T-270 EXAMINATION

T-271 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE6

A single-wall exposure technique shall be used for radiography whenever practical. When it is not
practical to use a single-wall technique, a double-wall technique shall be used. An adequate number
of exposures shall be made to demonstrate that the required coverage has been obtained.
T-271.1 Single-Wall Technique. In the single-wall technique, the radiation passes through only one
wall of the weld (material), which is viewed for acceptance on the radiograph.
T-271.2 Double-Wall Technique. When it is not practical to use a single-wall technique, one of the
following double-wall techniques shall be used.
(a) Single-Wall Viewing. For materials and for welds in components, a technique may be used in
which the radiation passes through two walls and only the weld (material)
on the film-side wall is viewed for acceptance on the radiograph. When complete coverage is
required for circumferential welds (materials), a minimum of three exposures taken 120 deg to
each other shall be made.
(b) Double-Wall Viewing. For materials and for welds in components 31/2 in. (89 mm) or less in
nominal outside diameter, a technique may be used in which the radiation passes through two
walls and the weld (material) in both walls is viewed for acceptance on the same radiograph.
For double-wall viewing, only a source-side IQI shall be used.
(1) For welds, the radiation beam may be offset from the plane of the weld at an angle sufficient to
separate the images of the source-side and film-side portions of the weld so that there is no overlap
of the areas to be interpreted.
When complete coverage is required, a minimum of two exposures taken 90 deg to each other shall
be made for each joint.
(2) As an alternative, the weld may be radiographed with the radiation beam positioned so that the
images of both walls are superimposed. When complete coverage is required, a minimum of three
exposures taken at either 60 deg or 120 deg to each other shall be made for each joint.
(3) Additional exposures shall be made if the required radiographic coverage cannot be obtained
using the minimum number of exposures indicated in (1) or (2) above.
T-274 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS
T-274.1 Geometric Unsharpness Determination.
Geometric unsharpness of the radiograph shall be determined in accordance with:
where
D = distance from source of radiation to weld or object being radiographed
d = distance from source side of weld or object being radiographed to the film
F = source size: the maximum projected dimension of the radiating source (or effective focal spot)
in the plane perpendicular to the distance D from the weld or object being radiographed
Ug = geometric unsharpness
D and d shall be determined at the approximate center of the area of interest.
.
T-274.2 Geometric Unsharpness Limitations. Recommended maximum values for geometric
unsharpness are as follows:
Material Thickness, in. (mm) Ug Maximum, in. (mm)

Under 2 (50) 0.020 (0.51)

2 through 3 (50–75) 0.030 (0.76)
Over 3 through 4 (75–100) 0.040 (1.02)
Greater than 4 (100) 0.070 (1.78)
NOTE: Material thickness is the thickness on which the IQI is based.

T-282 RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY

T-282.1 Density Limitations. The transmitted film density through the radiographic image of the
body of the designated hole-type IQI adjacent to the essential hole or adjacent to the essential wire
of a wire-type IQI and the area of interest shall be 1.8 minimum for single film viewing
for radiographs made with an X-ray source and 2.0 minimum for radiographs made with a gamma
ray source.
For composite viewing of multiple film exposures, each film of the composite set shall have a
minimum density of 1.3. The maximum density shall be 4.0 for either single or composite viewing. A
tolerance of 0.05 in density is allowed for variations between densitometer readings.
T-282.2 Density Variation.
(a)The density of the radiograph anywhere through the area of interest shall not
(1) vary by more than minus 15% or plus 30% from the density through the body of the designated
hole-type IQI adjacent to the essential hole or adjacent to the essential
wire of a wire-type IQI, and
T-283 IQI SENSITIVITY
T-283.1 Required Sensitivity. Radiography shall be performed with a technique of sufficient
sensitivity to display the designated hole-type IQI image and the essential hole, or the essential wire
of a wire-type IQI. The radiographs shall also display the IQI identifying numbers and letters. If the
designated hole-type IQI image and essential hole, or essential wire of a wire-type IQI, do not
show on any film in a multiple film technique, but do show in composite film viewing, nterpretation
shall be permitted only by composite film viewing.
T-284 EXCESSIVE BACKSCATTER
If a light image of the “B,” as described in T-223, appears on a darker background of the radiograph,
protection from backscatter is insufficient and the radiograph shall be considered unacceptable. A
dark image of the “B” on a lighter background is not cause for rejection.
7. Energy Selection
7.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general, the lower the energy of the source utilized the higher
the achievable radiographic contrast, however, other variables such as geometry and scatter conditions
may override the potential advantage of higher contrast. For a particular energy, a range of thicknesses
which are a multiple of the half value layer, may be radiographed to an acceptable quality level utilizing a
particular X-ray machine or gamma ray source. In all cases the specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level
must be shown on the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can normally be obtained for X-ray
energies between 100 kV to 500 kV in a range between 2.5 to 10 half value layers (HVL) of material
thickness (see Table 1). This range may be extended by as much as a factor of 2 in some situations for X-
ray energies in the 1 to 25 MV range primarily because of reduced scatter.

13. Screens
13.1 Metallic Foil Screens:
13.1.1 Lead foil screens are commonly used in direct contact with the films, and, depending upon their
thickness, and composition of the specimen material, will exhibit an intensifying action at as low as 90
kV. In addition, any screen used in front of the film acts as a filter (Section 10) to preferentially absorb
scattered radiation arising from the specimen, thus improving radiographic quality. The selection of lead
screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen thickness, is subject to the same considerations as
outlined in
10.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching the film regardless of whether the screens permit a decrease
or necessitate an increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharpness due to screens, there
should be intimate contact between the lead screen and the film during exposure.
13.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be used whenever they improve radiographic
quality or penetrameter sensitivity or both. The thickness of the front lead screens should be selected with
care to avoid excessive filtration in the radiography of thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the
lower kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back
lead screens below 125 kV in the radiography of 1⁄4-in. (6.35-mm) or lesser thickness
steel. As the kilovoltage is increased to penetrate thicker sections of steel, however, there is a significant
exposure advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead screens are used as protection against
back-scattered radiation (see Section 12) and their thickness is only important for this function. As
exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary
to increase lead screen thickness. For radiography using radioactive sources, the minimum thickness of
the front lead screen should be 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) for iridium-192, and 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) for cobalt-
60.
13.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: 13.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar manner to
lead foil screens except that their equivalence in lead foil thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm).
13.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and intensification than lead screens, but may
provide somewhat better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above 1 MV.
13.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens may be used in cases where lead cannot be used.
13.3 Fluorescent Screens—Fluorescent screens may be used as required providing the required image
quality is achieved. Proper selection of the fluorescent screen is required to minimize image unsharpness.
Technical information about specific fluorescent screen products can be obtained from the
manufacturers. Good film-screen contact and screen cleanliness are required for successful use of
fluorescent screens. Additional information on the use of fluorescent screens is provided in Appendix X1.
13.4 Screen Care—All screens should be handled carefully to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease on
active surfaces. Grease and lint may be removed from lead screens with a solvent. Fluorescent screens
should be cleaned in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens showing
evidence of physical damage should be discarded.
7.3 Materials Groups:
7.3.1 Materials Group 001:
7.3.1.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) may be made from phenolic resin laminate materials specified in
MIL-I-24768, or any of the materials listed in Practice E2662. 7.3.1.2 Use on polymer matrix composite
materials or other low density non-metal materials at low energies, typically below 50 kV.
7.3.2 Materials Group 03:
7.3.2.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of magnesium or magnesium shall be the
predominant alloying constituent.
7.3.2.2 Use on all alloys of which magnesium is the predominant alloying constituent.
7.3.3 Materials Group 02:
7.3.3.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of aluminum or aluminum shall be the predominant
alloying constituent.
7.3.3.2 Use on all alloys of which aluminum is the predominant alloying constituent.
7.3.4 Materials Group 01:
7.3.4.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of titanium or titanium shall be the predominant
alloying constituent.
7.3.4.2 Use on all alloys of which titanium is the predominant alloying constituent.
7.3.5 Materials Group 1:
7.3.5.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of carbon steel or Type 300 series stainless steel.
7.3.5.2 Use on all carbon steel, all low-alloy steels, all
stainless steels, manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze (Superston).
7.3.6 Materials Group 2:
7.3.6.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of aluminum bronze (Specification B150/B150M).
7.3.6.2 Use on all aluminum bronzes and all nickelaluminum bronzes.
7.3.7 Materials Group 3:
7.3.7.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of nickel-chromium-iron alloy (UNS No. NO6600)
(Inconel). (Specification B166.)
7.3.7.2 Use on nickel-chromium-iron alloy and 18 % nickel-maraging steel.
7.3.8 Materials Group 4:
7.3.8.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of 70 to 30 nickel-copper alloy (Monel)
(Specification B164) or equivalent.
7.3.8.2 Use on nickel, copper, all nickel-copper series, or copper-nickel series of alloys, and all brasses
(copper-zinc alloys). Group 4 IQI’s may be used on the leaded brasses, since leaded brass increases in
attenuation with increase in lead content. This would be equivalent to using a lower group IQI.
7.3.9 Materials Group 5:
7.3.9.1 Image quality indicators (IQI’s) shall be made of phosphor bronze (Specification B139/B139M).
7.3.9.2 Use on bronzes including gun-metal and valve bronze, leaded-tin bronze of higher lead content
than valve bronze. Group 5 IQI’s may be used on bronze of higher lead content since leaded bronze
increases in attenuation with increase in lead content. This would be equivalent to using a
lower group IQI.