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CBSE 2024
Solutions
APNI KAKSHA NOTES
APNI KAKSHA 1
Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
Homogeneous mixture means Composition and properties are uniform throughout the
mixture. Generally, the components that is present in the largest quantity is known as
Solvent. Components present in the solution other than solvent, is known as solute.
Binary Solution = Solvent + Solute
Types of solution Solute Solvent Common examples
Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and
Gaseous Liquid Gas nitrogen gases Chloform
solutions Solid Gas mixed with nitrogen gas
camphor in nitrogen gas
Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water
Liquid Solutions Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water
APNI KAKSHA 2
mole fraction of B =XB= hB/hA + hB
For binary mixture XA + XB = 1 [ Sum of all the mole fractions is unity]
Example:-A mixture having two gaseous component N2(s) and O2(g) with no. of moles of
10 and 20 respectively Then what is the male fraction of both component
hn2 10 1
xn2
Ans:- hn2 no2 10 20 3
1 2
xo2 1
3 3
APNI KAKSHA 3
Moles of C2H6O2 = 20 g/62 g mol-1 =0.322mol = h glycol
Moles of water = 80 g/ 18 g mol-1 =4.444 mol=h water
Mole fraction of glycol x glycol = h glycol/ h glycol + h water =0.322/0.322+ 4.444 = 0.062
Similarly x water =1- x glycol =1-0.068 =0.932
6. Molarity [M]:- It is defined as number moles of solute dissolved in one litre
of solution
Molarity = Moles of solute
Volume of solution (in litre)
Unit=mol/litre[M]
0.25 M solution of NaoH means that 0.25 mol of NaoH has been dissolved in 1 litre
Q. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaoH in 450 ml solution ?
Ans Moles of NaoH = 5g /40 g mol-1 =0.125 mol ,
volume of solution in litre =450/100=0.45 L
Molarity = 0.125 mol/ 0.45 L =0.278 mol L -1 =0.278 mol dm-3, 1 litre =1 dm3
APNI KAKSHA 4
Kg of benzene
(2.5/60)/(75/100)=0.556 mol/kg
Main advantage of molality over molarity:- molality does not change with change
with temperature while. Molarity decreases with rise in temperature.
This is because volutre depends on temperature ( V T ) but mass does not.
Q. Calculate the molarity of 9.8 % w/w solution of H2SO4 if the density of the solution
is 1.02 g ml-1 [Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g mol-1
Ans 9.8 % solution means 9.8 g of H2SO4 is present in 100 g of the solution.
Density of solution = 1.02 g ml-1
Then volume of solution = mass of solution
Density of solution
=100/1.02 =0.098
Moles of H2SO4 =9.8 g /98 g mol-1 =0.1 mol
Molarity = 0.1 mol/0.098 =1.019 mol-1 =1.02 M
Q. A solution of glucose (molar mass = 180 g mol-1) in water is labeled as 10% (mass).
What would be the molality and molarity of the solution?
Density of solution = 1.2 g mol-1
Ans 10% glucose solution (by mass) means that
Mass of glucose = 10 g
Mass of solution = 100 g
Mass of solvent = 90 g (molar mass of glucose =180 g/mol)
Density of solution = 1.2 g mol-1
Volume of solution = m/d =100 g/ 1.2 g mol-1 =1000/12 ml =1/12 litre
Now molarity = moles of glucose
Volume of solution
(10/180)/(1/12)=0.667 M
Molality = moles of glucose
APNI KAKSHA 5
Mass of solvent (in Kg)
(10/180)/(90/1000)=0.617 m
Solubility
Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a fix abount of
solvent.
When a solid solute is added to solvent, some solute dissolves and its concentration
increases in solution. This process is known as Dissolution.
Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles and get separated
out of solution. This process is known as Crystallization.
At point of equilibrium, no. of solute particles going into solution will be equal to solute
particles separating out . Solute + Solvent = Solution
At this dyamic equilibrium concentration of solute in solution will remain constant at
given temperature and pressure.
Such a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and
pressure is called a saturated solution.
Unsaturated solution: A solution in which more solute can be dissolved.
APNI KAKSHA 6
Henry Law [ Effect of pressure on solubility]:-
“The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature is directly
proportional to the pressure at which it is dissolved.”
If we use mole fraction (x) of a gas in solution as a measure of its solubility, then
Partial pressure of a gas (p) = KH . x Henry’s law constant
partial pressure of HCI/torr
1000
500
0
0.010 0.020
Mole fraction of HCI in its
solution in cyclohexane
i. KH is a function of the nature of a gas means that different gases have different gases
have different KH value.
ii. Higher the value of KH – lower is the solubility because at constant pressure = KH
1/x
iii. Unit of KH = unit of pressure = atm/torr
KH is proportional to temperature [ KH T and KH 1/x = T 1/x ]
Means that solubility of a gas increase with decrease of temperature.
Due to above reason O2 is getting more dissolve in cold water than in warm water. So
aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than warm water.
pH2O(g )
Equilibrium constant (kp) =
pH2O(l )
APNI KAKSHA 8
Boinling point :- The temperature at which vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to
external pressure.
A liquid having high vapour pressure boils at low temperature [B.P 1/V.P]
0 1
Mole fraction of solvent
According to Dalton;s law of partial pressures :- Total pressure over solution phase in
the container will be the sum of the partial pressure of components of the solution.
ptotal = p1 + p2 = p1x1 + p2x2
ptotal = (1- x2) p1 + p2x2 = p1 + (p2 - p1)x2 [x1 + x2 ]
y = mx + c
linear graph between total v.p and x2
For line II: ptotal = p2
Initially x1 = 0
x2 =1
APNI KAKSHA 9
vapour pressure
III
p
= p 1+ 2
P
P total
II
p0
1
P2
P1
I
X1 = 1 x1=0
x 2 =1
x 2= 0 Mole fraction
x2
If y1 and y2 are the mole fraction of the liquid -1 and liquid -2 respectively in vapour phase
then, using Dalton’s law of partial pressures
p1= y1 ptotal
p2= y2 ptotal
AT equilibrium , vapour phase will be always rich in the component which is more
volatile.
Q. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 mm and 700 mm of Hg
respectively at 350 k. find out the composition of the liquid mixture if total vapour
pressure is 600 mm of Hg. Also find the composition in vapour phase?
Ans PA =450 mm of Hg PB= 700 mm of Hg
PT = 600 mm of Hg XA/ XB/ YA/ YB ?
PT = PB + (PA - PB) XA = 600 = 700 + (450 – 700 ) XA
Mole fraction of A in liquid XA =100/250 =0.40
Mole fraction of B in liquid phase XB =1- XA =1-0.40=0.60
PA = XA. PA =(0.40) (450) =180 mm of Hg
PB = XB. PB =(0.60) (700) =420 mm of Hg
PA = YA PT = YA = mole fraction of A in vapour phase = PA/ PT =180/600=0.30
PB = YB PT = YB = PB/ PT =420/600 =0.70
Note :- in above question : YB> YA [so vapour phase is more rich is component (l) and
B=B is more volatile liquid than A
APNI KAKSHA 10
When KH becomes equal to p [Both are constant for a given liquid at constant
2. Negative deviation from raoult’s law:- A-B interactions are stronger than
A-A and B-B interactions. Due to this, vapour pressure decrease which
results in negative deviation.
APNI KAKSHA 11
(PTotal) exp < XA. P+ XB P
Hmix =-ve and Vmix =-ve
O
O
H O + CH OH H O + H C O - H
Example :- 2 3
C
2
Phenol + aniline
CHCl3 + Acetone
O
CH C CH
A solution of CHCl3 (chloroform) and 3 3 (Acetone) shows –ve deviation?
Why?
In pure CHCl3 and pure acetone , there is no hydrogen bonding but after mixing there is
hydrogen bonding between hydrogen of CHCL3 and oxygen of acetone. Due to strong
interaction between solution molecules, vapour pressure decrease which results in –ve
deviation
Cl
C H O=
Cl
Cl
P1 P2
X =0 X1=1
1
X2 =1 X 2=0
Mole fraction
X1
X2
APNI KAKSHA 12
Vapour pressure of solution
vapour pressure
P2 P1
X =0 X1=1
1
X2 =1 X 2=0
Mole fraction
X1
X2
Colligative Properties
The properties of solution which depend only on the number of solute particle.
Colligative properties no. of particles in solution 1/molar mass of solute
Four colligative properties:-
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure[RLVP]
2. Depression of freezing point of solvent
3. Elevation of boiling point of solvent
4. Osmotic pressure of solution
APNI KAKSHA 13
For dilute solution h2 <<< = h1
P - P/ P = h2/ h1=(W2/M2) (M1/W1)
Here W1 and W2 are the masses and M1 and M2 are the molar masses of solvent and solute
respectively.
! mol of solvent
Pure Solvent 1 mol of solute
a Solvent Solute
b
APNI KAKSHA 14
Boiling point of
Solvent Solution
1.013 bar
or 1 Atm t
lv en
So
n
lu tio
So
vapour pressure
Tb
Tb
Tb
Temperature/k
If Tb is B.P of pure solvent and Tb is the B.P of solution, then elevation in B.P
T b = T b - T b
For dilute solutions Tb m [here m is molality or molal concentration of solute in a
solution]
Tb = Kb . m [Kb : B.P elevation constant / molal elevation constant]
As unit of m = mol/kg , so unit of Kb = k kg mol-1
If W2 g of solute of molar mass M2 is dissolved in W1 g of solvent , then molality of solution
m = (W2/M2)mole/ (W1/1000)kg
Then, Tb = Kb 1000 W2/M2.W1
And molar mass of solute M2 = 1000 W2. Kb/ Tb.W1
Q. 18g of glucose (Molar mass = 180 g mol-1) is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a source
pan. At what temperature will this solution boil? [ k b for water = 0.52 k kg mol-1,
B.P of pure water = 373.15 k)
Ans W1 = 1 kg = 1000 g Tb = 373.15
W2 = 18 g Kb= 0.52 k kg mol-1 M2 = 180 g mol-1
Tb = Kb .m= kb 1000 W2/M2.W1 =0.52×1000×18/180/1000 = 0.052 k
Tb = Tb - Tb= Tb – 373.15 = 0.052 k
Tb = 373.15 + 0.052 = 373.202 k
Tb = 373.2 k
APNI KAKSHA 15
Depression of freezing point :-
The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which V.P of the substance in its
liquid phase is equal to its V.P in solid phase.
When a non-Volatile solute is added to a solvent , the freezing point of the solution is
always lower that of pure solvent , as v.p of solvent decrease in presence of non-volatile
solute.
This difference in freezing point is known as depression in freezing point.
t
en
solv
id
liqu
ion
lu t
nt
so
l ve
so
n
ze
fro
vapour pressure
T1
Tt Tt
Temperature/k
T f = T f - T f
Tf= freezing point of pure solvent.
Tf = freezing point of solution
Tf m
Tf = kf m
Tf = kf ×(W2/M2) × ( W1/1000)
kf = freezing point depression constant
f=molar depression constant
k =cryoscopic constant
APNI KAKSHA 16
kf =5.12 k kg mol-1
Tf = kf m = kf ×W2 ×1000/ W1 . M2 =0.48=5.12× W2×1000/75×256
W2 =mass of solute =1.8 g
Q. A 10% solution (by Mass) of Sucrose in water has freezing point of 269.15 k.
Calculate freezing point of 10% glucose in water. If freezing point of pure water is
273.15 k. [ Given molar mass of sucrose = 342 g mol-1 , molar mass of glucose = 180
g mol-1]
Ans 10% of solution by mass means 10 g of sucrose dissolved in 90 g of water.
W2 =10 g W1 =90 g M2 = 342 g mol-1
Then molality m =(W2/ M2)×( W1/1000) =(10/342)/(90/1000)=0.324 mol kg-1
Tf = Tf - Tf =273.15-269.15 = 4 k
Tf = kf m = kf = Tf/m =4/0.324 [kf is constant (same) for solvent (water)
# for glucose solution :
W2 =10 g W1 =90 g M2 = 180 g mol-1[then molality m =(10/180)/(90/1000)
M=0.617 mol/kg
Tf = kf m = 4/0.324×0.617 = 7.617 k
Hence freezing point of glucose solution =273.15 – 7.617 =265.53 k
APNI KAKSHA 17
Patm p
atm
SPM
solution solvent
Example:- The osmotic pressure associated with the fluid inside the blood cell is
equivalent to that of 0.9% (m/v) NaCl solution, called normal saline solution and it is safe
to inject intravenously.
APNI KAKSHA 18
If we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (m/v) NaCl , water will flow
out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called hypertonic
If the salt concentration is less than 0.9 % (m/v) the solution is said to be hypotonic in
this case, water will flow the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.
Reverse Osmosis :-
If a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side,
then the pure solvent flows out of solution through semipermeable
membrane. This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water.
pressure>II Piston
SPM
Reverse osmosis occurs when a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution.
Important PYQ’s
Q. The molecular masses of polymers are determined by osmotic pressure method
and not by measuring other colligative properties. Give 2 reason?
Ans The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over other colligative properties
because
1. Pressure measurement is around the room temperature and the molarity of the
solution is used instead of molality.
2. Its magnitude is large as compared to other colligative properties even for very dilute
solutions.
Q. Outer hard shells of two eggs are removed. One of the egg placed in pure water
and the other egg is placed in saturated solution of NaCl. What will be observed
and Why?
Ans The egg placed in water swell because the concentration of proteins is high inside the
egg as compared to water. Therefore water diffuses through semipermeable membrane
of egg and egg swells.
APNI KAKSHA 19
The egg placed in NaCl solution will shrink due to osmosis water will move out of the egg
membrane thereby shrinking the egg.
Q. A 5% solution (by mass) of cane sugar (mw=342 g mol-1) is isotonic with 0.8774
solution of substance x. Find the molecular weight of x.
Ans W cone sugar = 5 g
Wx =0.877 g
M cane sugar = 342 g mol-1
Mx=?
Isotonic means same osmotic pressure
π cane sugar = πx
C cane sugar .RT = Cx .RT
(W cone sugar/ M cane sugar)/V =(Wx / Mx)/v
(5/342) = 0.877/ Mx
Then Mx = 59.9 g mol-1
Q. Out of 1 M glucose and 2 M glucose, which one has a higher boiling point and Why?
Ans 2M glucose has higher B.P because more the concentration, more is the elevation in
boiling point.
APNI KAKSHA 20
Number of moles of particles before association /dissociation
For example :-
1. KCl k+ + Cl- i=2
2. MgSO4 Mg2+ + SO42- i=2 for dissociation i>1
3. K2SO4 2k+ + SO42- i=3
4. CaCl2 Ca+2 + 2 Cl- i=3
5. 2C6H5COOH (C6H5COO)2 i=1/2 [for association i<1]
Dissociation:-
Let the degree fo dissociation is for Ax BY
Ax BY xAy+ + y B x-
T=0 : C 0 0
Teq : C(1-) xC yC
Total concentration at equilibrium = C(1-) + xC + yC =C [1+(n-1) ]
No. of particles after diss. of one molecule of electrolyte = n= x+4
i= C [1+(n-1) ]/C
then, i=1+(n-1)
Association:-
hA An
t=0 C 0
teq C(1-) C/n
= degree of association for dimerization n=2
i= C(1-)+C/n
C
i =1+(1/n-1)
Q. A 1 molal aq. Solution of trichloroacetic acid is heated to its B.P. the solution has
B.P 100.10 C. Determine Van’t Hoff factor for CCl3COOH. Kb (Water) = 0.512 k kg
mol-1
APNI KAKSHA 21
Ans m=1, Kb=0.512 k kg mol-1
Tb = 100.18 C
Tb = Tb - Tb =100.18 -100 =0.18C
Tb (water) =100C
Tb =iKb.m =0.18 k = i×0.512 ×1 then I = 0.35
APNI KAKSHA 22
I = M2( calculated)/ M2(experimental) = 208.34/78 = 2.67
For BaCl2 Ba+2 + 2Cl-
I =1+(n-1) d
N= 3 degree of dissociation =i-1/n-1 =2.67-1/3-1 =0.835
=83.5%
APNI KAKSHA 23