CALCULATIONS USED

IN ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY

PREPARED BY: JRP, RMT

 Units of Concentration

• Percent volume
% volume(v/v) = volume solute (ml) x
100
volume solution (ml)

• Percent weight
% weight (w/w) = weight solute (g) x
weight solution (g)
100 Solution =
• Percent weight/volume
weight solute (g)
solvent +
% weight/volume (w/v) = x
volume solution (ml) 100 solute
 Example
1:

What is the percent by volume concentration of

a solution in which 75.0 ml of ethanol is diluted
to a volume of 250.0 ml?
% volume(v/v) = volume solute x
(ml) 100
volume solution (ml)

% volume(v/v) = 75.0 ml x = 30 % (v/v)

100
250 ml
 Example
2:

Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl

is dissolved in 331 grams of water.
% weight (w/w) = weight solute (g) x
weight solution (g) 100
% weight (w/w) = 41 g x 100 = 12.39 %
(w/w)
331 g
 Example
3
• What is the % w/v of a solution that has 7.5 g of sodium chloride diluted
to 100 mL with deionized water?
% weight/volume (w/v) = weight solute (g) x
100 volume solution
(ml)

%(w/v) = 7.5 g x 100 7.5 % (w/v)

100 =
mL
Kindly
answer!
• 1. What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of 300 mL of
aqueous sodium chloride solution containing 8 g NaCl?
• 2. 7.5 g BaCl2 is dissolved in 120 g of water.
The density of the solution is 1.09 g/mL.
Calculate the weight/volume percentage concentration of the solution.
• 3. 200 L of aqueous sodium hydroxide solution contains 2.5 kg NaOH.
What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of this solution in g/100 mL?
4. A student must add 1.22 g of sodium chloride to a reaction vessel.
The student is provided with an 11.78 g/100 mL (%) aqueous sodium
chloride solution.
What volume of this solution must be added to the reaction vessel?

• 5. A saline solution with a mass of 425 g has 45.0 g of NaCl dissolved in it. What
is the mass/mass percent concentration of the solution?
• 6. If you need to make 3020.0 g of a 8.00% solution of sodium chloride, the mass of solute
needs to be determined.
• 7. A dextrose (also called D-glucose, C6H12O6) solution with a mass of 3.00 × 102 g has 20.2 g
of dextrose dissolved in it. What is the mass/mass percent concentration of the solution?

• 8. What is the amount (in g) of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) needed to make a 5.50 kg, 4.60 %
(by mass) H2O2 solution?
• 9. What is the % v/v of a solution that has 25 mL of hydrochloric acid (HCl) diluted to 200
mL with deionized water?
• 10. A solution is prepared by dissolving 65 mL of hydrogen peroxide in enough water to make
2250 mL of solution. Identify the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide solution.
1. What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of
300 mL of aqueous sodium chloride solution containing 8 g
NaCl?

% weight/volume (w/v) = weight solute (g) x

100 volume solution (ml)

% weight/volume (w/v) = 8 g x
300 100
ml% (w/v)
= 2.67
 •Identify the solute and
solvent: solute = barium
chloride = BaCl2 solvent =
water = H2O
• Calculate the volume of the solution:
density = mass(solution) ÷
mass(solution) = mass(solute) + mass(solvent)
volume(solution)
mass(solution) = 7.5 g BaCl2 + 120 g water = 127.5 g
2. 7.5 g BaCl2 is dissolved in 120 g of
water.
The density of the solution is 1.09 volume solution = mass ÷ density
g/mL. volume solution = 127.5 g ÷ 1.09 g/mL = 116.97 mL
Calculate the weight/volume • Calculate
mass solute (BaCl2) = 7.5 g
percentage concentration of the solution.
volume solution = 116.97
mL

2. % (w/v) = 7.5 x
g 116.97 ml100
= 6.41 % (w/v)
3. 200 L of aqueous sodium hydroxide solution contains 2.5
kg NaOH.
What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of
this solution in g/100 mL?

• Convert the units (mass to grams, volume to mL)

• mass solute (NaOH) = 2.5 kg = 2.5 kg × 1000 g/kg = 2500

g volume solution = 200 L = 200L × 1000 mL/L =
200,000mL

% (w/v) = 2500 g x 100

200,000 ml
= 1.25 % (w/v)
4. Extract the data from the question:
mass of solute required = mass(NaCl) = 1.22 g
concentration of NaCl(aq) provided = w/v (%) = 11.78 g/100 mL
volume of solution needed = ? mL

volume of solution mass of solute (g)

= × 100
(mL) w/v (%)

1.22 g
= × 100
11.78 w/v (%)

= 10.36 mL
5. A saline solution with a mass of 425 g has
45.0 g of NaCl dissolved in it. What is the
mass/mass percent concentration of the
solution?

% weight (w/w) = 45.0 g x 100 = 10.59 %

(w/w)
425g
6. If you need to make 3020.0 g of a 8.00% solution of
sodium chloride, the mass of solute needs to be determined.

gNaCl = 3,020.0g NaClsolution × 8.00g NaCl

100ml
NaClsolution
=241.6 g NaCl
7. A dextrose (also called D-glucose, C6H12O6) solution with a
mass of 3.00 × 102 g has 20.2 g ofdextrose dissolved in it.
What is
the mass/mass
% weight (w/w) percent
= 20.2 gconcentration
x 100 = of
6.73 the
% solution?
(w/w)
300 g
8. What is the amount (in g) of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) needed to make a 5.50 kg, 4.60 % (by mass)
H2O2 solution?

• g H2O2 = 5,500.0g H2O2 solution × 4.60 g H2O2

100 ml H O
2 2 solution

= 253 g H2O2
9. What is the % v/v of a solution that has 25 mL of hydrochloric acid (HCl) diluted to 200 mL
with deionized water?

% volume(v/v) = volume solute (ml) x

100
volume solution (ml)

% volume(v/v) = 25.0 ml x = 12.5 %

100 (v/v)
200
ml
10. A solution is prepared by dissolving 65 mL of hydrogen peroxide in
enough water to make 2250 mL of solution. Identify the concentration of
the hydrogen peroxide solution.

% volume(v/v) = volume solute (ml) x

volume solution (ml) 100

% volume(v/v) = 65 ml x 100 = 2.89 %

(v/v)
2250 ml
 Accuracy and
Precision
• In chemistry, the meanings of accuracy and precision are quite
different.

• Accuracy is a measure of how close a measurement comes to the

actual or true value of whatever is measured.

• Precision is a measure of how close a series of measurements are to

one another, irrespective of the actual value.
❖ To evaluate the accuracy of a measurement, the measured value must
be compared to the correct value.

❖ To evaluate the precision of a measurement, you must compare

the values of two or more repeated measurements.
 ❖ To evaluate the accuracy of a measurement, the
measured value must be compared to the
correct value.
❖ To evaluate the precision of a measurement, you
must compare the values of two or more
repeated
measurements.

Good Poor Poor

Accuracy, Accuracy, Accuracy,
Good Precision Good Precision Poor Precision
The closeness of a dart to the bull’s-eye corresponds to the
degree of accuracy. The closeness of several darts to one
another corresponds to the degree of precision.
ACIDS AND
BASES
 Some
Definitions
• Arrhenius
• Acid: Substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of
hydrogen ions.
• Base: Substance that, when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of
hydroxide ions.
A Brønsted–Lowry
acid… …must have a removable (acidic) proton.

A Brønsted–Lowry base…
…must have a pair of nonbonding
electrons.
 ACID-BASE
INDICATORS
• Marks the end point ofa titration by changing color.
• The equivalence point is not necessarily the same as the
end point (but they are ideally as close as possible).

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights 28

The Acid and
Base
Forms of the
Indicator
Phenolphthalei
n

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights 29

The Methyl Orange Indicator is Yellow
in Basic Solution and Red in Acidic
Solution

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights 30

Useful pH Ranges for Several
Common Indicators

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights 31

What Happens When an Acid Dissolves in
Water? • Water acts as a
Brønsted–Lowry base
and abstracts a proton
(H+) from the acid.
• As a result, the conjugate
base of the acid and a
hydronium ion are
formed.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 1 Identifying Conjugate Acids and
Bases
(a) What is the conjugate base of each of the
+ –
following acids: HClO4, H2S, PH4 , HCO3
?

(b)What is the conjugate acid of each of the

following bases: CN–, SO 2–, H O, HCO – ?
4 2 3
Solution
Analyze: We are asked to give the conjugate base for each of a series of species
and to give the conjugate acid for each of another series of species.
Plan: The conjugate base of a substance is simply the parent substance minus one
proton, and the conjugate acid of a substance is the parent substance plus one
proton. Solve:
+ –
(a) HClO4less
4
one proton (H ) is ClO .
– 2–
The other conjugate bases are HS , PH3, and3 CO .

(b) CN– plus one proton (H+) is HCN.

The other conjugate acids are HSO –, H O+, and H CO .
4 3 2 3

Notice that the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3–) is amphiprotic:

It can act as either an acid or a base.
 Autoionization of
Water
• As we have seen, water is amphoteric.
• In pure water, a few molecules act as bases and a few act as
acids.
+−
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + OH (aq)

• This is referred to as
autoionization.
 Ion-Product Constant

• The equilibrium expression for this process is

Kc = [H3O+] [OH−]
• This special equilibrium constant is referred to as the ion-product
constant for water, Kw.
• At 25°C, Kw = 1.0 × 10−14
SAMPLE EXERCISE 2 Calculating [H+] for Pure
Water

Calculate the values of [H+] and [OH–] in a neutral solution

at 25°C.
Solution
Analyze: We are asked to determine the concentrations of
hydronium and hydroxide ions in a neutral solution at 25°C.
Plan: We will use Equation 16.16 and the fact that, by
definition, [H+] = [OH–] in a neutral solution.
Solve: We will represent the concentration of [H+] and [OH–] in
neutral solution with x. This gives

In an acid solution [H+] is greater than 1.0 × 10–7 M

; in a basic solution [H+] is less than 1.0 × 0–7 M.
 SAMPLE EXERCISE 3 Calculating [H+] from [OH–]

• Calculate the concentration of H+ (aq) in

(a) a solution in which [OH–] is 0.010 M,
(b) a solution in which [OH–] is 1.8 × 10–9 M. Note:
In this problem and all that follow, we assume, unless stated otherwise,
that the temperature is 25°C.
Solve: A: This solution is basic because

Solve: B:

This solution is acidic because

 pH
pH is defined as the negative base-10 logarithm of the hydronium
ion concentration.

pH = −log [H3O+]
pH
• Therefore, in pure water,
pH = −log (1.0 × 10−7) = 7.00
• An acid has a higher [H3O+] than pure water, so
its pH is <7
• A base has a lower [H3O+] than pure water, so
its pH is >7.
pH

These are
the pH
values for
several
common
substances.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 4 Calculating [H+] from
pH
A sample of freshly pressed apple juice has a pH of 3.76. Calculate [H+].

Solution
Analyze: We need to calculate [H+] from pH.
Plan: We will use Equation 16.17, pH = –log [H+], for
the calculation.
Solve: From Equation 16.17, we have

Thus,

To find [H+], we need to determine the antilog of –3.76. Scientific calculators have an antilog function
(sometimes labeled INV log or 10x) that allows us to perform the calculation:

To find [H+], we need to determine the antilog of –3.76. Scientific calculators have an antilog function
(sometimes labeled INV log or 10x) that allows us to perform the calculation:
SAMPLE EXERCISE 5 Calculating the pH of a Strong
Acid

What is the pH of a 0.040 M solution of HClO4?

Solutio
nAnalyze and Plan: We are asked to calculate the pH of a 0.040 M solution
of HClO4. Because
4
HClO is a strong acid, it is completely ionized, giving
[H+] =–] = 0.040 M. Because [H+] lies between benchmarks 1 × 10–2 and 1
[ClO
10–1, 4we estimate that the pH will be between 2.0 and
×
1.0.
Solve: The pH of the solution is given by

pH = –log(0.040) = 1.40.

Check: Our calculated pH falls within the estimated

range.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 6 Calculating the pH of a Strong
Base

What is the pH of
(a) 0.028 M solution of NaOH,
(b) 0.0011 M solution of Ca(OH)2?
Solution
Analyze: We’re asked to calculate the pH of two
solutions, given the concentration of strong base for each.
Plan: We can calculate each pH by two equivalent
methods. First, we could use Equation 16.16 to calculate
[H+] and then use Equation 16.17 to calculate the pH.
Alternatively, we could use [OH–] to calculate pOH and
then use Equation 16.20 to calculate the pH.
Solve: (a) NaOH dissociates in water to give one OH– ion per formula unit. Therefore, the
OH– concentration for the solution in (a) equals the stated concentration of NaOH, namely
0.028 M.

(b) Ca(OH)2 is a strong base that dissociates in water to give two OH– ions per formula unit. Thus,
the concentration of OH–(aq) for the solution in part (b) is 2 × (0.0011M) = 0.0022 M.
Gracia
s!