07
Series 1 • Issue 2 • September 2017
Mass Movements in the Tropics
To what extent are the mass movement processes that occur
in the humid and arid tropics similar? by Kate Cowan
Mass movement is a geomorphic process by which
materials, including sand, soil, weathered and solid
rock move downslope, under the influence of gravity.
Mass movement processes are varied in their causes and
characteristics.
A variety of mass movement processes occur across the
tropics, with a number of similarities in the nature and
characteristics of mass movement events in both the
humid and arid tropics, despite the differences in climate
and vegetation cover experienced across these areas. The
extent to which the nature and characteristics of mass
movements in the humid and arid tropics are similar is a
complex issue to consider, due to the many variables which
influence the types of mass movement processes which
may come about, and the different rates, frequencies, and
scales on which they may occur.
The Tropics
The tropics can be defined as a climatic region of radiation
surplus, delimited by boundaries fluctuating between
30 and 35° north and south of the Equator. All areas at
sea level within this region experience high temperatures
throughout the year. However, there is significant variation
in the pattern and amount of rainfall. As such, the tropics
can be divided into a number of different climatic zones,
encompassing some of the wettest and driest areas on
Earth (Figure 1).
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Most of the tropics generally experience warm
temperatures throughout the year, although total annual
rainfall and distribution vary significantly. This means that,
within the tropics, there are varying degrees of aridity and
humidity. In accordance with the Köppen-Geiger climate
classification system, the tropics includes climates which
fall under a number of categories:
Arid Tropical Zones
The arid tropics includes hot desert areas (BWh),
which are generally hot, sunny, and dry all year round,
experiencing temperatures often in excess of 30ºC. Hot
deserts can be divided into hyper-arid zones, which have
a mean annual precipitation value of less than 100mm
and arid zones have an annual rainfall total of less than
250 mm. Both hyper-arid and arid areas experience
a permanent moisture budget deficit, where potential
evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. Rainfall
in desert areas can be intermittent and unreliable and
usually takes the form of short-lived moderate to intense
downpours.
Hot semi-arid areas (BSh) also exist on the fringes of hot
deserts. These areas have moisture deficits for eight months
or more per year and an average annual precipitation of
250-500 mm. Semi-arid tropical areas can be affected by
seasonal rains, including rainfall from monsoons as well
as convectional downpours. See Figures 2a & 2b on Page
2 for information on Cairo and Delhi, two cities that are
hot desert areas (BWH and BSh climates respectively).
Figure 1 Average annual rainfall variation across the tropics
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Figure 2a Hot desert climate: Cairo, Egypt
Figure 2b Hot semi-arid climate: Delhi, India
Humid tropical zones
Humid tropical zones experience inputs of rainfall from
convection, tropical storms and monsoons. Like the arid
tropics, there is much variation in rainfall volumes and
frequencies, with totals ranging from well over 3000mm
per year in the wettest humid regions, to 500mm in the
least humid. The wettest zones fall under the classification
of tropical rainforest (or Equatorial) climate (Af),
which includes areas which experience high monthly
precipitation with no less than 60mm per month (see
Figure 2c). Annual rainfall totals usually exceed 2000mm
and annual temperature range is small. Tropical monsoon
(Am) climates (see Figure 2d) have monthly temperatures
averaging above 18ºC. These areas experience wet and dry
seasons, but receive in excess of 1000mm rainfall per year.
Figure 2c Tropical rainforest climate: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Tropical wet and dry savannah
(Aw) climates also experience wet
and dry seasons but receive less than
60mm of precipitation in any month
and lower than 1000mm annually
(see Figure 2e). The temperature
range for the wet and dry savannah
climate is greater than tropical
monsoon regions.
The large-scale climatic patterns that exist within the
tropics are complicated by the existence of other climate
types, including humid-subtropical and subtropical
highland areas, resulting mainly from marine and
altitudinal influences which can alter both temperatures
and rainfall patterns on a regional scale.
Climatic patterns in the tropics are further complicated by
the incidence of tropical storms, the El Niño phenomenon,
and global warming. Many coastal areas within the humid
tropics can experience tropical cyclones, and the rains and
high winds that they bring, at certain times throughout
the year. El Niño / La Niña cycles can also bring more
extreme weather to locations throughout the tropics.
Figure 2d Tropical monsoon climate: Jakarta, Indonesia
Figure 2e Tropical wet and dry savannah climate: Lagos, Nigeria
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There can be a ‘reversal’ of typical climatic conditions for a
particular place during El Niño years and an exaggeration
of typical conditions during La Niña, during which ‘wet’
locations would experience even more rainfall than the
norm. Added to this is the impact of global warming,
which further complicates climatic patterns throughout
the tropics.
Slope Stability
Slopes are inclined surfaces in which the gradient
determined by the angle of inclination of the surfaces
from the horizontal plane (see Figure 3).
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds the
resisting force, slope failure (mass movement) occurs. The
strength and cohesion of the material on the slope as well
as the forces of internal friction within the material are
known collectively as shear strength. These forces help to
maintain the slope’s stability. A slope is said to be stable if
the shear strength of the rock and material which covers
the slope is equal to or exceeds the shear stress acting on
the slope.
Mass movements occur when the equilibrium maintaining
a slope’s stability (the potential for slopes to withstand
movement) is disturbed. A slope may become unstable,
leading to slope failure, when there is a reduction in its
shear strength, or an increase in shear stress, which is the
force trying to pull a mass downslope (see Figure 4).
Both shear strength and shear stress can be altered to
contribute towards the onset of a mass movement event.
A number of factors, both physical and human, which act
to influence the level of shear stress and/or shear strength,
can be identified in the tropics.
Figure 3 Angle of a slope
Figure 4 Shear strength and stress
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A reduction in shear strength can come from (i) changes
in pore-water pressure when slope material becomes
saturated and softened, (ii) the effects of weathering,
which may encourage disintegration and breakdown of
rocks, or (iii) the effects of burrowing animals and tree
root decay. Forces applied to slopes, which increase shear
stress, can derive from a number of sources:
●● Loading of the slope through added weight of
water, vegetation or debris.
●● The undercutting of slopes by waves and/or
rivers.
●● The creation of steeper surfaces through
previous mass movements.
●● The stress of earthquakes or trees being
moved by wind (causing roots to move surface
material).
Factors Influencing Slope Stability
Many factors contribute to a slope being either stable or
unstable, and it is usually an accumulation of interrelated
factors that lead to mass movement taking place. The
volume, intensity, and frequency of precipitation are crucial
variables in determining the nature and characteristics of
mass movements in the humid and arid tropics, although
aspects of geology, weathering, relief, vegetation cover, as
well as human influences, also play a part.
Precipitation
Water can act to both increase and decrease slope stability,
depending on the amount of water that is present/
added to slope material. Small amounts of water act to
strengthen soils because the surface tension of water aids
soil cohesion, thus increasing shear strength and causing
it to remain stable and resist erosion to a greater extent
than the material could if it was dry. This can lead to the
deduction that unconsolidated slope material in the most
arid areas within the tropics may lack cohesion due to the
severe shortage of water, thus making slopes vulnerable
to some types of mass movement events (see Page 7).
However, the presence or addition of too much water will
increase pore water pressure, reduce friction and accelerate
the erosion process. Shear strength is thus reduced and
the material becomes unstable (see Figure 5).
Figure 5 The influence of pore water on slope stability
Diagram adapted from Waugh (2002) p. 50.
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Pore-water pressure, which refers to the pressure that
water held in gaps (pores) within a rock or soil exerts on
its surroundings, is therefore a significant factor in mass
movement generation. Increasing water content on slopes
can reduce the internal cohesion of slope materials and
internal friction and hence shear strength. This results in
liquefaction of the ground taking place, causing flows to
occur.
The amount of weathered material on a slope’s surface
and the geology of the area therefore play an important
role as it will determine how much water can be stored on
the surface, or enter the rock.
Heavy, and occasionally continuous, rainfall in the
tropical rainforest zones of the humid tropics can add
weight to slope material (increasing shear stress) and
create lubrication (decreasing shear strength) on the
slope, leading to landslides. This effect would be far
less significant overall in the hot deserts of arid tropics,
although the sporadic and intense rainfall can act to
trigger water-based mass movement events, especially
when there are high levels of rapid runoff, associated
with the lack of vegetation cover and thin/absent soils in
such areas. In other zones, slope failure may occur during
or following a convectional or tropical storm which can
bring huge volumes of rainfall in a relatively short period
of time or failure may occur at the end of the rainy season
as moisture accumulates. Precipitation is therefore an
important factor in contributing to the occurrence of mass
movements.
Vegetation
The vegetation cover of an area is strongly determined
by its climate. The degree of vegetation cover and type
of vegetation covering slopes varies throughout the
tropics in relation to climate. Plentiful rainfall and warm
temperatures are conducive to high levels of vegetation
growth. In general, the wetter the climatic zone, the
denser the vegetation cover. Tropical rainforest zones have
the densest vegetation cover and hot deserts the sparsest.
Vegetation can also bind soils and maintain the moisture
balance, enhancing the shear strength of a slope, thus
resisting mass movement. The opposite is true if vegetation
is sparse, or if deforestation has taken place. Vegetation
may also add weight to slopes, increasing shear stress.
Overall, the greater coverage of vegetation in the humid
tropics may act to increase shear stress, but is more likely
to promote shear strength, thus aiding in slope stability. In
the arid tropics, an absence of vegetation can leave slopes
vulnerable to erosion and failure and also help to generate
large volumes of runoff during times of heavy rainfall.
This does not mean, however, that mass movement events
are more frequent or widespread in the arid tropics, as the
presence or lack of vegetation alone is unlikely to be a
factor in determining mass movement occurrence.
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Geological Factors
Geology is important in determining the likelihood and
type of slope failure because the strength of a rock type
and its permeability (level of ability to transmit fluids) in
terms of porosity and perviousness, will influence the
extent to which the rock will weather, and how much
water it will allow to enter, resulting in a reduction of
shear strength.
Porosity, also known as the primary permeability of a
rock, refers to the volume of pore space within a rock
and is dependent on the shape of the grains or crystals
that make up the rock and the way in which they have
been packed together. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
are largely impermeable and cannot hold water, but some
sedimentary rocks, which are made up of individual rock
particles, such as sandstone, are permeable, allowing water
to enter easily, and have a high porosity owing to their well-
rounded and sorted grains with little or no cement matrix.
Perviousness (also known as the secondary permeability
of a rock) can also develop in rocks through the presence
of faults and joints (such as limestone), increasing the
level of permeability.
The added weight of water brought about by geology
which is favourable to water accumulation, can add shear
stress to a slope. Where impermeable rock underlies soils
and/or weathered material, it is likely that surface material
will saturate more readily, exposing them to the effects
of heightened pore-water pressure described above, thus
reducing shear strength and adding shear stress. In places
across the tropics where the surface geology exhibits lines
of weakness (perviousness) or high levels of porosity, or if
permeable surface material overlies impermeable bedrock,
mass movement events may become more common.
Geology is a factor which will influence the nature and
characteristics of mass movements across both the humid
and arid tropics in quite similar ways, but the extent to
which it has an impact will depend on the interaction of
a number of variables, especially the presence or absence
of water.
Tectonic Factors
Tectonic factors relating to movements of the Earth’s
crust are also important in determining the nature and
characteristics of mass movements in the tropics. The
mountain building processes occurring at convergent
margins (collisional and destructive) can create the high
and steep relief on which slope failure is more likely to be
experienced, and such areas are found in both the humid
and arid tropics (although the high-altitude areas may
fall under a sub-category of climate within the Köppen-
Geiger classification system).
The presence of volcanic activity at destructive and
constructive margins as well as hot spots at intra-plate
locations also produces steep slopes, which are often
strewn with unconsolidated volcanic ash and lapilli which
can provides the ingredients for certain categories of mass
movements (see Page 7).
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Again, volcanoes are present in both the humid and arid
tropics and so their impact on mass movement affects all
areas, although the extent to which they have an impact
depends on a variety of interrelated factors.
Seismic activity which is associated with all plate
boundaries as well as at volcanic hot spots (although the
effects are likely to be most frequent and intense at destructive,
collisional and conservative margins) is also not unique to
any one zone within the tropics. Seismic tremors would
increase shear stress on slopes and these events often act
as the trigger for mass movement.
Relief
Geological factors, climate, and history of previous mass
movements each affect the nature of relief (the variations
in elevation/altitude and slope within a given area of the
earth’s surface) and slope profiles, which in turn influences
the likelihood of mass movements taking place. Steep
slopes are more likely to generate mass movements as the
shear stress is increased. Areas of high relief with steep
slopes may experience falls and landslides most frequently,
especially when combined with other contributing factors.
Areas of high relief occur throughout the tropics and the
influence of relief on mass movement is present throughout
the humid and arid zones, although the difference in mass
movement events experienced will also depend on other
factors. Slope surfaces where landslides have previously
occurred can produce areas of weakness where mass
movements could reoccur. As the weight of overlying
material is removed by mass movement, the remaining
material may expand as the stress of the overlying mass is
removed, reducing shear strength. This can create cracks
in the surface material, allowing more water to enter.
Figure 6a Peltier’s diagram showing variations of strength of
chemical weathering in relation to climate
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 65.
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Another scenario is that weight can be added to lower
slopes as mass movements descend from the upper
slopes in areas of high relief, adding shear stress to the
lower slope. Areas of particularly high altitude such as
the Andes and Himalayas are affected by the action of
glaciers, which too can influence the incidence of mass
movement events (see Page 7).
Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rock in situ, i.e. the rock
breaks down in the place in which it is located and the
material is not removed. It can take place to different depths,
depending on the climate and geological properties of an
area. The amount of weathered material on slopes and
the rate at which it is produced will determine the degree
to which shear strength of slope material is reduced as it
is broken down, and also the extent to which shear stress
is added to the slope by loading of surface material or the
addition of water.
Types of Weathering
Weathering is usually classified as chemical,
mechanical (or physical), and biological. Chemical
weathering involves rocks being broken down as its
constituents react chemically with air, water, or another
infiltrating solution by processes such as oxidation,
carbonation, hydrolysis, or hydration. Mechanical or
physical weathering is most commonly associated
with extremes of temperature where fluctuations in
temperature in either very hot or cold conditions can
break down rocks into smaller parts by freeze-thaw or
insolation weathering. Another form of mechanical
weathering is pressure release where rocks expand as
surface weight is removed, creating joints within the
rock, assisting in its breakdown. Biological weathering
results from organic elements – i.e. the action of
plants, animals or the process of chelation (a complex
process where humus in the soil releases agents which
change the chemical structure of the rocks) that results
in chemical or mechanical breakdown of rocks.
A number of factors affect the type of weathering that
takes place and the rate at which it takes place, as well
as the amount of weathered material which is allowed
to accumulate. Geological and climatic factors have the
most significant influence. Rock structure, including the
presence of lines of relative weakness such as joints and
bedding planes as well as a rock’s chemical composition
and grain size, which will affect the rocks primary
permeability (porosity) and its secondary permeability
(perviousness), factors which will influence the type and
rate of weathering.
Climate controls the type and rate of weathering. The
Peltier Curve (1950) for chemical weathering (cited in
Collard, 1988) shows how chemical weathering is most
effective in environments which provide both the hottest
and wettest conditions (see Figures 6a & b).
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Figure 6b Peltier’s diagram showing variations of both chemical
and physical weathering in relation to climate
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 66.
Both the humid and arid tropics experience high
temperatures throughout the year, but as total annual
rainfall differs throughout the tropics, so too will the
effectiveness of chemical weathering.
Chemical weathering is weak in hyper-arid zones,
moderate to strong in arid, strong in semi-arid, and much
more significant in the wetter, humid tropical zones
where it creates thick layers of soil and weathered rock.
Latitudinal variations in weathering depth reveal that it
is the humid tropics which will have the most intensely
weathered material of a considerable depth, as shown by
Strakhov’s model (Figure 7).
However, although weathering is not as pronounced
in the arid tropics, it is not absent. In drier regions or
colder regions, chemical weathering is not as dominant
as mechanical weathering. The arid tropics experience
high temperatures throughout the year, but the diurnal
temperature range (difference between maximum and
minimum temperature in a day) can reach as high as 25-
30°C each day. These temperature fluctuations mean that
rocks may fracture and break down through the process of
insolation weathering, a form of mechanical weathering
where repeated expansion and contraction break down
the rock. And in the colder high-altitude areas within the
tropics, frost action may take over as temperatures fluctuate
around zero, causing rock to fracture as water freezes and
thaws. Overall, the rate and extent of weathering in the
humid tropics means that mass movements, especially
involving the movements or earth and soils, are more
likely in the humid than the arid tropics, although the
movement of weathered material in the arid tropics is also
significant when combined with other contributing factors
such as steep slopes and episodes of heavy rainfall.
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Figure 7 Strakov’s model showing variation in weathering
profile and depth across latitudes
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 67.
Human Factors
Human factors can contribute both directly and indirectly
to the reduction of shear strength and addition of
shear stress to hillslopes. As populations are growing
throughout much of the tropics, and land use is extending
to increasingly marginal areas, the actions of building
on and deforesting slopes are becoming increasingly
significant factors in contributing to mass movement
taking place. Humans can increase the likelihood of mass
movement occurring through construction of buildings
and infrastructure - this may be by cutting or excavating
land, which can remove underlying support previously
given to slopes, thus reducing (shear strength), or by the
constructions adding weight and pressure to the ground
(building on slopes adds weight, increasing shear stress).
Humans may also play a part in determining vegetation
cover by cutting down and removing trees and changing
the dominant vegetation type in an area, or allowing
overgrazing to take place in an area, reducing the shear
strength of slopes. Such practices are known to have taken
place in areas throughout both the humid and arid tropics,
and the extent to which they will contribute to mass
movement events depends on many factors including the
relief and land available in any given area combined with
the rate of population growth and development.
Mass Movement
The most common classification of mass movements is
that put forward by Dunne and Leopold in 1978: falls,
slides, flows, and creep. The likelihood and frequency
of mass movements occurring, and of which type, can
sometimes depend on their particular locations, although
some types are widespread and give rise to variation in
frequency. Page 7 details the different types of mass
movements and their characteristics, and considers their
likely occurrence across the tropics.
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The Philippines
The group of islands that make up the Philippines (Figure
8) are situated between 5° and 20° north of the Equator
in Southeast Asia. They experience humid climatic
conditions in which high temperatures and rainfall are
experienced throughout the year. The islands are situated
on the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ and experience considerable
seismic and volcanic activity due to their position on an
active destructive plate margin. Earthquake events are
frequent and often of high magnitude. The country has 200
volcanoes, 17 of which are active. The subduction zone
on which the islands are located mean that the eruptions
are explosive and much ash and lapilli are scattered on
slopes. Due to their volcanic nature, the islands are mostly
mountainous, with high peaks of almost 3,000 metres
above sea level.
The Philippines is a rapidly developing lower-middle
income country with aspirations to become a Newly
Industrialised Country (NIC). The population is increasing
apace, with growth rates standing at +1.7% per annum
in 2014, and a high population density of 328 persons
per km². Many people are forced to live and work on the
steeply sloping and volcanic land, while exploitation is
putting pressure on the country’s resources. Deforestation
is rife, with clearing taking place to make way for the
growing population and to enable the development of
agri-businesses.
The country experiences a tropical monsoon climate with
heavy rainfall, added to by the country’s positioning in
the typhoon belt. Around 30% of the country’s rainfall
Figure 8 Map of major islands in the Philippines
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can be attributed to typhoons, and the islands are usually
affected by around 10 typhoons per season. Typhoon
and monsoon rains, as well as equatorial rain, lead to
flooding and subsequent landslides, made worse by the
deforestation of many hillslopes.
Given the mountainous nature of the Philippines, mass
movement events are common. The frequent mass
movement events, often with rapid onsets and large areal
extents, can be largely attributed to high total annual
rainfalls ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 mm per annum
throughout the archipelago (Figure 9).
However, slope failures in the Philippines usually result
from a combination of interrelated factors. The tectonically
active nature of the region plays an important role. The
eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 triggered lahars
when material from the pyroclastic blast combined with
heavy rains. Annual rainfall at Pinatubo ranges from
2,000 to 4,000 mm.
The eruption deposited more than 5km³ of volcanic
material on the volcano’s flanks and combined with heavy
rains that exceeded 12 mm in 30 minutes, generating rapid
runoff on the slopes. The runoff encapsulated the tephra
in its path to create rapid-onset, fast-flowing lahars. These
mass movements were not temporally confined to the
June of the eruption, but continued to remove around half
of the material, which had settled on the volcano’s slopes
over the next four rainy seasons. Pinatubo’s lahars were
capable of transporting millions of m³ of mud every day
– they can be up to 10 metres thick and 300 metres wide,
travelling at over 30 km per hour.
Guinsaugon
The weight of the volcanic material, increased by the
heavy rainfall, greatly increased the shear stress on the
slopes. The water also served to reduce shear strength,
reducing the internal resistance of the ash and lapilli to
movement. This increase in shear stress, combined with a
reduction in shear strength, led to the fast-flowing lahars
being triggered and covering a large area.
Figure 9 Climograph of Manila, Philippines
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Intense, heavy rainfall was also responsible for the
Guinsaugon mudslide that occurred in Southern Leyte
in February 2006. A 15 million m³ landslide travelled
550-600 metres from its original position, triggered by
unseasonable torrential rain (attributed to the effects of
La Niña), which amounted to 2,000 mm falling over 10
days. Related factors included geological weakening of
the rocks in the area due to tectonic forces, exacerbated
by the excessive deforestation that had taken place in the
area, where native forest had been replaced with shallow-
rooted trees, reducing the soil’s protection from the heavy
rains.
The heavy rains increased shear stress by loading the
slope, whilst the seismic activity also added stress.
Deforestation acted to reduce shear strength. Significant
slides are frequent in the Philippines, with landslide risk
said to affect up to 80% of the country. Rainfall is a key
factor, triggering moisture-driven slides and flows, whilst
both tectonic factors and deforestation, which can be
linked to population growth and the quest for economic
development, also play an important role.
The Thar Desert
The Thar Desert is an arid region in the north-western part
of the Indian subcontinent (Figure 10). The transboundary
desert is situated in both India and Pakistan, with about
85% of its area falling in India, covering an area of
around 320,000 km². The Thar, although a desert, is not
particularly arid and very little of it has less than 100mm
of mean annual rainfall (Figure 11).
Figure 10 Location of the Thar Desert
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The Aravalli Hills are situated in the north-east of the
desert, with the highest peak at just over 1700 metres.
Rajasthan in India accounts for 90% of India’s share of
the Thar. This state experiences an arid desert climate.
The area receives less than 300 mm precipitation per
annum on average.
Although large scale mass movements are uncommon in
this region, they can occur when rain is brought in to the
area by unpredictable monsoon winds in July-September.
For example, in 2012, flash floods and landslides were
generated. Arid regions such as Rajasthan are prone to
such events due to the lack of vegetation to bind the soil
and poor infiltration capacity of thin or hard-baked soils.
Nonetheless, such large scale mass movement events are
few and far between in comparison to the wet humid
tropics.
Conclusion
In returning to the original question ‘to what extent are
the mass movement processes that occur in the humid and
arid tropics similar?’ it can be deduced that the majority
of types of mass movements are experienced in both the
humid and arid tropics, as the required conditions for the
mass movements to occur may be present in both.
However, mass movement processes occur far more
frequently in the humid tropics due to the greater, more
consistent presence of rainfall. Given the plentiful rainfall
in the humid tropics, slope failure is common, especially in
tropical rainforests areas or in the wet season for tropical
monsoon and savannah regions. In the arid tropics, rain,
when it does occur, falls as irregular heavy downpours.
This means that slope failure, especially for flows, is
episodic and coincides with intense rainfall events.
Some types of mass movement are associated more closely
with specific types of areas within the tropics. Some
varieties require dry conditions, such as debris avalanches,
and are therefore largely confined to more arid regions.
Rock falls are limited to areas of high altitude in the
tropics, in both humid and arid zones.
Figure 11 Climograph of Jodhpur, Rajasthan (Thar Desert)
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Lahars require a volcanic influence so whether an area is humid or arid reduces in importance. Water-driven creep is
confined to the tropical rainforest zone where thick layers of weathered material and soils exist.
Mass movement events in the tropics are rarely the result of one single factor. Instead, they are due to the complex,
interrelated nature or cumulative effect of a number of factors. It is this complexity which means that spatial patterns
showing the variation in nature and characteristics of mass movements across the tropics are far from being clear cut.
Thus, the pattern of most types of mass movement throughout the tropics does not strictly follow the humid/arid
divides.
Besides the influence of climates, at the regional and local scale, such as the influence of factors such as geology and
relief also affect the type, nature and frequency of the the mass movements that occur.
Changes in the factors affecting mass movements and therefore the nature of the mass movements experienced may
occur temporally too, due to fluctuations in weather conditions attributed to tropical cyclone and El Niño events.

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Acknowledgements: This article was researched and written by Kate Cowan (a Teacher of Geography at King Edward VI High School
for Girls, Birmingham, UK) and published in September 2017 by Edupress Ltd in Wolverhampton, UK. GeoPress+ is a title from the
Edupress Factsheets series (ISSN: 2399-9721). No part of this article may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
other form or by any other means, without prior permission from the publisher.

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