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The cases of COVID – 19 in the world are still alarming while every country is still hopeful for
the availability of vaccine that would curtail the spread of the disease caused by the virus. One
of the ways that was undertaken by everybody to avoid infection from the contagious COVID –
19 virus is the use of disinfectant and sanitizers. These chemical substances are formulated in
solution form. Even the vaccines which are about to be marketed worldwide are synthesized in
solution form.
Solutions are homogeneous mixture composed of solute and solvent in variable amounts.
When solute is mixed with a solvent, the resulting phase of the solution produced will
determine its type. The following table shows the composition of the different types of solution.
Types of Solution
Component 1 Component 2 Phase of Resulting Solution Examples
Gas Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Liquid Dissolved Oxygen in
water
Dissolved CO2 in H2O
Soda water
Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in Palladium
Liquid Liquid Liquid 70% ethyl alcohol
(ethanol in water)
Wine (ethanol in water)
Liquid Solid Liquid Saline solution (NaCl in
water)
Solid Solid Solid Alloy
Example:
Brass (Cu/Zn)
Solder (Sn/Pb)
Amalgam (Hg/Ag/Sn/Cu)
Steel (Fe/C)
Sterling silver (Ag/Cu)
Alloy is the mixture of 2 or more metals which are performed to improve the quality of metals.
There are 2 components of solutions. These are solutes and solvents. Solutes are the
substances that exist in lower amount in the solution while solvents are the constituents that
are present in larger amounts. If the solute mixes well with solvent in all proportions, it is said
that the solute is soluble to the solvent but if it is not, it is said to insoluble. If 2 liquids are
soluble with each other in all proportions, it is said to be miscible, but, if not, it is said to be
immiscible. Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given
quantity of solvent at a given temperature. The amount of solute in the solution dictates the
concentration of the solution. Concentration of solution refers to the amount of solute present
in a given amount of solvent or solution. There are different types of solutions based on
solubility of the solution. These are:
a. Unsaturated solution – contains solute lesser that the maximum amount that the
solution can hold at a given temperature.
b. Saturated solution – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be held by the
solution at a given temperature. A dynamic equilibrium is achieved on this type of
solution.
c. Supersaturated solution – contains more solute than what the solution can normally
hold at a given temperature. On this type of solution, crystals of solute can be seen in
the solution and remains undissolved even stirring is done continuously with the
solution.
However, the concentration of the solution can also be described as:
a. Concentrated – contains relatively large amount of dissolved solute. For acids, its
concentration is said to be concentrated if fumes are observed to be coming out of its
bottle when opened.
b. Dilute – contains relatively small amounts of solute. Diluting the concentration of a
solution can be achieved by adding a certain volume of water in a process known as
dilution.
B. Percent by volume is the ratio of the volume of a solute to the volume of the solution,
multiplied by 100 percent:
volume of solute
Percent by volume = x 100%
volume of solution
v volume of solute
or % = x 100%
v volume of solution
Example:
v
1. What is the % of a solution formed from mixing 25 mL of ethanol and 125 mL of
v
distilled water? What is the proof number of resulting solution?
Given: v C2H5OH = 25 mL v H2O = 125 mL v solution = 150 mL
v 25 mL
% = x 100%
v 150 mL
v
a. % = 16.67 %
v
v
b. Proof = 2(% )
v
= 2(16.67)
Proof = 33.34
Alcohol proof is a measure of the content of ethanol in an alcoholic beverage. Proof” is straight
up two times alcohol by volume. So, a vodka, say, that is 40 percent alcohol by volume (ABV)
is 80 proof and one that is 45 percent ABV is 90 proof. A “proof spirit” is 100 proof (50
percent ABV) or higher.
C. Percent by density is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the volume of the solution,
multiplied by 100 percent:
mass of solute
Percent by density = x 100%
volume of solution
m mass of solute
or % = x 100%
v volume of solution
m
Example: What is the % of the solution resulting from dissolving 25 grams of CaCO3 in 150
v
mL of acetic acid?
Given: mass solute = 25 g mass solution = 175 mL
m 25 g
% = x 100%
v 175 mL
m
% = 14.29%
v
D. Pats per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) are frequently used for expressing
the concentrations of trace amounts of impurities in air or water. Thus, you might
express the maximum allowable concentration of lead in drinking water as 15 ppb, or
about 1 g per 67,000 L.
mass of component
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
total mass of solution
mass of component
ppb = x 1.0 x 10 9
total mass of solution
Example:
1. What is the concentration in ppm of a solution that has a concentration of 1.25 g/L?
Note: Conversion factor is 1 ppm = 1 mg/L
g 1,000 mg 1,250 mg mg
1.25 x = = 1,250 or
L 1g L L
= 1,250 ppm
2. A solution has a concentration of 3.75 mg/mL. What is this concentration in ppm?
Conversion factor is 1 ppm = 1 mg/L
mg 1, ooo mL mg
3.75 x = 3,750 or
mL 1L L
= 3,750 ppm
3. The maximum allowable concentration of Pb in drinking water is 1 g per 67,000 L. What
is the concentration in ppm?
mass of component
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
total mass of solution
1g 1,000 mg
= x x 1.0 x 10 6
67,000 L 1g
mg
= 14,925.53 = 14,925.53 ppm
L
4. What is the concentration in ppm of a solution that contains 0.0025 g of NaOH in 825
mL of H2O?
0.0025 g
ppm = x 1.0 x 10 6
0.0025 g +825 mL
0.0025 g
= x 1.0 x 10 6
825.0025 mL
g 1,000 mg 1,000 mL mg
= 3.0303 x x = 3.0303 x 10 6 or
mL 1g 1L L
= 3.0303 x 10 6 ppm
5. How much chlorine should be added to a 6,000 gallon pool in order to obtain 2.4 ppm of
chlorine?
2.4 gallon Cl x gallonCl
6 =
1.0 x 10 gallon sol' n 6,000 gallon solution
( x gallon Cl ) ( 1.0 x 10 6 gallon so l ' n )=(2.4 gallon Cl)(6,000 gallon sol ' n)
(2.4 gallon Cl)(6,000 gallon sol ' n)
x=
1.0 x 106 gallon so l' n
x = 0.0144 gallon Cl
Moles of component
Mole fraction (X) = or
Total moles making up the solution
mole of solute mole of solute
= = or
mole of solute+ mole of solvent mole solution
n solute
=
n solution
Note: 1. Mole fraction is ALWAYS unitless or dimensionless.
2. Xsolute + Xsolvent is always equal to 1.
Example:
1. What is the mole fraction of solute and solvent in a solution that contains 23 grams of
glucose, C6H12O6, in 150 g of water, H2O?
Given: mass C6H12O6 = 23 g m H2O = 150 g
formula mass C6H12O6 = 180 g/mol formula mass H2O = 18 g/mol
2. What is the mole fraction (X) of solute and solvent in a solution labelled as 12% KNO 3
solution?
Note: 12 % KNO3 sol’n contains 12 g KNO3 (solute) and 88 g H2O (solvent)
mass 12 g
n KNO3 = = = 0.1188 mol
formula mass 101 g /mol
mass 88 g
n H2O = = = 4.8889 mol
formula mass 18 g /mol
n solute 0.1188 mol 0.1189 mol
X KNO3 = = = = 0.0237
n solute +n solvent 0.1188 mol+ 4.8889 mol 5.0078 mol
n solute 4.8889 mol 4.8889 mol
X H2O = = = = 0.9763
n solute +n solvent 0.1188 mol+ 4.8889 mol 5.0078 mol
F. Molarity
G. y (M) –number of moles of solute per liter of solution. This the most common way of
expressing concentration in a chemistry laboratory.
mole of solute n solute
M= =
1 L of solution L solution
mol mmol
Units of Molarity = or
L mL
Example:
1. What is the molar concentration of a solution that contains 34 g of AgNO 3 dissolved in
350 mL of water?
Given: m AgNO3 = 34 g
Formula mass AGNO3 = 170 g/mol
V solution = 34 g + 350 mL = 384 mL = 0.384 L
34 g
N AgNO3 = = 0.2 mol
170 g /mol
n solute 0.2 mol mol
M= = = 0.5208 or 0.5208 molar
L solution 0.384 L L
mass
formula mass
M=
V solution
x
(M) (V soln) =
formula mass
6. The density of a 25.0 % by mass solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water is 1.1783
g/mL at 25.0 °C. What is the molarity of the solution?
Note: 25 % H2SO4 sol’n contains 25 g H2SO4 in 100 g sol’n
Given: m H2SO4 = 25 g
fm H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
Density sol’n 1.1783 g/mL
a. Compute n H2SO4
mass 25 g
=
n = formula mass g = 0.2551 mol
98
mol
2. Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of H2SO4 in 198 g of
mol
water. (Answer: m = 1.26 or 1.26 m)
kg
3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol (CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is
the molality of the solution?
Given: M = 2.45 M
n CH3OH = 2.45 mol
fm CH3OH = 32 g/mol
V sol’n = 1L = 1,000 mL = 1,000 g
density sol’n = 0.976 g/mL
a. Compute for mass of solute
mass
From n =
formula mass
Therefore: m = (n)( fm)
= (2.45 mol)(32 g/mol)
= 78.4 g
b. Compute for mass solution
mass sol ' n
From d =
Volume sol ' n
Therefore: m = (d sol’n)(V sol’n)
g
= (0.976 )(1,000 mL)
mL
m = 976 g solution
c. Compute for mass solvent
Mass solution = mass solute + mass solvent
Therefore: m solvent = m sol’n – mass solute
= 976 g – 78.4 g
1 kg
= 897.6 g x = 0.8976 kg
1,000 g
d. Compute for molality
n solute 2.45 mol mol
n= = = 2.7295 or 2.7295 molal or 2.7295 m
kg solvent 0.8976 kg kg
4. Calculate the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927
g/mL. (Answ
5.
mol
6. er: m = 8.9134 or 8.9134 m)
kg
I. Normality (N) – the number of equivalence of solute per liter of solution. For an acid–
base reaction, the equivalent is the mass of acid or base that can furnish or accept
exactly 1 mole of protons (H+ ions).
¿ of equivalence of slute ¿ of eq
N= =
1 L solution L solution
mss of solute mass
# of equivalence = =
equivalent weight eq . wt
formula mass fm
eq. wt = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿
¿ of replaceable H ¿ ¿ of replaceable H ¿
Determination of Replaceable H+
Note: For acid, the subscript of H in the formula of the acid compound gives the number
of replaceable H+ ion.
Example:
1. For H2SO4, the subscript of H in H2SO4 is 2. Therefore, the number of replaceable H+ ion
= 2.
Note: For base, the subscript of OH in the formula of the basic compound gives the
number of replaceable OH- ion.
Example:
1. NaOH has number of replaceable OH- ion = 1
2. Ba(OH)2 has number of replaceable OH- ion = 2
3. Al(OH)3 has number of replaceable OH- ion = 3
Note: For salt, the product of the ionic charges of the salt gives the number of
replaceable ions in the salt compound.
Example:
1. For AlCl3, the number of replaceable ions = 3
AlCl3 → Al3+ + 3Cl- The charge of Al is 3+ and Cl is -1. Therefore, 3 x1 = 3.
Example:
1. What is the equivalent weight of the following compounds?
a. AlCl3
b. AgNO3
c. Na2SO4
d. Fe2O3
e. Zn3(PO4)2
Solution:
a. Equivalent weight of AlCl3
Formula mass of AlCl3
Al = 1 x 27 g/mol = 27 g/mol
Cl = 3 x 35.5 g/mol = 106.5 g/mol
= 133.5 g/mol - formula mass
fm 133.5 g /mol g
eq. wt. = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = = 44.5
¿ of replaceable H ¿ 3 eq /mol ¿
c. Na2SO4
Na = 2 x 23 g/mol = 46 g/mol
S = 1 x 32 g/mol = 32 g/mol
O = 4 x 16 g/mol = 64 g/mol
= 142 g/mol - formula mass
142 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 71
2 eq /mol ¿
d. Fe2O3
Fe = 2 x 56 g/mol = 112 g/mol
O = 3 x 16 g/mol = 48 g/mol
= 160 g/mol – formula mass
160 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 26.67
6 eq /mol ¿
e. Zn3(PO4)2
Zn = 3 x 65 g/mol = 195 g/mol
P = 2 x 31 g/mol = 62 g/mol
O = 4 x 2 x 16 g/mol = 128 g/mol
= 385 g/mol
385 g /mol g
eq. wt. = = 64.17
6 eq /mol ¿
Example:
1. What is the number of equivalence in 84 g of AlCl3?
84 g
mss of solute mass
eq = = = g = 1.89 eq.
equivalent weight eq . wt 44.5
eq
2. What is the number of equivalence in 48 g of AgNO3 ?
48 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.28 eq.
eq . wt 170
eq
3. What is the number of equivalence in 100 g of Na2SO4?
100 g
mass
eq = = = g = 1.41 eq.
eq . wt 71
eq
4. What is the number of equivalence in 125 g of Fe2O3?
125 g
mass
eq = = = g = 4.69 eq.
eq . wt 26.67
eq
5. What is the number of equivalence in 55 g of Zn3(PO4)2?
55 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.86 eq.
eq . wt 64.17
eq
2. The density of a 25.0 % by mass solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in water is 1.1783
g/mL at 25.0 °C. What is the normality of the solution?
Note: 25 % H2SO4 sol’n contains 25 g H2SO4 in 100 g sol’n
Given: m H2SO4 = 25 g
Mass sol’n = 100 g
fm H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
Density sol’n 1.1783 g/mL
a. Determine V solution
mass
From the D =
Volume
mass 100 g 1L
V= = = 84.87 mL x = 0.08487 L
Density 1.1783 g /mL 1,000 mL
b. Determine eq. wt.
fm 98 g /mol g
eq. wt. = −¿
+¿∨OH ¿ = = 49
¿ of replaceable H ¿ 2 eq /mol ¿
d. Determine # of eq.
25 g
mass
eq = = = g = 0.51 eq.
eq . wt 49
eq
e. Solve for Normality
¿ of equivalence of solute 0.51 eq eq
N= = = 6.01 or 6.01 N
L solution 0.08487 L L
Example:
1. A solution is produced from mixing 74 g of Al 2(SO4)3 with enough water forming 1.25 L
solution. What is the molar and normal concentrations of the solution?
Given: m Al2(SO4)3 = 74 g
fm Al2(SO4)3 = 2(27) + 3(32) + 12(16)
= 342 g/mol
V sol’n = 1.25 L
a. Determine Molarity
mass 74 g
mol
M = formulamass = 342 g/mol = 0.1731 or 0.1731 M
L
V solution 1.25 L
b. Determine Normality
mass 74 g
¿
¿ of equivalence of solute fm 342 g /mol
N = = N = −¿
+¿∨OH = = =
L solution ¿ of replaceable H 6 eq/mol
¿
L solution 1.25 L
eq
( 74 g ) (6 )
mol eq
= 1.04
342 g /mol L
1.25 L
= 1.04 N
Relationship:
N = xM where x stands for the number of replaceable H +, OH-
Example:
1. If the concentration of Al2(SO4)3 solution is 0.1731 M, its normal concentration is
1.04 N. Its normal concentration is 6 times its molar concentration.
2. 2.0 M Ba(OH)2 solution = ____ N Ba(OH)2
N = xM x = 2 in Ba(OH)2 because the number of replaceable OH- ion is 2.
= 2(2)
N =4
3. 1 M HCl = 1 N HCl
4.
https://www.ausetute.com.au/partspm.html
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/Math/ppm.htm
https://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-calculating-parts-per-million-ppm.html