420 C H A P T E R 1 5 • W E AT H E R I N G A N D M A S S W A S T I N G

The specific type of clay mineral produced by hydrolysis depends Low-latitude regions with humid climates consequently experi-
on the composition of the preexisting mineral and other sub- ence the most intense chemical weathering. In the tropical rainfor-
stances that may be present and active in the water. Because water est, savanna, and monsoon climates, chemical weathering is more
is the weathering agent, hydrolysis is not limited to rocks that are significant than physical weathering, soils are deep, and landforms
exposed at the surface, but can occur in the subsurface through appear rounded. Although chemical weathering is somewhat less
the action of soil and groundwater; in tropical humid climates, it extreme in the mid-latitude humid climates, its influence is appar-
can decay rock to a depth of 30 meters (100 ft) or more. ent in the moderate soil depth and rounded forms of most land-
The chemical weathering process of hydrolysis differs from the scapes in those regions. In contrast, the landforms and rocks of both
physical weathering process of hydration, in which water molecules arid and cold regions, where physical weathering dominates, tend
join and leave a substance, causing it to swell and shrink without to be sharper, angular, and jagged, but this depends to some extent
changing its inherent chemical formula. Both weathering processes, on rock type, and rounded features may remain in an arid land-
however, may involve clay minerals because those clay-sized sub- scape as relicts from prehistoric times when the climate was wetter
stances are often the product of hydrolysis, and many clay minerals ( ● Fig. 15.17). Comparatively low rates of chemical weathering
swell and shrink substantially during hydration and dehydration. are reflected in the thin (or absent) soils found in arid, subarc-
tic, and polar climatic regimes. We have already noted the role of
daily temperature ranges in weathering processes, including ther-
mal expansion and contraction weathering in arid climates and
Variability in Weathering freeze–thaw weathering in areas with cold winters.
How and why types and rates of weathering vary, at both the Air pollution that contributes to the acidity of atmospheric
regional and local spatial scales, are of particular interest to physi- moisture accelerates weathering rates. Extensive damage has
cal geographers. In addition to climate, the type
of rock (lithology) and the nature and amount ● FIGURE 15.16
of fractures or other weaknesses in it are major This diagram of weathering regions summarizes the relationships between climate and weath-
influences on the effectiveness of the various ering processes. Physical weathering is most active where temperature and rainfall are both
rock weathering processes. How specific rocks low. Chemical weathering is most active in regions of high temperature and rainfall. Most world
weather in different natural settings is impor- regions experience a combination of both physical and chemical weathering.
tant for explaining the amount and formation In which weathering region would we find a site that has an annual mean temperature
of regolith, soil, and relief, but it also impacts of 5°C (41°F) and an annual rainfall of 100 centimeters (40 in.)?
the cultural environment because weathering THEORETICAL WEATHERING REGIONS
affects building stone as well as rock in its nat- Annual rainfall (in.)
ural setting. 80 60 40 20

l
Climate Moderate physical ica
ys
g ph
ron 14
In almost all environments, physical and chemical –10 St al
ic
weathering processes operate together, but usu- ys
ph
ally one of these categories dominates. Although te l
d era ica
water plays a role in all but two of the physical Mo ys
Outside normal ph
weathering processes, it is essential for all types ht
ig
Mean annual temperature (°C)

Mean annual temperature (°F)

climatic range
Sl
of chemical weathering. Also, chemical weath- 0 32
ering increases as more water, comes in contact Moderate chemical
with rocks. Chemical weathering, then, is par- and physical frost action
ticularly effective and rapid in humid climates
( ● Fig. 15.16). Most arid regions have enough
moisture to allow some chemical weathering, 10 50
Almost
but it is much more restricted than in humid
no chemical
climates. Arid regions typically receive sufficient or
moisture for physical weathering by salt crys- physical
tal growth and the hydration of salts. Abundant Moderate chemical weathering
20 Strong chemical 68
salts, high humidity, and contact with seawater
make salt weathering processes very effective in
marine coastal locations.
The other principal climatic variable,
temperature, also influences dominant types
and rates of weather ing. Most chemical 200 150 100 50
reactions proceed faster at higher temperatures. Annual rainfall (cm)

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 V A R I A B I L I T Y I N W E AT H E R I N G 421

diverse rock types undergo differen-

tial weathering and erosion; easily
eroded rocks exhibit more extensive ef-
fects of weathering and erosion than the
resistant rocks.
A rock that is strong under certain
environmental conditions may be eas-
ily weathered and eroded in a differ-
ent environmental setting. Rocks that
are resistant in a climate dominated
by chemical weathering may be weak
where physical weathering processes
dominate, and vice versa. Quartzite is
a good example. It is chemically nearly
(a) inert and harder than steel, but it is
brittle and can be fractured by physi-
cal weathering. Shale is chemically in-
ert but mechanically weak. In humid
regions, limestone is highly susceptible
to carbonation and solution, but under
arid conditions, limestone is much more
resistant. Granitic outcrops in an arid or
semiarid region resist weathering. How-
ever, the minerals in granite are suscepti-
ble to alteration by oxidation, hydration,
and hydrolysis, particularly in regions
with warm, humid conditions. Accord-
ingly, granitic areas are often covered by
a deeply weathered regolith when they
have been exposed to a tropical humid
environment.
(b)

● FIGURE 15.17
(a) Due to the dominance of slow physical weathering and the sparseness of vegetation, slopes in arid Structural Weaknesses
and semiarid environments tend to be bare and angular. Slope angles reflect differences in component
rock resistance to weathering and erosion. (b) Because humid region hillsides are affected by the more In addition to rock type, the relative
rapid chemical weathering processes and regolith is held longer on the slope by vegetation, slopes in resistance of a rock to weathering de-
wetter climates are much more rounded with a deeper weathered mantle than arid region slopes. pends on other characteristics, such as
the presence of joints, faults, folds, and
bedding planes that make rocks suscep-
already occurred in some regions to historic cultural artifacts tible to enhanced weathering. Sandstone is only as strong as its
made of limestone and marble (metamorphosed limestone), both cement, which varies from soluble calcium carbonate to inert and
containing calcium carbonate ( ● Fig. 15.18). Because many of the resistant silica. In general, the more massive the rock, that is, the
world’s great monuments and sculptures are made of limestone or fewer the joints and bedding planes it has, the more resistant it is
marble, there is a growing concern about weathering damage to to weathering.
these treasures. The Parthenon in Greece, the Taj Mahal in India, The processes of volcanism, tectonism, and rock formation
and the Great Sphinx in Egypt are examples of structures made produce fractures in rocks that can be exploited by exogenic pro-
of rock where pollution-induced chemical solution, and related cesses, including weathering. Joints can be found in any solid rock
growth and hydration of salts, are damaging and rotting away that has been subjected to crustal stresses, and some rocks are in-
monument surfaces. tensely jointed ( ● Fig. 15.19). Joints and other fractures that com-
monly develop in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
represent zones of weakness that expose more surface area of rock,
Rock Type provide space for flow or accumulation of water, collect salts and clay
Wherever many different rock types occupy a landscape, some will minerals, and offer a foothold for plants ( ● Fig.15.20). Rock surfaces
be more resistant and others will be less resistant to the weather- along fractures tend to experience pronounced weathering. Chemi-
ing processes operating there. Because erosion removes weathered cal and physical weathering both proceed faster along any kind of
rock fragments more easily than large, intact rock masses, areas of gap, crack, or fracture than in places without such voids.

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 422 C H A P T E R 1 5 • W E AT H E R I N G A N D M A S S W A S T I N G

Because joints are sites of concentrated weathering, the spa-
tial pattern of joints strongly influences the landforms and the
appearance of the landscapes that develop. Multiple joints that
parallel each other form a joint set, and two sets, each composed
● FIGURE 15.18
These limestone tombstones have undergone extensive chemical weath-
ering, accelerated by air pollution.
What kind of chemical weathering has impacted the iron fence?
of multiple parallel joints, will cross each other at an angle
( ● Fig. 15.21). Joints divide rocks into many different configura-
tions, most commonly resembling blocks or columns, which are
often visible in the topography. Over time, preferential weather-
ing and erosion in crossing joint sets leave rock in the central area
between the fractures only slightly weathered while the rock near
the fractures acquires a more rounded appearance. This distinc-
tive, rounded weathered form, known as spheroidal weather-
ing, develops especially well on jointed crystalline rocks, such as
granite ( ● Fig. 15.22). Spheroidal weathering is a result that can
occur from the interaction of many weathering processes; it does
not refer to a specific weathering process. Once a rock becomes
rounded, weathering rates of spheroidal outcrops and boulders de-
crease because there are no more sharp, narrow corners or edges
for weathering to attack, and a sphere exposes the least amount of
surface area for a given volume of rock.

Topography Related to Differential

Weathering and Erosion
In the previous chapter, we learned that structural upfolds (anti-
clines) do not always form topographic ridges and that structural
downfolds (synclines) do not always form topographic valleys.
The reason for this stems from the resistance of the folded rock
units to the weathering and erosion processes. If resistant rocks
are found in the center of a syncline, they will eventually create
a topographic high regardless of the structural downfold. Weak
rocks, even when forming an anticline, are too easily attacked by
J. Petersen

weathering and erosion to exist in the landscape as a topographic

high for very long. Variation in rock resistance to weathering

● FIGURE 15.19
(a) Massive jointing influences the location and shape of canyons in and around Zion National Park, Utah. To
get an idea of the scale of this satellite image, note the smoke from the wildfire at upper left. (b) Farther north,
in Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah, numerous closely spaced vertical joints in sedimentary rocks are sites of
preferential weathering and erosion, leaving narrow rock spires between joints.
Robert Simmon/ARIA/NASA Earth

J. Petersen

(a) (b)

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 V A R I A B I L I T Y I N W E AT H E R I N G 423

canyon base, ancient resistant metamorphic rocks have produced

a steep-walled inner gorge. The topographic effects of differential
weathering and erosion tend to be more prominent and obvious
in landscapes of arid and semiarid climates. In these dry envi-
ronments, chemical weathering is minimal, so slopes and varying
rock units are not generally covered under a significant mantle of
soil or weathered rocks. In addition, vegetation typically does not
mask the topography in arid regions as it does in humid regions.
Another example of differential weathering and erosion
can be seen in the Appalachian Ridge and Valley region of the
eastern United States ( ● Fig. 15.24). The rock structure here

● FIGURE 15.21
Multiple cross-cutting joint sets are visible in this aerial view of part of the
Colorado Plateau.
With north at the top of this photo, what directions do the two most
apparent joint sets trend?
D. Sack

● FIGURE 15.20
Vertical joints in rocks are sites of concentrated weathering and erosion
as water preferentially accumulates in and moves along them. Higher up
D. Sack

at a narrow spot, this joint has accumulated enough soil for the cactus to
grow, while enhanced weathering and erosion lower down has notice-
ably widened the joint.
● FIGURE 15.22
exerts a strong and often highly visible influence on the Cross-jointed granite east of the Sierra Nevada in California forms this hill of spheroi-
appearance of landforms and landscapes. Given sufficient dally weathering blocks of rock.
time, rocks that are resistant to weathering and erosion
tend to stand higher than less resistant rocks. Resistant
rocks stand out in the topography as cliffs, ridges, or
mountains, while weaker rocks undergo greater weath-
ering and erosion to create gentler slopes, valleys, and
subdued hills.
An outstanding example of how differential weath-
ering and erosion can expose rock structure and enhance
its expression in the landscape is the scenery at Arizona’s
Grand Canyon ( ● Fig. 15.23). In the arid climate of
that region, limestone is resistant, as are sandstones and
conglomerates, but shale is relatively weak. Strong and
resistant rocks are necessary to maintain steep or vertical
cliffs. Thus, the stair-stepped walls of the Grand Canyon
J. Petersen

have cliffs composed of limestone, sandstone, or con-

glomerate, separated by gentler slopes of shale. At the

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 424National Park Service/Mark Lellouch C H A P T E R 1 5 • W E AT H E R I N G A N D M A S S W A S T I N G

● FIGURE 15.23
The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in Arizona is a classic example of differential weathering and erosion in
an arid climate. Weathering, mass wasting, and erosion work together to make differences in rock structure and
strength visible in the landscape. Rock layers of varying thickness and resistance result in a distinctive array of
cliffs formed by strong rocks and slopes formed by less resistant rocks.
NASA

● FIGURE 15.24
A satellite image of Pennsylvania’s Ridge and Valley section of the Appalachians clearly shows the effects of
weathering and erosion on folded rock layers of different resistance. Resistant rocks form ridges, and weaker
rocks form valleys.
Can you see how the topography of the Ridge and Valley section influences human settlement patterns?

consists of sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and limestone folded composed of resistant sandstones and conglomerates stand up to
into anticlines and synclines. These folds have been eroded 700 meters (2000 ft) above agricultural lowlands that have been
so that the edges of steeply dipping rock layers are exposed as excavated by weathering and erosion out of weaker shales and
prominent ridges. In this humid climate region, forested ridges soluble limestones.

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