Climate

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 Climate
This is the average weather conditions of a given place over a long period of time, usually 30 -35 years.
Factors influencing climate
a) Latitudes
On an average, temperatures decrease from the equator pole wards. This is because;
- At the equator, the rays of the sun strike vertically hence giving a high energy per unit area.
- At the poles the sun’s rays fall more obliquely on the earth’s surface hence cover a larger area
leading to less heat.
The rays also pass through a longer distance through the lower layers of the atmospheres
before it reaches the surface.
Latitudes also influence wind pattern and pressure system. Low latitude areas have low pressure
belts that attracts air masses towards them.
b) Altitudes
Altitude has profound effects on temperature, precipitation and atmospheric pressure.
- Generally, temperatures drop by 0.60c for every 100metres of ascent, hence, ‘the higher you
go the cooler it becomes.’ However, this principle only applies within the troposphere.
- Atmospheric pressure also decreases with increase in altitude. In the high altitude areas, the
air has less layers hence less weight due to rarefication.
- Precipitation increases with increases in altitude since the highlands lead to orographic
rainfall on their windward sides.
c) Distance from the sea (continentality)
Continentality mainly affects temperature, precipitation, humidity and wind.
- Other factors kept constant, both rain and temperature decrease inland.
- Places near lakes, seas and oceans experience high relative humidity due to extra moisture
supplied through evaporation. With increased humidity, such areas experience high
precipitation.
d) Configuration of the coastline – this is the shape or alignment of the coastline in relation to
the prevailing winds.
- Irregular coastlines tend to receive more rainfall because the prevailing winds blow onshore
carrying moisture.
- Straight or regular coastline result in less land coming into contact with the water. The
prevailing winds therefore blow parallel to the coast hence resulting into less rainfall.
e) Ocean currents – ocean currents have great influence on temperature and rainfall.
- Onshore winds on crossing a cold currents are cooled leading to premature condensation that
causes fog along the coast. On reaching the land, they have a drying effect which causes
aridity.
- Presence of warm ocean currents lead to warm temperatures in the adjacent land as prevailing
winds blow over them.
f) Aspect – is the general alignment of a slope in relation to the incoming solar radiation.
- Aspect has significant effect on temperature in mid latitudes. At higher latitudes, the south
facing slopes in the northern hemisphere and the north facing slopes in the southern
hemisphere are warmer than the slopes facing polar directions.
g) Air masses - Air masses influence temperature and precipitation
-
Warm airmasses bring warming effects on the regions they are blowing over while
cool airmasses bring cooling effects.
- Moisture laden airmasses cause heavy rainfall in the regions they blow over while dry
winds cause desert like conditions.
h) Human activities – climate can be greatly influenced by the human activities practiced in a
given area such as;

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 - Settlement and agricultural activities
- Development of urban centers
- Construction of dams
Classification of climate
The world’s climate can be classified into a number of regions based on various factors such as net
radiation, air temperature and precipitation. Using these physical components, three major climate
classification have been advanced. These are;
- The Thornwaite classification
- The Koppen climatic classification
- The Miller’s classification
a. The Thornwaite classification
It was derived by C. Warren Thornwaite. He introduced new concepts in classification of climate such as
precipitation effectiveness and temperature efficiency.
The system considers the soil water balance, basing on latitudes and seasons. Latitudes influence the
amount and intensity of solar radiation which in turn influences loss of water from the soil through
evapotranspiration.
b. The Koppen climatic classification
It was devised by Dr. Vladmir Koppen in 1918. The system is quantitative and the divisions between
groups and types are made on the analysis of temperature and rainfall statistics.
It is based primarily on monthly and annual means of temperature and precipitation.
c. The Miller’s classification
In this classification, temperature is used to identify the major groups while precipitation is used for sub
divisions. Temperature groups are based on vegetation zones.

Distribution and characteristics of climatic regions of Kenya

According to Millar’s classification, Kenya can be said to be experiencing a hot climate. However, its
climate shows significant modification from tropical hot climate in some instances due to variation in
altitudes, localized influences of Lake Victoria and the relatively low rainfall totals received in most
areas. The country can be grouped into seven distinctive climatic regions namely;
i. Modified Equatorial Climate of the Coast
ii. Modified Tropical Climate of the Highlands
iii. Modified Equatorial Climate of the Lake Victoria Basin.
iv. Modified Equatorial Climate of the North Western Borders.
v. Tropical Climate of the Narok and Southern Taita/ Kwale areas.
vi. Tropical Continental/ Semi-desert Climate of Eastern Kenya
vii. Desert Climate of Central Northern area

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 i. Modified Equatorial Climate of the Coast
This climatic region covers the coastal belts of Kenya extending from Vanga in the South Coast to Lamu
in the North Coast. Modification is as a result of the Indian Ocean which lowers the temperature.
Characteristics Modified Equatorial Climate of the Coast
- There’s no real dry season
- It has a double maxima rainfall regime with the first maxima in May and the second in October.
- It experiences high humidity through-out the year due to high evaporation from the Indian Ocean.
- The temperatures are high through-out the year with mean annual temperatures of about 27 0c.
- It experiences low annual range of temperatures.
- Rainfall is mainly convectional in nature.
- The hottest months are December and January.

ii. Modified Tropical Climate of the Highlands

This climate is experienced mainly in the highlands east and west of The Rift Valley. Modification is as a
result of relief with the high altitude leading to much lower temperatures than in the true tropical
continental climates.
Characteristics of Modified Tropical Climate of the Highlands
- Temperatures are much cooler than the expected tropical climate because of the high altitude.
- It has a double maxima rainfall regime.
- The region receives rainfall throught the year.
- Rainfall is mainly relief/ orographic.
- The amount of rainfall received depends on the position in relation to rain bearing winds. The
leeward slopes receive less rainfall while the wind ward slopes receive high rainfall.
- Annual rainfall totals range from 1000 to 1500mm per annum.
- The long rains are received between March and May and the short rains between September and
December.
- The average temperature ranges between 170 c and 240c.
- Mean annual range of temperature is 30 to 50 c.

iii. Modified Equatorial Climate of the Lake Victoria Basin.

It mainly covers the western part of Kenya which is under the influence of Lake Victoria. Modification
results mainly from the varied relief such as Kisii Highlands and the Nandi Hill and the influence of Lake
Victoria.
Characteristics of Modified Equatorial climate of the Lake Victoria Basin
- It receives high rainfall, totals ranging from 1000 – 1600mm due to extra moisture provided by
evaporation from Lake Victoria.
- It has double maxima rainfall regime. The first maxima in April and May and the second maxima
in November and December.
- Rainfall is mainly convectional type which falls mostly in the afternoon.
- Temperatures are moderate ranging from 200c and 260c.
- Relative humidity is high throught the year due to increased moisture supplied by evaporation
from the lake.

iv. Modified Equatorial Climate of the North Western Borders.

This covers the north western border of Kenya and Uganda. Modification is due to the cooling effect of
Karasuk, Kachalagau and Tarakwet Hills.
Characteristics of Modified Equatorial Climate of the North Western Borders
- Annual rainfall totals average to 855mm per annum.
- Temperatures are high throught the year, ranging from 220c to 350 c except in the areas around
Karasuk and Tarakwet hills.
- It receives convectional rainfall between June and September.
- Most of the months are dry, especially between November and February.
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 v. Tropical Climate of the Narok and Southern Taita/ Kwale areas.
This covers the areas around Taita Hills, Loita Hills and Shimba Hills in Taita, Kwale and Narok districts.
The hills have moderating effects on temperature and contribute to increase in precipitation.
Characteristics of Tropical Climate of the Narok and Southern Taita/ Kwale areas
- Annual rainfall ranges between 750mm to 1000mm per annum with higher rainfall in higher
altitudes.
- Rainfalls come in March to May and October to December with maxima in April and November.
- It experiences high temperatures ranging from 250c to 350c. High altitude areas experience lower
temperatures.
- Dry season is experienced between May and September due to the influence of the dry south west
trade winds.
- Humidity is low with little cloud cover.

vi. Tropical Continental/ Semi-desert Climate of Eastern Kenya

It covers much of eastern and northern Kenya including areas such as Isiolo, Moyale, Garisa, Tana River,
parts of Turkana, Mandera, Kitui and Machakos.
Characteristics of Tropical Continental/ Semi-desert Climate of Eastern Kenya
- Annual rainfall totals are less than 500mm which is highly unreliable.
- It has large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
- The skies are generally clear.
- Temperatures are high with mean between 220c and 270c
- Low humidity due to inadequate moisture.
- High altitude areas e.g. Marsabit receive high rainfall forming rainfall islands.

vii. Desert Climate of Central Northern areas

The region covers the northern central area and includes the areas of Wajir and Lodwar.
Characteristics of Desert Climate of Central Northern areas
- Annual rainfall is very low, below 250mm per annum.
- Temperatures are very high throught the year averaging to 300c.
- Night temperatures are extremely low due to lack of cloud cover.
- Humidity is low throught the year due to inadequate moisture.
- Rainfall is highly unreliable and it is characterized by sporadic rains which lead to seasonal
floods.
- Diurnal range of temperatures is very high due to cloudless skies.

Distribution and characteristics of climatic regions of the world

According to Miller’s classification, the world climatic regions can be classified into four broad climatic
belts. These are; hot climates, warm temperate climates, cool temperate climates and cold climates
a) Hot climates
These are found approximately 200N and S of the equator. The zone is most extensive in Africa and South
America where there are large land masses. Hot climates can be sub divided into the following sub types;
Equatorial climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Tropical maritime climate
Tropical continental climate
Tropical desert climate.
i. Equatorial climate – this climate is experienced in the lowland between 50 N and S of the
equator but can extend to 100 N and S in some areas.
Location
- In South America in the Amazon Basin

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 - Along the coast of West Africa.
- In Equatorial Africa
- In South East Asia.
Characteristics
 High temperatures all the year round of approximately 270 c. this is due to the direct heating of
the sun which is overhead twice a year.
 Small annual range of temperature of between 00 – 30 c due to the equal length of day and night.
 Low diurnal range of temperature of approximately 60c due to the thick cloud cover.
 High rainfall ranging from 1500mm which is well distributed throught the year.
 Double maxima rainfall regime i.e. two rainy seasons when rainfall is highest.
 Rainfall is mainly convectional and is accompanied by thunderstorms.
 High humidity due to heavy rainfall and high evapotranspiration rates.
 Low pressure all year round therefore no season.
 Major winds are South- East and North –East trade winds.

ii. Tropical monsoon climate – this climate is experienced in the tropical and temperate latitudes
that are heavily affected by seasonal land and sea winds.
Location
- South East Asia
- North Coast of Australia
- Coastal areas of Sieraleone.
Characteristics
- Annual rainfall varies constantly from 620mm to 125mm per annum depending mainly on trelief
and the angle at which the onshore winds hit the land.
- High rainfall in summer and dry winter.
- Temperatures range from 150c in the cool season to 320c in the hot season.
- It experiences moderate temperature ranges between 90c and 180c.
- High pressure on the land during winter hence wind blow offshore.
- Low pressure during summer hence winds blow onshore bringing heavy rains.
- Cloudy skies in summer and clear skies in winter.
- Seasonal reversal of winds. For one season, the winds blow from sea to land bringing heavy
rainfall to coastal region and for another season the winds blow from the land to the sea giving
little or no rainfall.

iii. Tropical maritime climate – occurs between 100 and 250 N and S of the equator on the east
coast of areas affected by the onshore south east trade winds.
Characteristics
- Experiences high rainfall especially in the hot season (summer) with an annual total range from
1000mm to 2000mm per annumn.
- It receives rainfall throught the year due to the effect of onshore trade winds.
- Rainfall is both orographic and convectional and it depends on relief and location in relation to
the onshore winds.
- It experiences high temperature averaging 290c in the hot season and cooler temperatures of about
210c in the cool season.
- It experiences high annual temperature range of about 80c.
- Humidity is high in summer but low in winter.
- Wind blow offshore in winter hence winters are dry.
- Pressure is low in summer and high in winter.
- Winters are cool.

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 iv. Tropical continental climate – occurs between latitudes 50 and 150 N and S of the equator. It
boarders areas of equatorial climate such as North West and South East of the Amazon Basin,
Senegal to Eastern Africa and to the Northern part of South Africa and the interior part of
Australia.
Characteristics
- Receives heavy rainfall mainly convectional type which falls in summer when the region
experiences low pressure.
- Rainfall is seasonal. Rainfall decreases away from the equatorial regions.
- Annual rainfall totals is approximately 765mm to 1000mm.
- It experiences high temperature of approximately 320c in summer and cool temperatures of about
210c in winter.
- Annual range of temperature is about 110c.
- It has a large diurnal ranges temperature especially in dry season.
- Higher temperatures are experienced just before the rainy seasons i.e. in April in the Northern
Hemisphere and October in the Southern Hemisphere.
- Cool months are dry because of offshore winds.
- There is high humidity in the rainy seasons and low humidity in the dry seasons.
- Prevailing winds are mainly the trade winds.

v. Tropical desert climate – occurs between 150 and 350 N and S of the equator on the western
margins of continents that are washed by cold ocean currents.
Location
Main areas include
- The Sahara Desert - The Mexican Desert - The Thar Desert of
- The Iranian Desert - The Namib Desert Asi
- The Arabian Desert - The Great Australian
- The Kalahari Desert Desert
- The Atacama Desert
Characteristics
- Rainfall is low, approximately 250mm per annum.
- The rainfall is unreliable/ sporadic.
- Mean monthly temperatures are very high in the hot season approximately 29 0c and low in the
cold seasons approximately 100c.
- There are large diurnal that can go up to 200 c in some areas.
- Temperatures at night fall below 00c and ice is formed in some areas due to rapid radiation.
- The solar radiation is intense.
- Humidity is low and the evapotranspiration rate is very high.
- The winds are warm and dry hence bring no rain.
- Flash floods and thunderstorms are common when it rains.
- Skies are always cloudless, therefore day temperatures often go over 380c.
- No real defined rainy season. In some areas, there’s no rainfall for several years.
b) Warm temperate climates
They lie in regions that are affected by the divergence of winds. For example, the trade winds blow
towards the equator as the westerlies blow towards blow towards the poles. They both have tropical and
temperate climatic characteristic during the year. Warm temperate climates are divided into three types
namely;
- Warm temperate western margin/ Mediterranean climate
- Warm temperate interior/ warm temperate continental climate
- Warm temperate eastern margin/ Humid sub- tropical/ China climate.

i. Warm temperate western margin/ Mediterranean climate –occurs between 300c – 400c N and
S of the Equator on the western part of continents.
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 Main areas
- Central Coast of California in North America
- Southern tip of Africa around Cape Town
- Around Mediterranean Sea
- Central Chile in South America
- South West and Southern Australia
Characteristics
- Temperatures range from 210c in summer to 100c or below in winter.
- Mean annual temperatures range is about 8oc.
- Summers are dry because trade winds blow offshore.
- Summers have cloudless skies and low humidity.
- Onshore westerlies blow in winter bringing cyclonic rain.
- Rainfall is moderate between 500 and 900mm depending on location and altitude.
- The western side of the climate region receives more rain but this decreases inland.
- Foggy conditions are experienced in the coastal areas that are washed by cold ocean currents.
- The climate has distinct seasons, spring, autumn, summer and winter.
- Winters are cool and wet with an average temperature of 140c.
- The climate experiences both hot and cold local winds.
- There is a low sunshine duration of high intensity during summer.

ii. Warm temperate interior/ warm temperate continental climate – is also known as steppe
climate. It occurs in the interior of continents between 300 and 500 N and S of the Equator.
Main areas
- Prairies of Canada and U.S.A.
- Pampas of Argentina in South America
- The Veld of New South Wales and Victoria in Australia.
Characteristics
- The summers are warm and short with temperatures ranging between 180c and 210c.
- Temperatures range from 20c to 60c in winter.
- Long cool winters.
- It experiences extreme temperatures due to its continentality.
- Precipitation is received all the year round with most rainfall in summer and snow fall in winter.
- Summer rainfall is caused convection and depressions
- There is moderate rainfall, with an annual mean of about 500mm. however, the amount varies
from place to place.
- Generally humidity is high in summer.

iii. Warm temperate eastern margin/ Humid sub- tropical/ China climate – occurs between 230
and 350 N and S of the equator on the eastern margins of the continents.
Main areas
- The Coastal belt around Dubai in South Africa.
- Central China
- Along the coastal regions of Australia
Characteristics
- Rainfall is moderate between 760 and 1500mm in some areas and is well distributed all year
round.
- Summers are hot at 260c whereas winters are mild at 130c.
- Trade winds are onshore causing heavy rainfall in the coastal lands and highlands.
- Convectional rainfall is common in summer.
- In winter, the trade winds are offshore resulting in very little rain.
- Typhoons or hurricanes or tornadoes are common and they lead to very heavy rainfall.
- Winter temperatures are low due to the influence of the local winds.

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 - The presence of warm ocean currents has a moderating influence in winter in coastal areas.
- The area has a moderate annual range of temperature of about 130c.
c) Cool temperate climates
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Are found between 35 and 60 N and S of the equator. They are different from the warm temperate types
because of their definite seasonal variations in temperatures. They have well defined summer and winter
seasons. Cool temperate climate is divided into three types namely;
- Cool temperate western margin
- Cool temperate continental
- Cool temperate eastern margin.

i. Cool temperate western margin

Is also referred to as cool temperate west coast, European type or British type. It is found on Western
sides of continents between latitudes 450 and 600 North and South of the equator. The main areas where
the climate is experienced are;
- North west Europe
- North west U.S.A and British Columbia in Canada.
- Tasmania in Australia and South islands of New Zealand.
- Southern Chile
Characteristics
- Warm summer between 130 and 150c and cool winters between 20 and 70c.
- Small annual range of temperature between 30c and 110c due to maritime influence.
- Rainfall is well distributed throughout the year ranging from 760mm to 2000mm.
- In the lowlands at the coasts, cyclonic rainfall occurs while in mountainous areas, relief rainfall is
dominant.
- Humidity is high in winter.
- Summer days are long and generally warm with irregular thunderstorm.
- Winds blow onshore during winter hence heavy rainfall in winter.
- Subtropical and polar air masses converge giving rise to depressions and anticyclones.
- Winters are mild, although at times temperatures fall below freezing points.

ii. Cool temperate continental

Is also referred to as Siberian type or cool temperate interior type. It extends between latitudes 35 0 and 600
North of the equator. The main areas where the climate is experienced are;
- Alaska
- Most of Canada, Eurasia, Sweden, Finland and Poland.
- Germany and across U.S.S.R up to Kamchatka Peninsula.
Characteristics
- The winter temperatures are extremely cold with some places experiencing up to -20 0c.
- Winters are long with longer nights.
- Summers are generally short and warm with maximum temperatures of about 19 0c in July.
- The annual temperature range is very high especially in the interior where the range goes up to
370 c.
- Precipitation is mainly in form of snow, which falls during winter.
- In summer, rainfall, mainly caused by convection is experienced.
- The annual precipitation ranges from 400mm to 500mm and varies from place to place.
- Relative humidity is high and the rate of evaporation is low since temperatures are extremely low.
- Rainfall decreases tremendously polewards as the air is too cold to hold moisture.

iii. Cool temperate eastern margin.

Is also known as cool temperate east coast or humid continental warm summer type. It is experienced on
the eastern margin of continents of North America and Asia between latitudes 35 0 N and 500 N of the
equator. The main areas include;

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 - The north Eastern parts of U.S.A and Southern Canada.
- In North Korea, Northern China and the eastern part of Siberia.
Characteristics
- Winters are very cold with temperatures ranging from -400 c to 00c.
- The summers are long and temperatures average to about 250c in July.
- Annual range of temperature is large and varies from between 260c and 300 c.
- Humidity is high during summer.
- There is precipitation all year round with maximum being received in summer.
- In winter, precipitation is in form of snow.
- Annual precipitation varies from 600 to 1000mm.
- Cold continental winds blow offshore in winter thus lowering the winter temperatures.
- In summer, the winds are onshore.
- Rain fall is both convectional and cyclonic.
- Typhoons are frequent in September.

d) Polar climates/ Tundra and Ice Cap (Very Cold Climates)

These climates are found above 661/2 North and South (Arctic and Antarctic Circles). The main areas
where it is found include;
- Northern parts of America from through Northern Canada to Greenland.
- Eurasia from Northern Norway, Finland, Greenland and Northern former U.S.S.R.
Antarctica.
Characteristics
- Winters are very cold and last for 8 months in a year with temperature ranging from -58 0c to 00c.
- Summers are cool and short and last for not more than 3 months in a year.
- The annual temperature range is very large sometimes going up to 730c.
- There is a permanent cover of snow and ice (permafrost).
- The area is generally dry with low annual precipitation ranging from 100mm to 250mm.
- Precipitation occurs mainly during summer.
- During the long cold winters, polar winds are dominant.
- Snow storms known as are common in this region.

e) Mountain Climates
This type of climate is best developed in great mountain ranges of the world such as;
- The Alpine Ranges of Europe.
- The Himalayas and Tibet Plateau of Asia.
- The Ethiopian Highlands.
- The East African Highlands
- Drakensberg Mountain, the Adamawa and Cameroon Ranges.
Characteristics
- Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude at the rate of about 2 0c for every 300metres of
altitude.
- Temperatures range from cool to very cold.
- Some mountains peaks are ice capped.
- Diurnal range of temperature is small.
- Pressure on the mountain top is low due to rarefaction of air.
- Rainfall is predominant in these zones.
- Rainfall is mainly relief or orographic.
- Rainfall intensity depends on aspect i.e. windward slopes receive more rainfall than lee ward
slopes.
- Local winds i.e. fohn and chinook are common in these regions.

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 f) Micro-Climate (Local Climate)
Is the climate of the immediate surrounding of some phenomena which are slightly modified or different
compared to the general climate of the region.
Areas that are likely to experience micro- climate.
Micro-climate may be climate around;
- A plant or groups of plants i.e. forested areas such as Kakamega and Mau
- Water masses i.e. dammed areas such as Aswan High Dam in Egypt.
- Industrial plants such as agro-chemical industries
- Heavily built up areas such as Nairobi, New York etc.
Aridity and desertification
Aridity – this is a state of land being deficient in moisture, leading to scanty or lack of vegetation and
deficiency in soil fertility. It is common in areas receiving less than 250mm of rainfall annually.

Desertification – this is the slow but steady encroachment of desert-like conditions onto a potentially or
formerly productive agricultural land.
Causes of aridity and desertification
1. Insufficient rainfall – aridity is common in areas receiving less than 250mm of rainfall annually.
With such low amounts of rainfall, natural vegetation cannot thrive.
2. Temperature – aridity is also caused by high temperatures which contribute to high evaporation
rates. If the evaporation rate exceeds precipitation, drought like conditions begin to develop in an
area.
3. Continentality – places located in the interior of continents are far away from the effects of
onshore wet winds. They therefore receive sporadic rainfall leading to aridity. For example the
Gobi Desert in Asia.
4. Relief barriers – some lands have become arid because are located in the rain shadow area(lee
ward sides) of great mountain ranges. Onshore winds, on crossing mountain barrier, deposit
moisture on the windward side hence crosses such barrier as warm dry winds which absorb
moisture rather than cause rain.
5. Cold ocean currents – in regions where onshore winds cross over cold ocean currents, the
moisture content of the wind is lowered the chilling effect of the cold current. The winds drop
their moisture over the sea reaching the land as dry winds.
6. Pressure systems – large stable high pressure systems with low humidity and descending air
currents do greatly contribute to aridity in some regions.
7. Wind systems – dry winds from the land constantly blow some regions. Such winds cause drying
effects on the land resulting in the development of arid conditions.
8. Human activities – aridity is also caused by human activities such as;
- Clearing of vegetation so as to increase land under cultivation and settlement e.t.c.
- Overstocking which has led to over grassing especially by nomadic pastoralists.
- Industrialization which has led to emission of toxic gases in the atmosphere. This has
resulted in global warming.
- High population which has led to encroachment into rangeland by people.

Effects of aridity and desertification

1. Aridity and desertification lowers fertility of the soil hence lowering their productivity.
2. Due to low productivity, there is reduction in food production leading to famine.
3. People from the affected areas migrate to productive areas leading to population pressure.
4. Most arid areas are not well developed because they are not economically productive.
5. Desertification leads to the destruction of water catchment areas.
6. It causes destruction of vegetation cover which consequently exposes the land to agents of
erosion.

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 7. Leads to extinction of some plants and animal species hence loss of biodiversity.
8. If aridity and desertification is not checked, they can encroach on otherwise productive land
rendering it useless.
Possible solutions to aridity and desertification
1. Practicing afforestation and reafforestation in the affected areas.
2. Controlling soil erosion and adopting conservation measures.
3. Controlling the number of livestock in drought prone areas.
4. Introducing new and better farming methods.
5. Introducing drought resistant crops in arid areas.
6. Irrigating dry lands.
7. Controlling industrialization and setting up laws governing pollution.
8. Stabilizing sand dunes.
9. Introducing energy saving stoves.
Climate Change
Is the establishment of a new climatic state or system in an area due to change in weather elements such
as temperature and precipitation over time.
Causes of climate change
Causes of climate change can be classified as natural or human.
a) Natural causes - The natural factors that are responsible for climate change are;
 Variation in the earth’s orbital characteristics during revolution - The earth has an elliptical
orbit around the sun. There are times when the earth is at its furthest point, aphelion and when it
is nearest to the sun, perihelion. At perihelion the earth receives maximum energy and when it is
at aphelion it receives the least solar energy.
 Variation in the intensity of solar radiation due to sun spot - A sun spot is a dark area on the
surface of the sun. During the earth’s revolution around the sun changes in the position of the
earth relative to the sun spot leads to increase or decrease in the solar constant.
 Volcanic eruption - Vulcanicity leads to emission of various gases such as carbon-dioxide and
Sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. These gases absorb radiant heat prevent it from escaping
from the earth’s surface. During volcanic eruption, large quantities of volcanic ash and dust are
thrown out of the ground. The dust spread in the atmosphere blocking some of the solar insolation
from reaching the earth’s surface.
 Variation in atmospheric carbon-dioxide - High concentrations of carbon-dioxide in the
atmosphere would result in the temperatures of the earth rising, while low concentration would
lower the temperatures. The variations in the levels of carbon-dioxide can be caused by natural
factors or human activities. However natural causes are slow.

b) Human causes
Human activities lead to pollution of the atmosphere by releasing gases and chemical compounds. These
chemical compounds cause changes in the structure of the atmosphere and is partially responsible for
altering the global climate. Two major effects of chemical pollution in the atmosphere are;
 Increased global warming due to greenhouse effect
 Damage to the ozone layer.
Global warming
This is the steady rise in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere sufficient enough to cause
changes in climate. It results from the green house effect
Greenhouse effect – this is a naturally occurring process that aids in heating the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere. It involves such gases as carbon-dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), ozone and water vapour. These atmospheric gases are able to change the energy balance of the
planet by absorbing terrestrial radiation, turning the atmosphere into a natural greenhouse.
Evidence of global warming

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- Occurrence of heat waves due to increase in temperature leading to death of people e.g. in
Greece.
- The receding of ice cap e.g. in Mount Kenya, Kilimanjaro e.t.c.
- Melting of polar glacier
- Increase in rainfall causing flooding
- Rise in sea level
Effects of climate change
- Increased rainfall.
- Changes in natural ecosystem
- Flooding leading to rise in sea level
- Shifting of climatic and vegetation zones
- Abundant growth of plants.
- Occurrence of flash floods.
- Increased ultra-violet radiation that results in sunburn.

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