Delta ferrite

• Introduction

Pure iron, upon heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it melts. At
room temperature the stable form, called ferrite, or α iron, has a BCC crystal structure. Ferrite
experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC austenite, or ɣ iron, at 912°C (1674°F). This
austenite persists to 1394°C (2541°F), at which temperature the FCC austenite reverts to a BCC
phase known as delta-ferrite (δ-ferrite), which finally melts at 1538°C (2800°F).

Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and forms a solid solution with each of alpha and
delta ferrites, and with austenite, as indicated by the α, ɣ, and δ single-phase fields. In the BCC α
ferrite, only small concentrations of carbon are soluble; the maximum solubility is 0.022 wt % at
727°C (1341°F). The limited solubility is explained by the shape and size of the BCC interstitial
positions, which make it difficult to accommodate the carbon atoms. Even though present in
relatively low concentrations, carbon significantly influences the mechanical properties of ferrite.
This iron–carbon phase is relatively soft, may be made magnetic at temperatures below 768°C
(1414°F) and has a density of 7.88 g/cm3. The δ ferrite is virtually the same as α ferrite, except for
the range of temperatures over which each exists. The delta ferrite is stable only at relatively high
temperatures.

• Formation-

In cooling from the molten state, austenitic stainless steel of normal carbon content solidifies
first as a mixture of δ ferrite and austenite (ɣ), most of the ferrite subsequently transforms to
austenite (ɣ) as the deposit cools through a temperature range just below the δ ferrite region
(1394°C). The δ ferrite does not instantaneously transform but does so gradually over a short
period of time. δ ferrite content remains in the large amount because of improper cooling rate
during solidification.
• Allowable Percentage

Commercial austenitic stainless steels are available ordinarily in the ‘solution-treated’

condition, that is as rapidly cooled from temperatures above 1038°C (1900°F). Solution
treatment is the heating of an alloy to a suitable temperature, holding it at that temperature long
enough to cause one or more constituents to enter a solid solution and then cooling it rapidly
enough to hold these constituents in solution. In this condition, AISI 316 and 317 steels frequently
contain δ ferrite in the matrix of austenite.

2-4% δ ferrite phase is presented in fully austenitic stainless steels (SS) such as type 316L
SS because δ-ferrite phase is intentionally formed during manufacturing to improve hot
workability. More than 4% δ-ferrite phase is formed during non-equilibrium solidification such as
welding.

In practical terms, a minimum δ-ferrite content of 3-4 FN (Ferrite Number) is considered an

acceptable indicator to ensure the absence of hot cracking during solidification. FN is Ferrite
Number, a value to measure ferrite which approximates to ‘volume % ferrite’.

The metallographic analysis showed that the steel sample with approximately 10% ferrite
presented an almost continuous ferrite network microstructure Fig. (a), which deteriorates
toughness when this ferrite suffers embrittlement caused by high temperature exposition. In the
samples with delta ferrite fractions around 5%, the ferrite network was semi-continuous Fig. (b),
while for lower fractions around 2% the ferrite was arranged in isolated cores Fig. (c).

Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig. (c)

• Effects of delta ferrite
o Positive effects-

A certain amount of δ ferrite in stainless steel increases:

➢ Yield and tensile strength

➢ Improves the resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
➢ Reduces hot cracking in deposited weld metal and reduces hot tearing in castings
▪ The volume contraction associated with the ferrite-austenite transformation reduces tensile
stresses close to the crack tip, which decreases cracking tendency. The hot cracking sensitivity
gain increased as δ ferrite content is increasing.
▪ Coarse grain formation in the heat affected zone occurring by recrystallisation and grain
growth in fully austenitic metals increases susceptibility to liquation cracking, while ferrite
forming compositions are not susceptible.
▪ The ductility of ferrite at high temperatures is greater than that of austenite, allowing relaxation
of thermal stresses.
▪ The lower thermal expansion coefficient of ferrite as compared to austenite results in less
contraction stresses and fissuring tendency.
▪ The higher solubility for impurity elements in δ ferrite leads to less interdendritic segregation.

o Adverse effects-

Adverse effects of δ ferrite (when δ ferrite % is above allowable %) might include:

➢ Increase in magnetic permeability of alloys containing ferrite

➢ Reduction in impact strength during long-time high-temperature service through an
increase in the rate of sigma phase formation which leads to hot cracking and
embrittlement

Sigma Phase is a brittle, nonmagnetic phase of tetragonal structure occurring in many

transition metal alloys. It is frequently encountered in high chromium stainless steels. Sigma Phase
results from a transformation of δ ferrite in the alloy, creating carbides at the grain boundaries,
which reduces the carbon and chromium content that normally provides strength and corrosion
resistance in the metal matrix. The Sigma Phase condition is generally thought to be a result of
improper heat treatment, such as can occur with a malfunctioning high temperature furnace. Some
metallurgists believe this commonly occurs at temperatures between 600°C and 900°C.

▪ Ductility is reduced because of martensite formation and thus the potential for fracture
increases.

• Relationship between delta ferrite and alloying elements

• The δ ferrite formation (amount and distribution) is strongly affected by the steel chemical
composition, but less affected by the cooling rate.

Austenite formers- C, N, Ni, Mn, Cu, Co

Ferrite formers- Al, V, Ti, Si, Cb, Mo, Ta, W, Cr, Mn

➢ Manganese acts as an austenite forming element below about 6% Mn and as a ferrite

promoter above this level.
➢ It is explained with the fact that the formation of δ-ferrite lowers the concentrations of
chromium and molybdenum in γ phase.
Vanadium tends to stabilize the δ ferrite phase at high temperatures, and this leads to carbide
precipitation so that high-vanadium steels may be somewhat brittle.