SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER - 2 CLASS – 12th

Solution –
It is always a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent.
Example : (a) oil + water = Heterogenous mixture
(b) milk + water = colloidal mixture
(c) sugar + water = Homogenous mixture
(SOLUTE) (SOLVENT)

 Components of a solution

Solute Solvent
Usually present in Usually present in
less amount in soln more amount in soln

 Water is universal solvent.

Dilute solution Concentrated solution

E.g.
 Dil. Soln of H2SO4
 H2SO4 is mixed with water
 H2SO4 (solute) is present in much
less amount in solution
E.g.
 Concn. Soln of H2SO4
 H2SO4 is mixed with water
 H2SO4 (solute) is present in more
amount in solution

 Types of solution –
 Depending upon the number of competent present in the solution :

(i) Binary solution ― 1solute + 1 solvent

Sugar + water

(ii) Tertiary solution ― 2 solute + 1 solvent

Sugar + Salt + water

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(iii) Quartnery solution ― 3 solute + 1 solvent
Sugar + Salt + Water + Leman

 Depending upon the physical state of solvent :

Type of soln Solute Solvent Examples

Solid Solid Alloy
Solid solution Liquid Solid Na – Hg Amalgum
Gas Solid H2 (g) in Pd

Solid Liquid Salt + Water

Liquid solution Liquid Liquid Ethanol in H2O
Gas Liquid Carbonated water

Solid Gas Comphor in N2 gas

Gaseous solution Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with N2 (g)
Gas Gas Mix O2 and N2 (g)

 Concentration of a solution :
The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved into a given amount
of solvent at any temp. is called concentration of the solution.

 Finding concentration of a solution – (quantitatively)

(i) Percentage composition
(ii) Hole fraction
(iii) PPM (arts per million)
(iv) Molarity
(v) Molality
(vi) Normality
(vii) Formality

 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITON –

(a) Mass by mass % (W/W)

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 Mass of the component is sol.
× 100
Mass of the solution

(b) Mass by volume % (W/V)

Mass of the component is sol.
× 100
Vol . of the solution

(c) Volume by volume % (V/V)

Vol. of the component is sol .
× 100
Vol . of the solution

 HOLE FRACTION –
It is defined as the fraction of the no. of moles of a the component with
respect to the total no. of moles of all the components present in the
solutions.
A = SOLVENT B = SOLUTE
1 = SOLVENT 2 = SOLUTE

X (Chy) –
nA
xA = n A + nB

nB
xB = n A + nB
In a solution,
∴ xA + xB = 1

 PPT (PARTS PER MILLION) –

No. of parts of the comp. present∈sol .
× 6
Total no . of partsof all the components present∈ sol. 10

 MOLARITY (M) –

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 It is defused as the no. of moles of solute dissolved in per liter volume of
solution.

ooooo SOLUTE No, OF MOLES = nB

ooooo
SOLUTE
ooooo

SOLUTION

VOL. = 1L

No . of moles of solute
Molarity = Vol. of solution( L)

nB
M =
V (L)

∴ If nB = 1 mole
And v = 1 L
Then,
1mole
M = 1L
= 1 mole-1 = 1 molar = 1 M

∴ nB = WB / MB
Then,
W B /M B
M =
V (l)
Or,
WB
M = M B ×V (l)

 Molarity of a solution is related to the volume of a solution and volume of a

solution is related to the temperature of the soln.
∴ with change in temperature , molarity of a solution gets changed

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 If two different soln have same no. of moles of solute.
Then,
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2

This is called MOLAEITY EQ. OF SOLUTION

If the density of the soln & the mass % of solute are given, then molarity –

10 × d × %
Molaeity = Molecular mass of solute

2.04 : d = 1.504g ml-1

Mass % of solute = 68%
Solute = HNO3
M. M. = 63g mol-1

10 × d × %
Molarity = Molecular mass of solute

10× 1.504 ×68

= 63

= 16.23 M

 MOLALITY (m) –
It is defined as the no. of moles of solute dissolved in per kg amount of
solvent.
No . of moles of solute
Molality = Mass of solvent (¿ kg)

nB
M = W A (kg)

If, nB = 1 mole
And, WA = 1kg

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 Then,
1mole
M = 1 kg
= 1 mol. Kg-1 = 1 mole = 1m
WB
∴ nB = M
B

Or,
W B /M B
M = W A (kg)

WB
∴ m = M B ×W A (kg)

Mass of a solvent does not change with changing in temperature.

∴ Molality of a solution also does not change with changing in
temperature.

Ques. What will be difference between 10 M & 10m ?

Sol. In 10 M , 10 moles of solute are dissolved in one litre of solution.
Whereas , In 10 m , 10 moles of solute are dissolved in one Kg of solvent.

 NORMALITY –
No. of gram equivalents.
Mass
= equivalent mass

At mass /molecular mass

Equi. Mass = n
No .of e ( s ) req. for red

It is defined as the no. of gram equivalents of solute dissolved in per liter

volume of solution.

Ques. What will be the mass % age of benzene and carbon tetrachloride if 22g
of benzene is dissolved in 122g of carbon tetrachloride.

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Sol. Benzene (C6H6) CCl4
22g 122g
Solute solvent
Mass of solution = 22 + 122
144g

Mass of C 6 H 6
Mass % of C6H6 = n
× 100
Mass of Sol.

22
= 144
× 100

11×25
= 18
%

= 15 % (approx)

Mass of CCl 4
Mass % of CCl4 = n
× 100
mass of Sol .

122
= 144
× 100

61× 25
= 18

= 85 % ( approx )

Ques. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in sol n containing 30 % by mass in

CCl4.
Sol. C6H6 CCl4
Mass = 30g mass = 70g
-1
M.M = 78g mol M.M = 154g mol-1
30 70
nC6H6 = 78 = 0.38 nCCl4 = 154 = 0.45

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 0.38 0.38
xC6H6 = 0.38+0.45 = 0.83 = 0.45

Ques. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions –

(a) 30g of Co (NO3)2 . 6H2O in 4.3 L of solution.

(b) 30ml of 0.5 MH3SO4 diluted to 500ml.

Sol. (a) M.M. of solute = 59 + 28 + 192 + 12

= 291g mol-1

30
No. of moles of solute = 291 = 0.103 mole

0.103 mol
Molarity = 4.3 L
= 0.0239 mol. L-1

(b) 30ml of 0.5 H2SO4 dilute to 500ml.

M1 x V1 = M2 x V2

Or.
M 1 ×V 1
M2 = V2

0.5 ×30
= 500
3
= 100
= 0.03 mol. L-1
Ques. Calculate the mass of NH2 CONH2 required in making 2.5kg of 0.25 molal
aqueous solution.
Sol. Molality = 0.25 mol. Kg-1
Mass of area solute (water) = 2.5 kg
Mass of urea (solute) = ?
nurea
Molality =
2.5 kg

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 nurea
0.25 mole. Kg-1 =
2.5 kg

nurea = 0.25mol. kg-1 x 2.5 kg

= 0.625 mole
M. M. of urea = 60g mol-1
Mass of urea = nurea x M. M. of urea
= 0.625 mole x 60g mol-1
= 37.5g

Ques. Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity & (c) mole fraction of KI if the d of
20 % (m/m) aqueous KI is 1.202g mol-1
Sol. (a) Mass of KI = 20g
80
Mass of H2O = 80g = 1000
= 0.08 kg

20 g
No. of moles of KI = −1 = 0.120 moles
166 g mol

0.120 mole
Molality = 0.08 kg
= 1.50 mol. Kg-1

10 × d × %
(b) Molarity = Molecular mass of solute

10× 1.202× 20
= 166

= 1.44
80 g
(c) No. of moles of H2O = −1 = 4.5 moles
18 g mol

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 n KI 0.12 0.12
xKI = n +n = 0.12+4.5 = 4.62 = 0.02
KI H O 2

 Solubility –
An Amount of solute that can be dissolved into a given amount of solvent
at a particular temperature is called solubility of a solutions.

(a) Solubility of a solid solute into a liquid solvent.

When a solid solute is dissolved into a liquid solvent at a constant
temperature , there way be two conditions –

(i) Dissolution
(ii) Crystallization

2.5 : Molality :

10
Moles of solute = 180 = 0.05 moles
90
Water = 90 g [ 1000 = 0.09]

Glucose = 10 g

0.05
∴ 0.09
= 0.55 m
nA
Mole fraction : xA = n A + nB

90
Moles of solvent (H2O) = 18 = 5 moles
0.05
= 0.05+5 = 0.0099

Therefore, we know - x A + xB = 1
= 0.0099 + xB = 1

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 = xB = 1 – 0.0099
= xB = 0.9901

10× 1.2× 10 2
Molarity = 180 × 10 = 3 = 0.6 m

2.7 : Mass of solution = 300 + 400

= 700g

25 300
Mass of solute = 300 100
×
100 25 = 75g
×

400
Mass of solute = 100
× 25 = 100g

(75 + 100) = 175g

175
Mass % = 700
× 100

= 25g (solute)

∴ 75g (solvent)
2.6 : Let the mass of Na2CO3 = x g
Mass of NaHCO3 = (1 – x) g
M M of Na2CO3 = (23 x 21 + 12 + (16 x 3))
= 46 + 12 + 48
= 106g mol-1
M.M. of NaHCO3 = 23 + 1 + 12 + 48
= 84g mol-1

x
No. of moles of Na2CO3 = 106

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 ( 1−x )
No. of moles of NaHCO3 =
84

As per the question, both have equal no. of moles.

x ( 1−x )
∴ 106 = 84

84x = 106 (1-x)

84x = 106 – 106x
190x = 106
106
x =
190
= 0.557
x 0.557
Exact no. of moles of Na2CO3 = 106 = 106 = 0.0052
Here,
No. of moles of Na2CO3 = No. of moles of NaNCO3 = 0.0052

Reaction of Hcl with Na2CO3

Na2CO3 + 2Hcl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
(1 mole) (2 mole)

჻ 1 mole of Na2CO3 reacts with 2 moles of HCl.

∴ 0.0052 of Na2CO3reacts with (2 x 0.0052) of HCl
= 0.0104 mole o HCl
Reaction of HCl with NaHCO3 :
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO3
(1 mole) (1 mole)

჻ 1 mole of NaHC3 reacts with 1 mole of HCl

∴ 0.0052 of NaNCO3 reacts with 0.0052 mole of HCl
= 0.0052 mole of HCl.
Total no of moles = 0.0104 +0.0052
Of HCl = 0.0156 mole

nHCl
MHCl =
V (L)

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 0.0156 mole
0.1 mol. L-1 = V (L)

0.0156 mole
∴ V (L) = 0.1 mole

= 0.156 liter

V (let) = 0.156 x 1000

= 156 ml

(i) Dissolution : Amount of solid solute dissolves into the liquid solvent at a
given temperature to given a saturated solution. This process is called
Dissolution.
(ii) Crystallisation : When more amount of solid solute is dissolued in the
saturated solution at the some temperature it will collide with the solute
particles already present in this solution & remain undissolved. This is
called Crystallisation.

 Faetors which the solubility of a solid solute into a liquid solvent depends
–
(i) Temperature : Within increasing in temperature the solubility of a solid
solute into a liquid solvent increases as the kinetic energy of the particle of
solvent increases and their intermolecular space also increases.
(ii) Pressure : Pressure has no effect on the solubity of a solid solute into a
liquid solvent as both solids and liquids are hasd to compress.

 Solubility of a gas into liquid –

To dissolve a gas into liquid we need to lower the kinetic energy of the
particles of gas than the kinetic energy of particles of liquid. This can be
done by increasing pressure and decreasing temperature.

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 HENERY’S LAW : This law states that at constant temperature amount of a
gas dissolved into liquid is directly proportional to the pressure applied an
gas.
Amount = mole fraction

Les ‘x’ is the amount of gas dissolved into liquid by applying ‘P’ pressure.
i.e.,
P α x
P = KH x x

Where , KH, = Henry’s law constant

It has different magnitude for different gases.

x is the mole fraction of solute

x can be written as xB

P = KH x xB
nB
P = KH x n + n
A B

1
nB
has much smaller value for diluted solution , so it can be neglected.
nB
P = KH × n
A

BW /MB
P = KH × W / M
A A

BW /MA
P = KH × W / M
A B

 Application of Henry’s law constant –

Ques. CO2 is sealed in the bottles of soft-drinks under high pressure. Why ?

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Sol. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks, it is sealed at high pressure.

Ques. Scuba divers are coped with high conen of dissolved gases. Why ?
Sol. When scuba divers are inside the water there is high pressure but when
they come to the upper surface, the pressure decreases randomly. At the
same time nitrogen from atmosphere enters into the capillaries and block
the capillaries. This medical condition is known as bend.
To avoid the problem of bend, scuba divers are coed with high cone n of
dissolved gases.

Ques. People living at higher altitudes or climbers, generally suffer from anoxia.
Why ?
Sol. At higher altitudes atmospheric pressure is low. It leads to low
concentration of oxygen the blood & tissues of people living there. It wakes
them unable to thick clearly and as well as weak. This medical situation is
called ANOXIA

Ques. Why does the solubility of a gas into a liquid decrease with increasing in
temperature ?
Sol. With increasing in temp. The kinetic energy of the particles of gases
increases: so its solubility into liquid decreases.

 Vapour pressure of liquid liquid solutions –

ooooo Liquid A
ooooo Volatile
ooooo Liquid B
Early converts
∆ HEAT into vapours

When we heat, a mixture of two volatile liquids, both of them start to

convert into vapour phass. So, they apply pressure on each other & as well

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 as to the wall of the container in which they are kept. Such pressure iscalled
vapour pressure.
And the vapour pressure of each component is called its partial
vapor pressure.

 Raoult’s Law :- The partial vapour pressure of each component is directly

proportional to its amount present in the mixture.

For component A –
PA α xA
Or, PA = PA° x xA

For component B –
PB α x B
Or, PB = PB° x xB

Where PA° and PB° are the partial vapour pressure of component A & B in
their pure state.

 Dalton’s Law :- This law states that the total vapour pressure of the
mixture is the sum of the partial vapor pressures of each component
present in the mixture.

PTOTAL = PA + PB
PTOTAL = (PA° x xA) + (PB° x xB)
xA + xB = 1
xA = 1 – xB
OR xB = 1 – xA
PTOTAL = [PA° ( 1 – xB) ] + ( PB° x xB)
PTOTAL = PA° – PA° x xB + PB° x xB

PTOTAL = PA° - xB ( PA° – PB°)

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Ques. What is the significance of Henry’s law constant (KH).
Sol. Greater is the value of KH , less will be the solubility of a gas in liquid. To
dissolve more amount of gas into liquid, we need to keep the value of K H as lower
as possible

 Graphical representation –

PA = PA° x xA
And PB = PB° x xB
P T = PA + P B

P T = PA + P B
PB° P A°
PA
PB

xA = 0 xA = 1
XB = 1 xB = 0

 Ideal & non – ideal solution –

A B A–B
(Solvent) (Solute) (Solution)

A–A B–B A-B

Forces of attrn b/w Forces of attrn b/w Forces of attrn b/w
solvent - solvent solute - solute solute - solvent

These forces of attrn wake the solution as ideal or non-ideal.

 Ideal solution –
 If in a solution the forces of attrn b/w A – A or B – B is equal to A – B then
the solution is said to be as ideal solution

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  Such a solution obeys the Raoult’s law over its entire range of
concentration.
For such a solution ∆mix H = O and as well as mix V = O

P T = PA + P B
P A°
PB° PA

PB

xA = 0 xA xB = 0
xB = 1 xB xA = 1

 Non – ideal solution –

 It is a solution the forces of attr n b/w A – A or B – B is not equal to that of
A – B , then the solution is said to be as non – ideal solution.
 Such a solution does not obey the Raoult’s law infact they show deviation
from Raoult’s law

For such solution , ∆Mix H = +Ve / -Ve

∆Mix V = +Ve / -Ve

(a) +Ve deviation from Raoult’s law –

When the force of attrn b/w A – A or B – B is greater than A – B then, the
components will escape out into their pure state. As a result the vapour
pressure of components is their pure state eses.
Thus the obtain a +Ve deviations from Raoult’s law.

∆Mix H = +Ve
∆Mix V = +Ve

P T = PA + P B
PB° P A°
PA

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 PB

xA = 0 xA xB = 0
xB = 1 xB xA = 1

(b) –Ve deviation from Raoult’s law –

When the forces of attrn b/w A – A or B – B is lower than that of A – B then
components will remove its mixture as a result, the vapour pressure of
components is their pure state eses and we obtain a –ve deviations from
Rault’s law.
∆Mix H = - Ve
∆Mix V = - Ve

P T = PA + P B
PB° P A°
PA
PB

xA = 0 xA xA = 1
xB = 1 xB xB = 0

Ques. Mistures of Ethanol & Acetone show +ve deviations from Rault’s law ?
Sol. Ethanol has intermolecular H-bonding ; whereas acetone has no
intermolecular hydrogen – bonding. When acetone is added to ethanol its
molecules get in b/w the molecules of ethanol. As a result some of the H-
bond breakdown and the solution shows +ve deviation from Raoult’s law.

Ques. Mixture of Carbon disulphide and acetone shows +ve deviations from
Rault’s law ?
Sol. In a soln formed by carbon disulphide & acetone the dipolar interactions &
between solute – solvent molecules are weaker than the solute – solute or
the solvent – solvent molecules. Therefore the mixture shows the +ve
deviation from Raoult’s law.

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 Azeotropes or Azeotropic mixture –
That liquid mixture having some composition in liquid phase and as well as
vapour phase are called Azeotropes or Azeotropic mixtures.
The components of A.M. cannot be separate from each other by
fractional distillation or distillation method.

They boil at constant temperature.

Example : (a)mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water
(b)Honey
(c) 68% HNO3 + 32% of water

 There are two types of Azeotropic mixture :

(i) Maximum boiling azeotropes –

Those solutions which show negative deviation from the Raoult’s law
having much higher interatomic interaction between solute and solvent.
These solutions form Maximum boiling azeotropes.
Example : 68% HNO3 + 32% of water

(ii) Minimum boiling azeotropes –

Those solutions which show positive deviation from Raoult’s law having less
interatomic interatomic b/w solute and solvent. Thus solution form
minimum boiling azeotropes.

 Colligative Properties –
Properties of the solution which are dependent upon the amount of solute
rather than the nature of the solute are called colligative properties.

(1) Relative lowering in vapour pressure

ooooo
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 Solute
(Non-Volatile) ooooo
ooooo
Solvent
(Volatile)

Where a non-volatile solute is added to the volatile solvent, it wakes strong

interactions with the particles of solvent as a result the ability of solvent to
convert into vapour phase decreases. This is called lowering in vapour
pressure.

 The vapour pressure of solvent in pure state is greater than the vapour
pressure of solvent is solution phase.

Let P1° is the V.P of solvent in pure state and P 1 s the V.P. of solvent in soln
phase.
Then , P 1° > P 1

∆P1 = P1° – P1 (lowering in V.P.)

From Raoult’s law,

P1 = P1° x x1
P °-
P1 = (P1° x x1)
1
Or,
∆P1 = P1° (1 – x)
∆P1 = P1° x x2

∆ P1
P0
= x2 (Relative in lowering vapour pressure)

∆ P1 n1
P0
= n1 +n2

1
For dil. Soln , n has much smaller value. So it is neglected.
2

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 ∆ P1 n2
P1°
= n1

∆ P1 w2 /m2
P0
= w1 /m1

∆ P1 w2 /m1
∴ P0
= w1 /m2

Ques. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temp. is 0.850 bar. A
non-volatile solute of mass 0.5g when added to 39g of benzene, V.P. of
the soln because 0.845 bar. What is the molar mass of the solute.
Sol. P1° = 0.845 bar
W2 = 0.5g
W1 = 39g
M1 = 78g mol-1
P1 = 0.845 bar
M2 = ?
∆P1 = P1° - P1
∆P1 = (0.850) - (0.845) bar
= 0.005 bar
∆ P1 w2 /m1
P0
= w1 /m2

0.005 0.5 ×78

=
0.850 39× M 2

5 1
=
850 M 2

1 1
=
170 M 2

∴ M2 = 170g mol-1

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 Elevation in Boiling point : (2.)
When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, it makes strong
interactions with the solvent particles. As a result, the boiling point of
solvent in solution phase becomes more than, the boiling point of solvent
in pure state. This is called the elevation in boiling point.
Let, Tb° is the boiling point of solvent in pure state; and T b is the boiling
point of solvent in solution phase.
Here, Tb > Tb°

Change in boiling point

∆Tb = Tb - Tb°
“Change in boiling point of solvent is directly proportional to the molality of
the solution”.
Now,
Tb α m
Or, Tb = Kb x m

Where Kb = Molal elevation constant or,

Ebullioscopic constant or,
Boling elevation constant
nB
∆Tb = Kb x W ( kg)
A

W B /M B
∆Tb = Kb x W (kg)
A

WB
∆Tb = Kb x M ×W (kg)
B A

Ques. 18g of glucose is dissolved in 1kg of H 2O is container at what temp. will

water boil at 1.013 bar. Kb for water is 0.52 k kg mol-1.
Sol. WB = 18g

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 MB = 180g
WA = 1kg
Kb = 0.52K kg mol-1

0.52× 18
∆Tb = 180× 1

0.52
∆Tb = 10

= 0.052k
As we know ,
∆Tb = Tb - Tb°
Tb = Tb + ∆Tb° (Tb° for water = 100 + 273 = 373k)
Tb = 0.052 + 373k
Tb = 373.052 k

Ques. The boiling point of Benzene = 353.23k. when 1.8g of non-volatile solute
was dissolved in 90g if Benzene, the B.P. 354.11k. calculate the
molar mass of the solute. Kb for benzene = 2.53k Kg mol-1
Sol.
∆Tb = Tb - Tb°
∆Tb = 354.11k - 353.23k
∆Tb = 0.88k
WB = 1.8g
WA = 90g = 0.09g
Kb = 2.53k Kg mol-1

K b× W B
∆Tb = M ×W (kg)
B A

K b ×W B
MB = ∆ T ×W (kg)
B A

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 2.53 ×1.8 ×100 253× 20 5060
MB = 0.88 ×0.09 ×10 = 88
= 88

MB = 57.5g mol-1

 Depression is freezing point : (3)

When a non–volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent it makes strong
interactions with solvent molecules. As a result the freezing point of solvent
in solution phase gets lowered than the freezing point of solvent in pure
state.
Let Tf° is the F pt of solvent in pure state and T f is the F. pt of solvent in sol n
phase.
Here,
Tf° > T f
Change in freezing point,
∆Tf = Tf° - Tf

“Change in freezing point of solvent is directly proportional to the molality

of the solution”.
i.e - Tf α m
Or, ∆Tf = Kf x m
Where, Kf = Molal depression constant or.
Cryoscopic constant or,
Freezing point Depression constant

nB
∆Tf = Kf x W (kg)
A

W B /W B
∆Tf = Kf x W ( kg)
A

WB
∆Tf = Kf x M ×W (kg)
B A

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Ques. 45g of ethylene glycol ( C2 H6O2) is mixed with 600g of water calculate –

(a) The freezing point depression &

(b) The freezing point of the solution.
Kf for water = 1.86k Kg mol-1

Sol. WB = 45g
WA = 0.6 Kg
Kf = 1.86
MB = 62g mol-1

1.86 ×45 × 10
∆Tf = 62× 0.6 ×100

186 ×45 279

∆Tf = 62 ×60 = 124

∆Tf = 2.2 k

As we know ,
∆Tf = Tf° - Tf Tf° = 0° + 273.15 k
Tf = ∆Tf - Tf° = 273.15 k
Tf = 2.2 k - 273.15 k
Tf = -270.95 k

Ques. 1g of non-volatile solute dissolved in 50g of benzene lowered the F. pt of

benzene by 0.40K. The f.pt depression constant of benzene is 5.12k Kg
mol-1. Find the molar mass of solute.
Sol. WB = 1g
WA = 0.05 kg
Kf = 5.12k Kg mol-1
∆Tf = 0.40k

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 K f ×W B
∆Tf = M ×W (kg)
B A

K f ×W B
MB = ∆ T ×W (kg)
f A

5.12 ×1 5.12
MB = 0.40 ×0.05 = 0.02

= 256g mol-1

 Osmosis and Osmotic pressure : (4)

Osmosis : Movement of solvent particles from its higher concentration to
its lower cons. Through SPM is called osmosis.
MOVEMENT OF SOLVENT PARTICLES

Pex

100 ml 100 ml

(SPM)
Solvent SEMI- PERMEABLE Solution
MEMBRANE (solvent + solute)
MOVEMENT OF SOLVENT PARTICLES
Porous surface which
allows only the movement
of solvent particles.

Natural SPM : Potato peels Animal Bladder

Synthetic SPM : cellophane

 If we want to stop the process of osmosis, we need to apply pressure

against of osmosis and greater than the pressure applied for osmosis.
 The pressure against of osmosis is applied towards the solution side.

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 Osmotic pressure : The pressure against of osmosis is called osmotic
pressure.
Pex + π > pex
Pressure pressure
Against of for
Osmosis osmosis

“At constant temperature , osmotic pressure applied the solution sids is

directly proportional to the molarity of the solution.”

i.e ; π α C x T [C = molarity]
Or, π = R x C x T [R = Gas constant]
Or, π = CRT
nB
Or, π = RT
Vl

W B /W B
Or, π = RT
V (l)

W B × RT
Or, π = M ×V (l)
B

 Reverse osmosis (R.O) : When osmotic pressure is applied towards the sol n
side, solvent pasticles start to flow from solution to the pure state through
SPM. Such movement of solvent particles is called Reverse osmosis.
 Isotonic , Hypertonic and hyotonic :

π1 π2

C1 C2

Solution - 1 Solution - 2

(a) If , π1 = π2 (isotonic solution)

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 (b) If , C1 » C2
C1 = Hypertonic
C2 = Hypotonic

 R = 0.0821 L atm mol-1 k-1

 R = 0.0831 L bar mol-1 k-1
 R = 8.314 J mol-1 k-1 [ENERGY]

Ques. 200cm3 of or aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26g of the protein.

The osmotic pressure of such a solution at 300k is found to to 2.57 x 10 -3
bar. Calculate the molar mass of the protein.
Sol. V = 200 cm3 = 0.200 L
WB = 1.26g
π = 2.57 x 10-3 bar
T = 300k
R = 0.0831 L bar mol-1
MB = ?

W B RT
π = M ×V (l)
B

W B RT
∴ MB =
π ×V (l)

1.26 ×0.0831 ×300

MB = −3
2.57 × 10 ×0.200

−3
126 ×831 ×3 ×10
MB = g.mol-1
257 ×2

189× 83 3 -1
MB = 257
x 10 g mol

MB = 61.038 g mol-1

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 Vant’s hoff factor –

i = iota From calculation –

MB = Changeable
Solute
Glucose C6H12O6 Calculate
quantity
 MB = 180 g mol-1
 Non – changeable
 Observed quantity

 Vant Hoff’s factor is a fraction obscured quantity and calculated quantity.

observed value
i = calculated value

Normalcolligative property
i = Abnormal colligative property
Corrected colligative property –

∆ PA
(i) PA°
= i x x2
(ii) ∆Tb = i x kb x m
(iii) ∆Tf = i x kf x m
(iv) π = I x CRT
 Three cases :

i = 1 (Neither dissociation nor association)

i > 1 (dissociation)
i < 1 (Association)

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 For Dissociation For Association

Monomer : i = 1 + x Monomer : i = 1 + x

x x
Dimer : i = 1+ 2 Dimer : i = 1+ 2

x x
Trimer : i = 1+ 3 Trimer : i = 1+ 3

Ques. 2g of benzoic acid dissolved in 25g of Benzene shows a depression in

freezing point = 1.62 K. Molal depression constant for benzene = 4.9k Kg
mol-1 what is the % age asso. Of acid if it forms dimer in soln.
Sol. Benzoic acid Benzene
C6 H5 COOH C6H6
WB = 2g WA = 25g = 0.025 kg
∆Tf = 1.62 k
Kf = 4.9 k kg mol-1
K f ×W B
∆Tf = M ×W
B A

Kf × WB
∴ MB = ∆ T ×W
f A

−1
4.9 k kg mol ×2 g
=
1.62 k × 0.025 kg

9.8
= 0.0405 g mol-1

= 241.9 g mol-1

Here calculated molar mass of solute –

241.9 g mol-1

Observed molar mass of solute

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 C6 H5 COOH = 122 g mol-1

122
i = 241.9 = 0.504

For diver solution :

x
i = 1 - 2

x
2
= 1 - i

x = 2 (1 - i)
x = 2 x (0.496)
x = 0.992
% of x = 99.2 %

Formula at a glance :

1. percentage composition –

(a) W/W %
Mass of the comenent
= Mass of the solution
x 100

(b) W/V %
Mass of the comenent
= Volume of the solution
x 100

(c) V/V %
Volume of the comenent
= Volume of the solution
x 100

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 2. Mole fraction –
nA nB
xA = n & xB = n
A +¿n ¿B
A +¿n ¿ B

xA + xB = 1

xA = 1 – xB and xB = 1 - xA

3. Pasts per million (PPM) –

No. of pasts of comp
= Total no . of pasts of all comp . x 106

4. Molarity –
nB
M =
V (l)
Mol-1

5. Molality –
nB
M = W ( kg)
A

6. Henry’s Law –
P = KH x x

7. Raoult’s Law –
PA = PA° x xA
&
PB = PB° x xB

8. Daltou’s Law –
Ptotal = PA + PB

9. Relative Lowering in V.P –

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 XP A
PA °
= x2

10. Elevation in boiling point –

∆Tb = Kb x m

11. Depression in Freezing point –

∆Tf = Kf x m

12. Osmotic pressure –

π = CRT

Observed value
13. i = Calculated Value

14. For association –

Monomer : 1 - x

Deiver : 1 - x/2

Trimer : 1 - x/3

15. For dissociation –

Movover : 1 + x
Dimer : 1 + x/2
Trimer : 1 + x/3

Total no . of molecules after diss ./asso

16. i = Total no . of molecules before diss ./asso .

Example :- (a) K2 SO4 2K+ + SO42-

1 2 1
= 3

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 3
i = 1
= 3

Mg SO4 Mg2+ + SO42-

1 1 1
2 = 2
i = 1
= 2

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