BASIC THERMODYNAMICS

SUBJECT CODE: 18ME303

UNIT - I
Fundamental Concepts & Definitions:
• Working principles of Thermodynamic Applications-IC engines, gas turbine, Fuel cell,
Rocket engine, steam power plant in brief.
• Characteristics of thermodynamic system, boundary and surroundings, examples. State
and equilibrium, state postulates, processes and cycles definition and units.
• Intensive and extensive properties, Quasi-static process, continuum.
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics & Temperature scales.
• Concepts of pressure, variation of pressure with depth.
• Manometer and Barometer.
• Concept of CFD in thermodynamics.
• Global warming.
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a feeling of
what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability
to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today
the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter. One
of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle. It simply states that
during an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy
remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed. A rock falling off a cliff, for
example, picks up speed as a result of its potential energy being converted to kinetic energy (Fig.
1–1).

The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation of energy principle,
and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property. The second law of thermodynamics asserts
that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy. For example, a cup of hot coffee left on a table eventually cools, but a cup of
cool coffee in the same room never gets hot by itself (Fig. 1–3). The high-temperature energy of
the coffee is degraded (transformed into a less useful form at a lower temperature) once it is
transferred to the surrounding air.
It is well-known that a substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules. The
properties of the substance naturally depend on the behavior of these particles. For example, the
pressure of a gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer between the molecules and the
walls of the container. However, one does not need to know the behavior of the gas particles to
determine the pressure in the container. It would be sufficient to attach a pressure gage to the
container. This macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual particles is called classical thermodynamics. It provides
a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering problems. A more elaborate approach, based
on the average behavior of large groups of individual particles, is called statistical
thermodynamics. This microscopic approach is rather involved and is used in this text only in the
supporting role.
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
1.IC engines
4 stroke petrol Engine

A 4-stroke petrol engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle.
Suction stroke
1. At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, the piston moves
from TDC to BDC.
 2. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. As the piston moves
downwards, suction is created in the cylinder as a result, fresh air-petrol mixture (charge)
is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
3. As the piston reaches BDC, the suction stroke completes and inlet valve closes. The suction
stroke is represented by the line AB on P-V diagram.

Compression stroke
1. In this stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC.
2. Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air-petrol
mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
3. The pressure and temperature of the mixture increases and this is shown by the curve BC
on the P-V diagram.
4. When the piston reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites the charge. The combustion of
the fuel takes place at the constant volume and is shown by a line CD on the P-V diagram.

Expansion stroke/Power stroke

1. In this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
2. The combustion of fuel liberates gases and these gases start expanding. Due to expansion,
the hot gases exert a large force on the piston and as a result the piston is pushed from TDC
to BDC.
3. The power is transmitted down through the piston to the crank shaft through the connecting
rod. This causes crankshaft to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is obtained in this stroke.
Hence, this stroke is also called working stroke. This is shown by the curve DE on the P-
V diagram.
4. As the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of the burnt gases escape
through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to their own expansion. This escape of
gases occurs momentarily at constant volume which is shown by the curve EB on P-V
diagram.

Exhaust stroke
1. In this stroke the inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is opened.
2. The piston moves from BDC to TDC and forces the remaining burnt gases out of the
cylinder to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line BA on P-
V diagram.
3. When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and this completes the cycle.

Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. Hence in 4-stroke engines, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the
crankshaft based on the type of fuel used.
The working principle of a 4-Stroke Petrol engine is based on theoretical Otto cycle. Hence it is
also known as Otto cycle engine.
And also spark plug is used to ignite the air fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder, hence it is also
known as spark ignition engine or S.I. engine.

4 stroke diesel Engine:

The working principle of a 4-Stroke diesel engine is based on theoretical diesel cycle. Hence it is
also known as diesel cycle engine, also the heat produced from the compression of the air is used
to ignite the fuel when it is sprayed in the expansion stroke; hence it is also called compression
ignition engine or C.I. engine.

A 4-stroke diesel engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle.
Suction stroke
1. At the beginning of the stroke piston is in TDC and during the stroke, piston moves from
TDC to BDC.
2. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed.
3. The downward movement of the piston creates suction in the cylinder and as a result, fresh
air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
4. When the piston reaches the BDC, the suction stroke completes and this is represented by
the line AB on P-V diagram.
Compression stroke
1. In this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valves are closed.
2. As the piston moves upwards, air in the cylinder is compressed to a high pressure and
temperature. The compression process is shown by the curve BC in P-V diagram.
3. At the end of the stroke, the fuel (diesel) is sprayed into the cylinder by fuel injector.
4. As the fuel comes in contact with the hot compressed air, it gets ignited and undergoes
combustion at constant pressure. This process is shown by the line CD on P-V diagram. At
the point D fuel supply is cutoff.

Expansion stroke/Power stroke

1. In this stroke the piston moves from TDC to BDC. Both inlet and the exhaust valve remain
closed.
2. As combustion of fuel takes place, the burnt gases expand and exert a large force on the
piston. Due to this, piston is pushed from TDC to BDC. The power is transmitted down
through the piston to the crank shaft through the connecting rod. This causes the crankshaft
to rotate at high speeds. Thus work is obtained in this stroke. This is shown by the curve
DE on P-V diagram.
3. As the piston reaches the BDC, the exhaust valve opens. A part of the burnt gases escape
through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder due to their own expansion. This escape of
gases occurs momentarily at constant volume which is shown by the curve EB on P-V
diagram.

Exhaust stroke
1. The piston moves from BDC to TDC. The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is
opened.
2. As the piston moves upward, it forces the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder through
the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line BA on P-V diagram.
3. When the piston reaches the TDC the exhaust valve closes. This completes one cycle.

Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. Hence in 4-stroke engines, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the
crankshaft based on the type of fuel used.

2. Gas Turbines

A gas turbine is similar to a steam turbine, but instead of applying the heat obtained by the
combustion of fuels to produce steam which runs the steam turbines the heat is used directly to
produce mechanical power.
Based on the flow of working substance during the cycle of operation, the gas turbines are
classified as open cycle and closed cycle gas turbines.
Open cycle gas turbines

1. It consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and a turbine (reaction type).

2. In operation, the compressor draws air from the atmosphere and compresses it to a high
pressure. The compressed air then flows into the combustion chamber.
3. In the combustion chamber fuel is burnt and the hot gases formed get mixed up with the
compressed air.
4. The high pressure, high temperature hot gases are then made to flow through the turbine
blades where the heat energy is converted into mechanical work (in the form of rotation of
shaft).
5. The shaft of the turbine can be connected to a generator for producing electricity or to any
other device for doing useful work.
6. The gases coming out from the turbine are discharged to the atmosphere as they cannot be
used any more. The working substance (air and fuel) must be replaced continuously for
every cycle of operation.
7. Since, the working substance is discharged to the atmosphere; it is called an open cycle gas
turbine.
8. Both the turbine and the compressor are mounted on a common shaft. The compressor
operates by utilizing some of the power developed in the turbine.
3. Fuel cell:
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that can convert chemical energy directly into electrical
energy (and heat) continuously as long as fuel is supplied. The fuel cell is much like a battery
though it does need a continuous supply of fuel. Direct emissions from a fuel cell vehicle are just
water and a little heat. This is a huge improvement over the internal combustion engine’s litany of
greenhouse gases.

.
Fig: Fuel Cell Working Principle and a Application
The two chemical reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode are described as:

• At anode: H2→2H+ +2e-

• At cathode: 1/2 O2 + 2H+ +2e- →H2O
• Overall reaction: H2 +1/2 O2 →H2O
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte
that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides
of the fuel cell.
At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often
positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte. At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an
external circuit, producing direct current electricity.
At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and
possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the
difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM
fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC).
4.Rocket Engine:
A rocket engine uses stored rocket propellants as reaction mass for forming a high-speed
propulsive jet of fluid, usually high-temperature gas. Rocket engines are reaction engines,
producing thrust in accordance with Newton's third law.

Fig: Rocket Engine working principle

Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid that has been accelerated to
high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas created by high pressure (150-
to-2,900-pound-per-square-inch (10 to 200 bar)) combustion of solid or liquid propellants,
consisting of fuel and oxidizer components, within a combustion chamber. As the gases expand
through the nozzle, they are accelerated to very high (supersonic) speed, and the reaction to this
pushes the engine in the opposite direction. Combustion is most frequently used for practical
rockets, as high temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best performance.
5. Steam Power Plant:
In the steam power plant, the pulverized coal is fed into the boiler and it is burnt in the furnace.
The water present in the boiler drum changes to high pressure steam. From the boiler the high-
pressure steam passed to the super heater where it is again heated upto its dryness. This super-
heated steam strikes the turbine blades with a high speed and the turbine starts rotating at high
speed.
A generator is attached to the rotor of the turbine and as the turbine rotates it also rotates with the
speed of the turbine. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.
After striking on the turbine the steam leaves the turbine and enters into the condenser. The steam
gets condensed with the help of cold water from the cooling tower. The condensed water with the
feed water enters into the economizer. In the economizer the feed water gets heated up before
entering into the boiler. This heating of water increases the efficiency of the boiler.
The exhaust gases from the furnace pass through the super heater, economizer and air pre-heater.
The heat of this exhaust gases is utilized in the heating of steam in the super heater, feed water in
the economizer and air in the air pre-heater. After burning of the coal into the furnace, it is
transported to ash handling plant and finally to the ash storage.

Fig: Schematic of steam power plant

Concept of CFD in thermodynamics:

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis
and data structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. With high-speed
supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and
most complex problems. CFD in thermodynamics can be used find the thermal performance
parameters of thermal systems lie, Air conditioning, IC Engines, Heat pipes, boilers, thermal
power plant steam pipes etc.
Governing Equations: The main structure of thermo-fluids examinations is directed by governing
equations that are based on the conservation law of fluid’s physical properties. The basic equations
are the three physics laws of conservation. These principles state that mass, momentum and energy
are stable constants within a closed system. Basically: What comes in, must also go out somewhere
else.
1. Conservation of Mass: Continuity Equation
2. Conservation of Momentum: Momentum Equation of Newton’s Second Law
3. Conservation of Energy: First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Equation

Methodology: In all of these approaches the same basic procedure is followed.

1) preprocessing: The geometry and physical bounds of the problem can be defined using computer
aided design (CAD). From there, data can be suitably processed (cleaned-up) and the fluid volume
(or fluid domain) is extracted.
2) Discretization: The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The
mesh may be uniform or non-uniform, structured or unstructured, consisting of a combination of
hexahedral, tetrahedral, prismatic, pyramidal or polyhedral elements. Some of the discretization
methods used are Finite volume method, Finite element method, Finite difference method etc.
3) Define Boundary condition: The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of
fluid motion + enthalpy + radiation + species conservation and Boundary conditions are defined.
This involves specifying the fluid/temperature behavior and properties at all bounding surfaces of
the fluid domain. For transient problems, the initial conditions are also defined.
4) Solving and Postprocessing: The simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively
as a steady-state or transient. Finally, a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of
the resulting solution.

Fig: Schematic of 1) CFD modelling of IC Engine Combustion & 2) Temperature Distribution

in a Heat Exchanger
Global Warming:
Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions by human activities, especially emissions greenhouse
gases from fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and land-use change, are the primary driver of
the climate changes observed in the industrial era, which trap heat that would otherwise escape
from Earth.
The greenhouse effect makes life on earth possible by keeping the earth warm (about 30°C
warmer). However, excessive amounts of these gases disturb the delicate balance by trapping too
much energy, which causes the average temperature of the earth to rise and the climate at some
localities to change. These undesirable consequences of the greenhouse effect are referred to as
global warming or global climate change. The United States is the largest contributor of
greenhouse gases, with over 5 tons of carbon emissions per person per year.
CO2 absorbs heat reflected from the Earth’s surface — heat that would otherwise pass freely into
space. The CO2 then releases that heat, warming the Earth’s atmosphere. As CO2 levels increase,
the pace of warming accelerates. Satellite measurements confirm that less heat is escaping the
atmosphere today than 40 years ago. Though other heat-trapping gases also play a role, CO2 is the
primary contributor to global warming.

Fig: This chart shows temperature projections under and effects of global warming.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the surroundings.

Fig.: System, surroundings, and boundary

Boundary: the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings. The
boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable. Mathematically, the boundary has zero thickness,
no mass, and no volume. System & Surroundings combines to form Universe.

Fig: Closed System Fig: Open system

Closed system or control mass: consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary. But, energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary, and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.
Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (note the volume does
not have to be fixed), however, energy in the form of heat and work may cross the boundaries of
a closed system, refrigeration circuit, pressure cooker before whistle etc.

Open system or control volume: is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow such as a compressor. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume. Examples of open systems are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat
exchange
Important note: some thermodynamics relations that are applicable to closed and open systems
are different. Thus, it is extremely important to recognize the type of system we have before start
analyzing it.
Isolated system: A closed system that does not communicate with the surroundings by any means,
it is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or work may cross the boundaries. Examples
Thermos flask, ice box, universe etc.

Adiabatic system: A closed or open system that does not exchange energy with the surroundings
by heat. But, in real world every process is an approximation; so, in practical world there is no
perfect adiabatic process. Some examples of adiabatic process: Compression & expansion of
charge in IC engine, insulated turbines, insulated nozzles, vertical flow of exhaust gas in
atmosphere etc.

Fig: Adiabatic and Isolated system

Control volume and control surface:
Control Volume: It is defined as volume in space through which matter, momentum and energy
may flow. The control volume may be stationary or may be moving at a constant velocity. If
control volume changes both in size and in position, the control volume is equivalent to an open
system. If no mass transfer occurs then it is equivalent to closed system.
Control Surface: Control volume is bounded by a surface called control surface.
In general, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume, A large number of
engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and, therefore, are modeled as
control volumes. A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow
and should be analyzed as control volumes (open systems) instead of as control masses (closed
systems).
The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be real fixed
movable or imaginary. In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface of the nozzle forms the real part
of the boundary, and the entrance and exit areas form the imaginary part, since there are no physical
surfaces there (Fig. 1–18a). A control volume can be fixed in size and shape, as in the case of a
nozzle, or it may involve a moving boundary, as shown in Fig. 1–18b. Most control volumes,
however, have fixed boundaries and thus do not involve any moving boundaries. A control volume
can also involve heat and work interactions just as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction.

Properties of a System:
Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is independent
of the path used to arrive at the system condition. Properties may be intensive or extensive.
Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
Features:

Intensive properties: are those that are independent of the size (mass) of a system.
Some Intensive Properties a. temperature b. pressure c. age d. color e. any mass independent
property.
Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total
mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive properties.
An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into
two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown in Fig. Each part will have the same value
of intensive properties as the original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.

Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties (with mass m being a major
exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with pressure P and temperature
T being the obvious exceptions).
Specific Property: Extensive Property Per unit mass are called Specific Property. Example:
Specific Volume (v), Specific Enthalpy (h), Specific Energy (e) (v = V/m) and specific total energy
(e = E/m). For example, the specific volume v, defined as

Volume V  m3 
v= =  
mass m  kg 

CONTINUUM:
Since thermodynamics doesn’t deal with the behavior of individual molecule we treat the
substance as continuous ignoring the action of individual molecule. This Concept is known as
continuum. “The continuum hypothesis states that large systems made up of many discrete
molecules or atoms may be treated as though they are made up of continuous material”

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of a substance, in general, depends on
temperature and pressure. The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely
proportional to temperature.

Specific Volume: The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume
per unit mass
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM:
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. Thus, if the value of even one
property changes, the state will change to different one.
In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A
system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
Thermal equilibrium: when the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: when there is no change in pressure at any point of the system.
However, the pressure may vary within the system due to gravitational effects.
Phase equilibrium: in a two-phase system, when the mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium
level.
Chemical equilibrium: when the chemical composition of a system does not change with time,
i.e., no chemical reactions occur.

The State Postulate: The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the
state postulate.

The state postulate requires that the two

properties specified be independent to fix
the state. Two properties are independent if
one property can be varied while the other
one is held constant. Temperature and
specific volume, for example, are always
independent properties, and together they
can fix the state of a simple compressible
system (Fig.)

PROCESSES AND CYCLES:

Thermodynamic Process: It is defined as the path of the thermodynamic states that a system
passes through as it goes from an initial state to a final state.

The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process

for which a particular property remains constant.
An isothermal process, for example, is a process
during which the temperature T remains constant;
an isobaric process is a process during which the
pressure P remains constant; and an isochoric (or
isometric) process is a process during which the
specific volume v remains constant.
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end
Path of a process: The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called
the Path.
Thermodynamic Cycle: It is the one in which a system in a given state goes through a number
of different process & finally returns to its initial state. Example: Steam Power Plant constitutes
Steam cycle, Petrol engine Otto cycle and Diesel engine Diesel cycle.

QUASISTATIC PROCESS:
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a Quasistatic, or quasi-equilibrium, process. A quasi-
equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust
itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at
other parts.

This is illustrated in Fig.. When a gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed suddenly, the
molecules near the face of the piston will not have enough time to escape and they will have to
pile up in a small region in front of the piston, thus creating a high-pressure region there. Because
of this pressure difference, the system can no longer be said to be in equilibrium, and this makes
the entire process nonquasi-equilibrium.
However, if the piston is moved slowly, the molecules will have sufficient time to redistribute
and there will not be a molecule pileup in front of the piston. As a result, the pressure inside the
cylinder will always be nearly uniform and will rise at the same rate at all locations. Since
equilibrium is maintained at all times, this is a quasi-equilibrium process. Quasi-equilibrium
process is an idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual process.

Engineers are interested in quasi equilibrium processes for two reasons. First, they are easy to
analyze; second work-producing devices deliver the most work when they operate on
quasiequilibrium processes. Therefore, quasi-equilibrium processes serve as standards to which
actual processes can be compared.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

A temperature is an objective comparative measure of hot or cold. several properties of materials

change with temperature in a repeatable and predictable way, and this forms the basis for accurate
temperature measurement. The commonly used mercury-in-glass thermometer, for example, is
based on the expansion of mercury with temperature. Temperature is also measured by using
several other temperature-dependent properties such as bulk behavior of a thermometric material,
detection of thermal radiation, or particle kinetic energy. The equality of temperature is the only
requirement for thermal equilibrium.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: (fig a.)

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• The law follows: If body 'A' is in equilibrium with body 'C' and body 'B' is also in
equilibrium with body 'C', then bodies 'A' and 'B' are in equilibrium with each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they
are not in contact (Fig c).

Fig (a) Fig (b) Fig (c)

Thermometric property: The characteristics or physical properties or reference body which

changes with temperature is called thermometric property. The reference body which is used in
the determination of temperature is called Thermometer.

Type of thermometer Thermometric Symbol

Property
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer Pressure P
Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer Volume V
Electrical Resistance Thermometer Resistance R
Thermocouple Thermal emf ε
Liquid in Glass Thermometer Length L
TEMPERATURE SCALES:
Temperature scales enable us to use a common basis for temperature measurements, and several
have been introduced throughout history. All temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the ice
point and the steam point, respectively.
A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure is
said to be at the ice point, and a mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium
at 1 atm pressure is said to be at the steam point.

The kelvin is the base unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), having the unit
symbol K. It is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William
Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907).
The kelvin is defined by fixing the numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to
1.380649×10−23 J⋅K−1. This unit is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1, where the kilogram, metre and second
are defined in terms of the Planck constant, the speed of light, and the duration of the caesium-133
ground-state hyperfine transition.
On 16 November 2018, a new definition was adopted, in terms of a fixed value of the Boltzmann
constant. With this change the triple point of water became an empirically determined value of
approximately 273.16 kelvin. For legal metrology purposes, the new definition officially came into
force on 20 May 2019.

The temperature scales used in the SI and the English systems today are the Celsius scale and
Fahrenheit scale, respectively. These two scales are based on a specified number of degrees
between the freezing point of water (0C or 32F) and the boiling point of water (100C or 212F).
These are often referred to as two-point scales since temperature values are assigned at two
different points.
9
T F = T  C + 32
5
The Celsius scale, also known as the centigrade scale: (symbol: °C) In the Celsius scale, the ice
and steam points were originally assigned the values of 0 and 100°C, respectively. The interval
between the defined points is divided in to 100 equal parts and each part represents 1°C. Fahrenheit
temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling
point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.

Measurement of temperature:
establish a temperature scale an easily reproducible state of an arbitrarily chosen standard system
is considered which is called fixed points i.e ICE POINT and STEAM POINT.
ICE POINT: The lower fixed point or ice point is the temperature at which pure ice melts at
standard pressure.
STEAM POINT: The upper fixed point or steam point is the temperature at which pure water boils
at standard pressure.
These points are considered as fixed points. In this method the thermometer is first placed in
contact with the system whose temperature θ(X) is to be measured, then it is placed in contact with
arbitrarily chosen standard system at ice point where temperature is say θ(X1). The variation of
temperature can be assumed to be a linear function of ‘X’ which is a thermometric property.
Hence for the first system

Then the thermometer at temperature θ(X) is placed in contact with another chosen standard
system at steam point where temperature is θ(X2).
Hence for the second system

By dividing the equations, we get

2) Single standard fixed-point method:

Kelvin pointed out that a single fixed point such as triple point of water where ice, liquid water
and water vapour co-exist in equilibrium. The temperature at which this state exists is arbitrarily
assigned the value of 273.16K. If θ t Triple point of water
Xt = Thermometric property when the body is placed in contact with water at its triple point. Then
we can write.
Different Types of Thermometer:
Liquid in glass thermometer: A small quantity of liquid enclosed in a glass capillary is called liquid
in glass thermometer. In this the thermometer, the expansion of the liquid which is the length of
liquid column is used as the thermometric property Example: Mercury in glass thermometer.

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer:

This thermometer works on the principle

of Law of Gay-Lussac. The law states that
when the temperature of an ideal gas
increases, there is a corresponding
increase in pressure. Also, when the
temperature decreases, the pressure too
decreases correspondingly.
When the bulb is brought in contact with the system whose temperature is to be measured, Heat
transfer from the system into the bulb takes place and the bulb in course time comes in thermal
equilibrium with the system. Due to heat addition the gas in the bulb expands and pushes the
mercury level downwards. The flexible limb of the manometer is then adjusted so that the mercury
again touches the fixed mark ‘A’ (For keeping volume of gas constant). The difference in the
mercury level ‘h’ is recorded and the pressure ‘P’ of the gas in the bulb is estimated by using the
formulae. Thus, temperature increase is proportional to the pressure increase when volume is kept
constant in constant volume gas thermometer.

Resistance thermometers:
Resistance thermometers are based on the fact that the electrical resistance of a metal wire varies
with temperature. The metals most used are platinum and nickel, for which the resistance increases
with temperature in a linear manner.
If Ro is the resistance at 0 °C, then the resistance Rt at T°C is:

Fig: A typical resistance thermometer with bridge circuit

Pressure:
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only
when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since
pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which
is called a pascal (Pa). That is 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of being a vector.
However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is, it has magnitude but
not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.
The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore, its multiples
kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used. Three other
pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar, standard atmosphere, and
kilogram-force per square centimeter:

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative
to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure (Fig. 1–37), Pressures below atmospheric pressure
are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference
between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
are all positive quantities and are related to each other by

Variation of Pressure with Depth:

Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect
of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an increase in pressure (Fig.) To obtain a
relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular fluid element of height Δz,
length Δx, and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium, as shown in Fig.
Assuming the density of the fluid ρ to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-direction gives

where γs=ρg is the specific weight of the fluid. Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference
between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance Δz between
the points and the density ρ of the fluid. In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with
depth. If we take any point to be at the free surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere where the
pressure is the atmospheric pressure Patm, then the pressure at a depth h from the free surface
becomes

THE MANOMETER:
Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by a manometer and a differential fluid
column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference between the system and the surroundings
of the manometer.
One end of the tube is connected with a gas-tight seal
to a test pressure source. The other end of the tube is
left open to the atmosphere and will therefore be
subjected to a pressure of approximately 1
atmosphere (atm).
If the test pressure is greater than the reference
pressure of 1 atm, the liquid in the test column is
forced down the column. This causes the fluid in the
reference column to rise by an equal amount.

This pressure difference is determined from the manometer fluid displaced height as
P =  g h ( kPa)
THE BAROMETER
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure
is often referred to as the barometric pressure. The atmospheric pressure can be measured by
inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury container that is open to the atmosphere as shown
in Fig.
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at C can be taken to
be zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is very low relative to
Patm and can be neglected to an excellent approximation.
Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives Patm = ρgh. where ρ is the density of mercury,
g is the local gravitational acceleration, and h is the height of the mercury column above the free
surface. Note that the length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on the height
of the fluid column of a barometer (fig 2)

MODEL QUESTIONS
1) Distinguish between i) Intensive and Extensive property ii) Point and Path function iii)
Quasistatic and Actual process iv) Open and closed system v) Adiabatic wall and diathermic
wall.
2) Define thermodynamic equilibrium. Explain different conditions that a system should satisfy
to attain thermodynamic equilibrium.
3) Explain zeroth law of thermodynamics. How this law forms the basis of temperature
measurement.
4) Name a few measurements (or) quantities that can be conveniently used as thermometric
properties in order to quantify the temperature.
5) Illustrate a Quasistatic process. What are the conditions to be satisfied for a system to achieve
thermodynamic equilibrium?
6) Draw the thermometers comparing one beside the other showing markings and values of Ice
point, steam point and absolute zero temperature for Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Rankine
scales.
7) Illustrate any two applications of thermodynamics with help of line diagrams.
8) Differentiate isolated and adiabatic systems. Give examples for the same.
9) Draw a simple diagram and identify the working principle of a simple mercury-based glass
thermometer.
10) Draw a simple diagram and identify the working principle of a Barometer and Manometer.
11) Give three examples each for Open, closed Adiabatic system.
12) What is a quasi-equilibrium process? What is its importance in engineering?
13) Define the isothermal, isobaric, and isochoric processes.
14) What is the state postulate?
15) What is the difference between the classical and the statistical approaches to thermodynamics?

GENERAL QUESTIONS
1) Is the state of the air in an isolated room completely specified by the temperature and the
pressure? Explain.
2) What is the zeroth law of thermodynamics?
3) What is the difference between gage pressure and absolute pressure?
4) Explain why some people experience nose bleeding and some others experience shortness of
breath at high elevations.
5) Someone claims that the absolute pressure in a liquid of constant density doubles when the
depth is doubled. Do you agree? Explain.
6) Is global warming a myth? Explain.