Chapter E.

Spirals
Article Index
 Chapter E. Spirals
 2. Applications
 3. Nomenclature & Parts
 4. Stationing
 5. Deflection Angle Method
 6. Five- or ten-chord spiral
 7. Example
 8. Staking a Spiraled Horizontal Curve
 9. Power Series Method
 10. Spirals and Coordinates
 11. Spreadsheet
 12. Summary
 All Pages

1. Concepts
Spirals were mentioned in the Basic Concepts section of Chapter C. Horizontal
Curves. In this chapter, we will go into more detail.
Recall that a spiral arc, Figure E-1, has a constantly changing radius.
 Figure E-1
This characteristic has advantages in route applications, discussed in the next
section, as well as presenting computational challenges. While a more complex
geometric curve than a circular arc, a few reasonable assumptions can simplify its
calculation.

2. Applications
a. Direction transition
Because curvature is introduced progressively, the driver gradually changes the
steering wheel angle allowing a more natural direction transition.

Figure E-2
Steering wheel angle along a spiral

b. Force balancing
A vehicle traveling a curved path at constant velocity is subject to a centrifugal force,
CV, pushing it (and its occupants) to the outside of the curve, Figure E-3(a). If the
pavement cross-slope is flat, only the friction between the tires and road surface
prevents the vehicle from sliding off the curve, Figure E-3(b). In low friction situations
(rain, snow, etc), sliding will occur at lower speeds. Banking the pavement cross-
slope into the curve, Figure E-3(c), allows part of the vehicle weight to work with
friction to offset the centrifugal force. This banking is called superelevation, e.

(b) Flat pavement cross-slope

(a) Centrifugal force (c) Superelevation added

Figure E-3
Balancing forces
At the right combination of vehicle speed and superelevation, friction does not come
into play - the pavement can be ice covered and the vehicle will not slide off the
curve.
With a circular curve, centrifugal force is theoretically introduced immediately upon
curve entry. This doesn't typically happen because it takes the driver some distance
to change the steering wheel angle from straight ahead to full-turn. Deciding where
to begin rotating the cross-slope from flat and how quickly to reach full
superelevation requires some compromises.
A spiral helps because its decreasing radius increases centrifugal force gradually,
Figure E-4, so superelevation can be introduced at a corresponding rate keeping
forces balanced.

Figure E-4
Cross-section along a spiral
It is primarily because of this force balancing characteristic that spirals are used in
high-speed railroad alignments. More on that in the to-be-developed Superelevation
chapter.
c. Design flexibility
Combining spirals with (or without) intermediate circular arcs allows greater design
flexibility particularly in limited spaces and where large directional changes are
involved. Consider the two alignment segments in Figure E-5(a) which are to be
connected via a cloverleaf interchange. Traveling North to West, the directional
change is 270° degrees. Figure E-5(b) shows three alternative curve systems to
connect the two alignments. This interchange type is used extensively in high speed
situations where the driver must decelerate, negotiate a large direction change, then
accelerate to match traffic. It should be a smooth and surprise-free driver
experience.

(a) Intersecting alignments (b) Alternative curv

Figure E-5 Cloverleaf interchange
The green system is a single tangent circular arc. Even though it is a relatively
sharp curve, it takes up the most space (to take up less space, it would need to be
even sharper). Its primary shortcomings are the tangent-curve-tangent transitions
and centrifugal force condition requiring a lower speed and higher superelevation.
The red system is a five-center compound curve using consecutive curves of
varying radii. The concept behind this application was discussed in Chapter D. Multi-
Center Horizontal Curves. While better than the single curve and taking up less
space, it can still be problematic at the curve-curve transitions since the forces can
change substantially unless speeds are reduced.
The blue system is a spiraled horizontal curve: an entrance spiral into a circular arc
into an exit spiral. In this example, this is a symmetric system with entrance and exit
spirals mirror images of each other, although that needn't be the case. Not only does
this curve system provide the smoothest speed and direction changes, it is the most
comfortable and takes up the least space.

3. Nomenclature & Parts

A single figure showing a spiraled horizontal curve with all its nomenclature, parts,
and points labeled can be confusing. To make things a little more clear, we will use a
series of figures emphasizing and explaining different attributes. Although ours will
be a symmetric curve system, the same principles apply to differing entrance and
exit spirals, as long as sufficient basic information is known.
Let's start with two tangents and a circular curve of radius Rc and length L
connecting them, Figure E-6.
 Figure E-6
Simple curve between tangents
To make room for spirals inclusion requires pushing the circular arc in from the
tangents and shortening its length. Adding two spirals, each Ls long, reduces the
circular arc length to Lc. This results in the TS-SC-CS-ST curve system, Figure E-7.
The OBC and OEC are offset positions of the BC and EC. Radial lines from the OBC
and OEC to the arc's center of curvature are parallel with perpendicular lines at the
TS and ST respectively.
 Figure E-7
Spiraled horizontal curve
The radius of the entrance spiral, Rs, decreases uniformly from infinity at the TS to
the circular arc radius, Rc, at the SC. The radius of the exit spiral increases uniformly
from the arc radius at the CS to infinity at the ST.
The entrance spiral's degree of curvature, Ds, varies from 0°00'00" at the TS to the
circular arc's, Dc, at the SC. Because it changes uniformly over the spiral's length, its
rate is Equation E-1:
k: Spiral's Degree of Curvature rate change
Equation E-1 Dc: Circular arc D
Ls: Spiral length
Although reversed, the exit spiral in a symmetric system has the same k.
Figure E-8 shows the central angles (Δ) for the spirals and circular arc.
Δs: Spiral Centra
Δc: Circular Curv
Figure E-8
Central Angles
Because the radial lines at the TS and OBC are parallel, the central angle of the
entrance spiral is the same as the central arc angle from the OBC to the SC. The
same is true for the exit spiral. The spiral angle is determined from Equation E-2.

Equation E-2

The original circular arc's central angle is reduced by the spirals', Equation E-3.
Δc: Reduced arc central angle
Equation E-3 Δ: Total central angle
Δs: Spiral central angle

And its shortened length is determined from Equation E-4 (modified from Chapter C.
Horizontal Curves Equation C-2).

Equation E-4
Location of the TS from the PI along with tangent distances and offsets from the TS
to the OBC and SC are shown in Figure E-9.

(a) (b)
Xo: Tangent distance to OBC
LCs: Spiral long chord
o: Tangent offset to OBC
A: Spiral deflection angle
X: Tangent distance to SC
Ts: Spiral tangent
Y: Tangent offset to SC
Figure E-9
Tangent Distances

The distances and offsets are computed using Equations E-5 through E-10

Equation E-5
 Equation E-6

Equation E-7

Equation E-8
Equation E-9

Equation E-10

Because spirals are short and very flat, arc distances are often used to approximate
chord distances. The is the case with Equations E-5 through E-7: the spiral length,
Ls, is used for the spiral chord, LCs. In most cases, this assumption will be fine,
however, we'll discuss a more exact, though more complex, spiral computing method
also.

4. Stationing
Referring to Figure E-7, curve endpoint stations are determined using Equations E-
11 through E-15.
Equation E-11
Equation E-12
Equation E-13
Equation E-14
Equation E-15

As with a regular horizontal curve, a station equation exists at the point where the
curve system exits onto the tangent at the ST.

5. Deflection Angle Method

The traditional method of staking a spiral is by measuring a deflection angles at the
TS and chords between curve points. In Figure E-10, the process to lay out the first
two points after the TS are:

 Instrument at TS, sighting PI.

 To stake point i
o Rotate to deflection angle of i, ai.
o Measure distance LTSI-i
 Stake point j
o Rotate to deflection angle of j, aj.
o Measure distance Li-j

The arc distances between the points (ie, Staj - Stai) are used as chords. While this
does introduce some error, because of the spiral's geometry, the error is relatively
small.

Figure E-10
Deflection Angle Method
General calculations are based on these spiral properties for any point referenced to
the flat end:

 Radius is inversely proportional to distance along the spiral.

 Spiral angle is proportional to the square of the distance
 Deflection angle is closely proportional to the square of the distance
 Tangent offset is closely proportional to the cube of the distance.

Figure E-11
Deflection Angle Geometry
For any spiral point i:
Equation E-16 Arc distance

Equation E-17 Spiral radius

Equation E-18 Spiral angle, radians

Equation E-19 Spiral angle, degrees

Deflection angle,
Equation E-20
degrees
Although not needed for the traditional deflection angle method, the tangent distance
and offset to a curve point, Figure E-12, can be computed using Equations E-21 and
E-22.

Equation E-21

Equation E-22

Figure E-12
Tangent Distance and Offset
Tangent distances (xi) and offsets (yi) can be used to compute radial chords from the
TS to the respective curve point, Figure E-13 and Equation E-23.
 Figure E-13
Radial Chord

Equation E-23
As with the point-to-point condition, generally the arc distances can be used as radial
chord distances. We see this shortly in an example.

6. Five- or ten-chord spiral

It is common to compute (and stake) a spiral in equal intervals rather than full- or
half-stations. Depending on spiral length and arc degree of curvature, the spiral is
computed in either five or ten equal intervals. For example, a 200 foot five-chord
spiral would be computed at a 40 foot interval.
Although this results in spiral points with odd stations, its advantage is a single set of
calculations for the entrance and exit spirals. Because the deflection angle method is
computed from a spiral's flat end, TS for the entrance and ST for the exit, the same
equal interval computations can be used for both. We'll see this in the following
example.

7. Example Spiraled Horizontal Curve Computation

a. Set up
A N75°00'00"E tangent intersects a S60°00'00"E tangent at station 43+31.10. A
circular arc with a 9°00'00 degree of curvature will be used together with 300.00 ft
entrance and exit spirals.
Compute radial stake out notes using 5-chord spirals and arc half stations.

b. Spiral components

c. Circular curve components

d. Stationing
StaPI 43+31.10 StaPI 43+31.10
-Ts 4+16.62 +Ts 4+46.62
StaTS 39+14.48 StaST 47+47.72 Ahead
+Ls 3+00.00
StaSC 42+14.48
+Lc 2+00.00
StaCS 44+14.48
+Ls 3+00.00
StaST 47+14.48 Back

e. Five-chord spiral
Length of each chord:

Deflection angle equation

Set up the curve table and solve ai for each curve point. Indicate appropriate math
checks.
Chord Num li, ft ai
1 60.00 0°10'48"
 2 120.00 0°43'12"
3 180.00 1°37'12"
4 240.00 2°52'48"
5 300.00 = Ls 4°30'00" = Δs/3

Set up and solve Equations E-21 through E-23 for radial chords:

Chord Num li, ft ai xi, ft yi, ft ci, ft

1 60.00 0°10'48" 60.00 0.00 60.00
2 120.00 0°43'12" 119.99 1.51 120.00
3 180.00 1°37'12" 179.93 5.09 180.00
4 240.00 2°52'48" 239.71 12.06 240.00
5 300.00 4°30'00" 299.07 =Y 23.56 = X 300.00

Notice that the radial chord to each point is the same as its spiral distance. Because
the spiral is short and flat, spiral arc and radial chord distances are (essentially) the
same. That simplifies spiral computations and staking considerably: use arc distance
as radial chord for each point.

f. Circular arc deflections

Set up Equations C-12 through C-15 from Chapter C. Horizontal Curves:

The curve table, with appropriate math checks, is:

Stai li, ft defl angi ci, ft
CS 44+14.48 200.00 = Lc 9°00'00" = Δc/2 199.18 = LC
44+00 185.52 8°20'54" 184.86
43+50 135.52 6°05'54" 135.26
43+00 85.52 3°50'54" 85.46
 42+50 35.52 1°35'54" 35.52
SC 42+14.48 0.00 0°00'00" 0.00

g. Stake out notes

Now to assemble the information into a single set of notes:
Station Defl Ang Radial chord, ft
Exit Spiral
Occupy ST, Backsight CS
ST 47+14.48 0°00'00" 0.00
46+54.48 0°10'48" 60.00
45+94.48 0°43'12" 120.00
45+34.48 1°37'12" 180.00
44+74.48 2°52'48" 240.00
CS 44+14.48 4°30'00" 300.00
Circular Arc
Occupy SC, Backsight CS
CS 44+18.48 9°00'00" 199.18
44+00 8°20'54" 184.86
43+50 6°05'54" 135.26
43+00 3°50'54" 85.26
42+50 1°35'54" 35.52
SC 42+14.48 0°00'00 0.00
Entrance Spiral
Occupy TS,Bbacksight SC
SC 42+14.48 4°30'00" 300.00
41+54.48 2°52'48" 240.00
40+94.48 1°37'12" 180.00
40+34.48 0°43'12" 120.00
39+74.48 0°10'48" 60.00
TS 39+14.48 0°00'00" 0.00
 Figure E-14
Staking a Spiraled Horizontal Curve

8. Staking a Spiraled Horizontal Curve

a. Establish TS and ST
Set TS and ST points at distance Ts from PI along each tangent.

b. Stake entrance spiral

Set instrument at TS.
 Backsight PI with 0°00'00" on horizontal circle.
Radially stake each spiral point through the SC.

c. Stake circular arc

Because it is offset from the tangents, the arc can't be staked from a BS using
the PI as a backsight. Instead, once the entrance spiral has been staked, the
circular arc must be staked from the SC.
At the flat end of the spiral, the deflection angle is (Δs)/3; at the other end it is
(2Δs)/3, Figure E-15.

Figure E-15
Spiral Total Deflection Angles
To correctly orient an instrument at the SC, the surveyor would, Figure E-16:
 Figure E-16
Staking the Circular Arc

b. Stake exit spiral

Set instrument at ST.
Backsight PI with 0°00'00" on horizontal circle.
Radially stake each spiral point through the CS.
The CS serves as a closure check since it was placed when the arc was
staked.
9. Power Series Method
a. Equations
A more accurate way to compute spiral points is using infinite power series,
Equations E-24 and E-25.

Equation E-24

Equation E-25
δi in Equations E-24 and E-25 is in radians; it is computed with Equation E-18.
Although both equations have an infinite number of terms, each term is substantially
smaller so only the first three need be used.
Radial chords are computed using Equation E-23 and deflection angles using
Equation E-26.

Equation E-26

b. Example
Using the spiral of the previous example, set up and solve the spiral curve table.

Chord Num li δi, radians xi, ft yi, ft ci, ft ai

1 60.00 0.009425 60.00 0.19 60.00 0°10'48"
2 120.00 0.037699 119.98 1.51 119.98 0°43'12"
3 180.00 0.084823 198.87 5.09 179.87 1°37'12"
4 240.00 0.150796 239.46 12.04 239.46 2°52'46"
5 300.00 0.235619 298.34 23.47 298.34 4°29'52"

Compare this curve table to the first table in Section 7e. The results of this "more
exact" calculations are basically the same as those based on approximations.
Should a much longer spiral or one with a great radii difference be used, the
approximations may be might introduce measurable error in which case the power
series equations should be used.
10. Spirals and Coordinates
As with most surveying stake out operations, having point coordinates makes for
more flexible field operation.
Starting with directions of the incoming and outgoing tangents along with the PI
coordinates, the process to compute point coordinates are:

a.TS and ST coordinates, Figure E-17

Figure E-17
TS and ST Coordinates
These are computed using Equations E-27 through E-31.

Equations E-27 through E-29

Equations E-30 and E-31

b. Spiral point coordinates, Figure E-17

 Figure E-17
Spiral Coordinates
Using the deflection angle notes, spiral point coordinates can be computed using
Equations E-32 through E-37. Right deflection angles are positive, left are negative.
Entrance spiral
Equations E-32 through E-34
Exit spiral

Equations E-35 through E-37

c. Arc point coordinates, Figure E-18

Figure E-18
Arc Coordinates
Arc points are computed using equations E-38 through E-40. Right deflection angles
are positive, left are negative.

Equation E-38 through E-40

Math check? The coordinates of the CS computed from the SC should match those
computed from the ST.
11. Spreadsheet
An Excel spreadsheet to perfom basic spiral computations can be downloaded here.
It uses Visual Basic for Applications script so Excel must have macros enabled when
loading the sheet.

12. Summary
Although more geometrically complex than circular arcs, spirals are relatively easy to
compute using approximate relationships. The argument against their use due to
computation complexity really isn't valid as shown by the example.
However, despite their transportation applications advantages, spiral use is limited
primarily to railroads. Trains have a mechanical connection between wheel flanges
and rails, in essence, infinite friction. Because the train's wheels cannot slip across
the rails as can tires on pavement, lateral force is directly imparted to the rails as the
train enters and travels around a curve. If a simple curve is used, then maximum
centrifugal force is instantaneously introduced at BC the since the train must follow
the tracks. A spiral's changing radius allows the centrifugal force to gradually
increase (entrance) then decrease (exit), balancing the forces. Running a train over
an simple horizontal curve over time will eventually shift the rail alignment into a
spiraled configuration because of the forces.
In high speed highway designs, horizontal circular curves are typically long and flat,
making for smooth tangent-curve-tangent transitions, minimal centrifugal force, and
lower superelevation rates. Spirals aren't needed in these situations. Spirals can be
used beneficially in case of large direction changes over limited areas, such as
interchanges.
Spiral use is up to the designer but as shown in this Chapter, they are no more
difficult to understand or compute than circular arcs.