shows nutrition value per 100 grams (g) of tender coconut

water. It reflects available nutrition facts, vitamins, electrolytes, minerals and its

nutrient value and percentage recommended dietary allowances.

Table 2.3 Nutrition Value per 100g of Coconut Water

Nutrient Percentage of
Principle
Value RDA

Energy 19 Kcal 1%

Carbohydrates 3.71 g 3%

Protein 0.72 g 1.5%

Total Fat 0.20 g 1%

Dietary Fiber 1.1 g 3%

 Vitamins

Folates 3 µg 0.75%

Niacin 0.080 mg 0.5%

Pantothenic acid 0.043 mg <1%

Pyridoxine 0.032 mg 2.5%

Riboflavin 0.057 mg 4%

Thiamin 0.030 mg 2.5%

Vitamin C 2.4 mg 4%

Electrolytes

Sodium 105 mg 7%

Potassium 250 mg 5%

Minerals

Calcium 24 mg 2.4%

Copper 40 mcg 4.5%

Iron 0.29 mg 3.5%

Magnesium 25 mg 6%

Manganese 0.142 mg %
Zinc 0.10 mg 1%
(Source: USDA National Nutrient data base)

2.2 Membrane Technology

Membrane technology is used in the beverage industry especially in clarification

of fruit juice. Membranes range from finely porous structures to nonporous and can

remove contaminants such as bacteria and protozoa down to ions (Wang 2013). In last

two decades, there has been a significant growth and increase in its application.

Membrane technology has full scale global applications in municipal and industrial

wastewater, ultra-pure water, speciality chemicals, recovery/reuse, agriculture,

pharmaceutical, power generation, drinking water and beverages (AMTA, 2007).

 There are four levels of membrane filtration. These levels are from largest

to smallest pore size namely microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and

reverse osmosis. This table also enumerates particular target contaminants from

1 µm to 0.001 µm that are being removed in different filtration level (Dave, 2013).

Table 2.4 Comparison of Membrane Filtration Levels

(Source: Virginia’s Community College)

2.2.1 Microfiltration

Microfiltration (MF) is a type of physical filtration process where a

contaminated fluid is passed through a special pore-sized membrane to

separate microorganisms and suspended particles from process liquid (Baker,

2012).

Microfiltration can be an alternative to fruit juice preservation and

conservation, because it does not involve the use of heat treatment since thermal
processes largely affect the characteristics of fruit juices. The advantages of

microfiltration are the use of mild temperature and pressure conditions, which

maintain the nutritional quality and the sensorial attributes of the products

(Carvalho, 2010).

2.2.1.1 Dead-End Filtration

In dead-end filtration, the feed flow perpendicular to the

membrane. The particulates will accumulate and form a cake at the

membrane surface. The cake increases in height throughout the filtration

period resulting in a decrease in permeate flux (Fumatech, 2010).

Therefore the membranes in dead-end operations have to be cleaned at

regular intervals either by backwashing or other physical cleaning

methods (Lenntech, 2009).

2.2.2 Ceramic Filter Cartridge

In 1846, Henry Doulton has invented the modern form of ceramic that was

widely recognized as a premier manufacturer of an effective prevention device

for treating infective water. Doulton's original organization for water filters

remains in existence, although it has been sold and renamed several times

(Berks, 2008). As with most filtration methods, fluid stream is carefully introduced

to one side of the filter, which acts to block the passage of anything larger than

the pore size.

 Ceramic filters are inexpensive and effective type of filter that rely on the

small pore size of ceramic material to remove dirt, debris, bacteria, protozoa, and

microbial cysts but are not effective against viruses since they are small enough

to pass through. The major risks to the success of all forms of ceramic filtration

are hairline cracks and cross-contamination (Brown et.al, 2011). In comparison to

polymeric membranes, ceramic membranes are slower to foul and can be

regenerated using more extreme membrane performance recovery methods,

which polymeric membranes are unable to handle due to thermal limitations of

polymeric materials (Panglisch, 2009).

2.2.3 Permeate Flux

Permeate flux is usually analyzed by the decline in flux and the decrease

of transmission over time resulting to the reversible accumulation of particles on

the membrane surface, which eventually progresses to the irreversible cake

build-up (Hwang, & Liao, 2011).

Permeate flux may change with filtration time according to the fouling

behaviour of the feed solution. High initial permeate flux followed by a rapid flux

decrease is characteristic of constant TMP operations. The initial high increase of

pressure cause rapid particle deposition which results in a fast build-up of a

boundary layer at the membrane surface (Buetehorn et al., 2012). Permeate flux

during a microfiltration process of pineapple juice is illustrated in Fig.2.2.

 Figure 2.2 Permeate flux during a microfiltration process of pineapple juice

This graph showing filtration of pineapple juice is a typical example of

permeate flux during a microfiltration process. There is a decline of the permeate

flux attributed to fouling due to pore blocking and cake built up (Yasan et al.,

2007).

2.2.4 Membrane Fouling

Membrane fouling is accumulation of non-dissolved material that is either

deposited on the pore mouths or walls of the membrane. Fouling leads to an

increase in resistance giving less flux for a given vacuum pressure difference.

For example, using a metering pump to maintain a fixed permeate flow rate.

Understanding the other resistances is important and it is imperative to

distinguish a reduction in driving force across the membrane from an increase in

resistance because of fouling of the membrane (Field, 2010).

 Membrane fouling can be classified as physically reversible or irreversible

fouling. Physically reversible fouling can be eliminated totally by physical

cleaning or certain pretreatment while physically irreversible fouling can be

overcome by chemical cleaning limited to a minimum frequency since repeated

chemical cleaning may affect membrane life (Hiroshi et al., 2007).

2.2.5 Transport Phenomena in Membrane Processes

In membrane processing, the external pressure that must be applied for

significant permeate flux must be higher than the osmotic pressure of the

solution. The basic relationship between applied pressure (by a pump), osmotic

pressure, and flow of solvent through a membrane is expressed in terms of the

flux and the driving force and resistances. Eqn1. is for an ideal semipermeable

membrane:

𝐽 = 𝐴(𝑃𝑇 − 𝜋𝐹 ) Eqn.1

Where J is the flux, A is a membrane permeability coefficient, PT is the

transmembrane pressure, and πF is the osmotic pressure of the feed solution.

For an ideal membrane and feed solution the Eqn.1 is rewritten given by Eqn.2

𝑃𝑇
𝐽=𝐴 𝜇
Eqn.2

Where A is a membrane permeability coefficient, and μ is the viscosity of

permeate. For a particular feed solution at a given temperature, viscosity is

 1
usually included with the A value and can written as 𝑅𝑀
which is rewritten below

in Eqn.3 whereR M is the intrinsic membrane resistance determined using pure

water as the feed.

𝑃
𝐽𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑇 Eqn.3
𝑀

In actual operation with a real feed, the membrane resistance may be only

a small part of the total resistance.

𝑃𝑇
𝐽=𝑅 Eqn.4
𝑀 +𝑅𝐹

If significant membrane fouling occurs because of specific membrane-

solute interactions, the intrinsic membrane resistance may change based on the

Eqn.4. It is accounted for by adding another resistance term, RF because of

fouling to the model (Cheryan, 1989).

2.2.6 Cleaning Process

The cleaning process is just as important as the actual filtration process.

It is fundamental in determining the technical and economic viability of the

processes on an industrial scale where efficiency and repeatability are essential

(Coutinho, 2009). Membrane cleaning methods can be divided into physical,

chemical and physio-chemical. In practice, physical cleaning methods followed

by chemical cleaning methods are widely used in membrane applications (Arnal

et al., 2011).
 In general, acids namely nitric, phosphoric, hydrochloric and sulphuric are

often used to remove precipitated salts or scalants, while alkaline cleaning is

suitable for organic fouling removal. Other categories of chemical cleaning

agents are metal chelating agents, surfactants and enzymes (Mohammadi et al.,

2007).

2.2.7 Backwashing

Backwashing is a type of cleaning method that uses reverse mechanism

of filtration process wherein the suction pressure is applied on the retentate side.

The accumulated cake flushed out from the membrane pores. The pressure on

the permeate side of the membrane is higher than the pressure within the

membranes, causing the pores to be cleaned. Many techniques have been

developed to overcome fouling. Backwashing is typically used to clean

membranes, while more persistent foulants are removed by the use of chemical

reagents. However, these chemicals sometimes damage the membrane

materials reducing the lifetime and efficiency of the membrane and even cause a

secondary pollution over cleaned membrane (Arnal, 2011). Fig.2.3 shows the

cleaning flow direction in backwashing.

Figure 2.3 Backwash Mechanism