Radioactive Decay and Half-Life

As mentioned previously, radioactive decay is the disintegration of an

unstable atom with an accompanying emission of radiation. As a radioisotope
atom decays to a more stable atom, it emits radiation only once. To change
from an unstable atom to a completely stable atom may require several
disintegration steps and radiation will be given off at each step. However,
once the atom reaches a stable configuration, no more radiation is given off.
For this reason, radioactive sources become weaker with time. As more and
more unstable atoms become stable atoms, less radiation is produced and
eventually the material will become non-radioactive.

The decay of radioactive elements occurs at a fixed rate. The half-life of a

radioisotope is the time required for one half of the amount of unstable
material to degrade into a more stable material. For example, a source will
have an intensity of 100% when new. At one half-life, its intensity will be cut to
50% of the original intensity. At two half-lives, it will have an intensity of 25%
of a new source. After ten half-lives, less than one-thousandth of the original
activity will remain. Although the half-life pattern is the same for every
radioisotope, the length of a half-life is different. For example, Co-60 has a
half-life of about 5 years while Ir-192 has a half-life of about 74 days.
 Energy, Activity, Intensity and Exposure

Different radioactive materials and X-ray generators produce radiation at

different energy levels and at different rates. It is important to understand the
terms used to describe the energy and intensity of the radiation. The four
terms used most for this purpose are: energy, activity, intensity and exposure.

Radiation Energy
As mentioned previously, the energy of the radiation is responsible for its
ability to penetrate matter. Higher energy radiation can penetrate more and
higher density matter than low energy radiation. The energy of ionizing
radiation is measured in electronvolts (eV). One electronvolt is an extremely
small amount of energy so it is common to use kiloelectronvolts (keV) and
megaelectronvolt (MeV). An electronvolt is a measure of energy, which is
different from a volt which is a measure of the electrical potential between two
positions. Specifically, an electronvolt is the kinetic energy gained by an
electron passing through a potential difference of one volt. X-ray generators
have a control to adjust the keV or the kV.

The energy of a radioisotope is a characteristic of the atomic structure of the

material. Consider, for example, Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, which are two of
the more common industrial Gamma ray sources. These isotopes emit
radiation in two or three discreet wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit 1.33 and
1.17 MeV Gamma rays, and Iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV
Gamma rays. It can be seen from these values that the energy of radiation
coming from Co-60 is about twice the energy of the radiation coming from the
Ir-192. From a radiation safety point of view, this difference in energy is
important because the Co-60 has more material penetrating power and,
therefore, is more dangerous and requires more shielding.

Activity
The strength of a radioactive source is
called its activity, which is defined as
the rate at which the isotope decays.
Specifically, it is the number of atoms
that decay and emit radiation in one
second. Radioactivity may be thought
of as the volume of radiation produced
in a given amount of time. It is similar
to the current control on a X-ray
generator. The International System
(SI) unit for activity is the becquerel
(Bq), which is that quantity of
radioactive material in which one atom
transforms per second. The becquerel
is a small unit. In practical situations,
radioactivity is often quantified in kilobecqerels (kBq) or megabecquerels
(MBq). The curie (Ci) is also commonly used as the unit for activity of a
particular source material. The curie is a quantity of radioactive material in
which 3.7 x 1010 atoms disintegrate per second. This is approximately the
amount of radioactivity emitted by one gram (1 g) of Radium 226. One curie
equals approximately 37,037 MBq. New sources of cobalt will have an activity
of 20 to over 100 curies, and new sources of iridium will have an activity of
similar amounts.

Once a radioactive nucleus decays, it is no longer possible for it to emit the

same radiation again. Therefore, the activity of radioactive sources decrease
with time and the activity of a given amount of radioactive material does not
depend upon the mass of material present. Additionally, two one-curie
sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses depending upon the
relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source. The
concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of
radioactive material and the activity, is called the specific activity. Specific
activity is expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or
volume. The higher the specific activity of a material, the smaller the physical
size of the source is likely to be.

Intensity
Radiation intensity is the amount of energy passing through a given area that
is perpendicular to the direction of radiation travel in a given unit of time. The
intensity of an X-ray or gamma-ray source can easily be measured with the
right detector. Since it is difficult to measure the strength of a radioactive
source based on its activity, which is the number of atoms that decay and emit
radiation in one second, the strength of a source is often referred to in terms
of its intensity. Measuring the intensity of a source is sampling the number of
photons emitted from the source in some particular time period, which is
directly related to the number of disintegrations in the same time period (the
activity).

Exposure
One way to measure the intensity of x-rays or gamma rays is to measure the
amount of ionization they cause in air. The amount of ionization in air
produced by the radiation is called the exposure. Exposure is expressed in
terms of a scientific unit called a roentgen (R or r). The unit roentgen is equal
to the amount of radiation that produces in one cubic centimeter of dry air at
0°C and standard atmospheric pressure ionization of either sign equal to one
electrostatic unit of charge. Most portable radiation detection safety devices
used by a radiographer measure exposure and present the reading in terms of
roentgens or roentgens/hour, which is known as the dose rate.

Ionization and Cell Damage

As previously discussed, photons that interact with atomic particles can

transfer their energy to the material and break chemical bonds in materials.
This interaction is known as ionization and involves the dislodging of one or
more electrons from an atom of a material. This creates electrons, which carry
a negative charge, and atoms without electrons, which carry a positive
charge. Ionization in industrial materials is usually not a big concern. In most
cases, once the radiation ceases the electrons rejoin the atoms and no
damage is done. However, ionization can disturb the atomic structure of some
materials to a degree where the atoms enter into chemical reactions with each
other. This is the reaction that takes place in the silver bromide of radiographic
film to produce a latent image when the film is processed. Ionization may
cause unwanted changes in some materials, such as semiconductors, so that
they are no longer effective for their intended use.

Ionization in Living Tissue (Cell Damage)

In living tissue, similar interactions occur and
ionization can be very detrimental to cells.
Ionization of living tissue causes molecules in
the cells to be broken apart. This interaction
can kill the cell or cause them to reproduce
abnormally.

Damage to a cell can come from direct

action or indirect action of the radiation. Cell
damage due to direct action occurs when the radiation interacts directly with a
cell's essential molecules (DNA). The radiation energy may damage cell
components such as the cell walls or the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is
found in every cell and consists of molecules that determine the function that
each cell performs. When radiation interacts with a cell wall or DNA, the cell
either dies or becomes a different kind of cell, possibly even a cancerous one.

Cell damage due to indirect action occurs when radiation interacts with the
water molecules, which are roughly 80% of a cells composition. The energy
absorbed by the water molecule can result in the formation of free radicals.
Free radicals are molecules that are highly reactive due to the presence of
unpaired electrons, which result when water molecules are split. Free radicals
may form compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, which may initiate harmful
chemical reactions within the cells. As a result of these chemical changes,
cells may undergo a variety of structural changes which lead to altered
function or cell death.

Various possibilities exist for the fate of cells damaged by radiation. Damaged
cells can:

• completely and perfectly repair themselves with the body's inherent

repair mechanisms.
• die during their attempt to reproduce. Thus, tissues and organs in which
there is substantial cell loss may become functionally impaired. There is
a "threshold" dose for each organ and tissue above which functional
impairment will manifest as a clinically observable adverse outcome.
Exceeding the threshold dose increases the level of harm. Such
outcomes are called deterministic effects and occur at high doses.
 • repair themselves imperfectly and replicate this imperfect structure.
These cells, with the progression of time, may be transformed by
external agents (e.g., chemicals, diet, radiation exposure, lifestyle
habits, etc.). After a latency period of years, they may develop into
leukemia or a solid tumor (cancer). Such latent effects are called
stochastic (or random).

Exposure of Living Tissue to Non-ionizing Radiation

A quick note of caution about non-ionizing radiation is probably also
appropriate here. Non-ionizing radiation behaves exactly like ionizing
radiation, but differs in that it has a much greater wavelength and, therefore,
less energy. Although this non-ionizing radiation does not have the energy to
create ion pairs, some of these waves can cause personal injury. Anyone who
has received a sunburn knows that ultraviolet light can damage skin cells.
Non-ionizing radiation sources include lasers, high-intensity sources of
ultraviolet light, microwave transmitters and other devices that produce high
intensity radio-frequency radiation.

Cell Radiosensitivity

Radiosensitivity is the relative susceptibility of cells, tissues, organs,

organisms, or other substances to the injurious action of radiation. In general,
it has been found that cell radiosensitivity is directly proportional to the rate of
cell division and inversely proportional to the degree of cell differentiation. In
short, this means that actively dividing cells or those not fully mature are most
at risk from radiation. The most radio-sensitive cells are those which:

• have a high division rate

• have a high metabolic rate
• are of a non-specialized type
• are well nourished

Examples of various tissues and their relative radiosensitivities are listed

below.

High Radiosensitivity
Lymphoid organs, bone marrow, blood, testes, ovaries, intestines
Fairly High Radiosensitivity
Skin and other organs with epithelial cell lining (cornea, oral cavity,
esophagus, rectum, bladder, vagina, uterine cervix, ureters)
Moderate Radiosensitivity
 Optic lens, stomach, growing cartilage, fine vasculature, growing bone
Fairly Low Radiosensitivity
Mature cartilage or bones, salivary glands, respiratory organs, kidneys, liver,
pancreas, thyroid, adrenal and pituitary glands
Low Radiosensitivity
Muscle, brain, spinal cord

Measures Relative to the Biological Effect

of Radiation Exposure

There are four measures of radiation that radiographers will commonly encounter when
addressing the biological effects of working with X-rays or Gamma rays. These
measures are: Exposure, Dose, Dose Equivalent, and Dose Rate A short summary of
these measures and their units will be followed by more in depth information below.

• Exposure: Exposure is a measure of the strength of a radiation field at

some point in air. This is the measure made by a survey meter. The
most commonly used unit of exposure is the roentgen (R).
• Dose or Absorbed Dose: Absorbed dose is the amount of energy that
ionizing radiation imparts to a given mass of matter. In other words, the
dose is the amount of radiation absorbed by and object. The SI unit for
absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed
Dose) is commonly used. 1 rad is equivalent to 0.01 Gy. Different
materials that receive the same exposure may not absorb the same
amount of radiation. In human tissue, one Roentgen of gamma radiation
exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose.
• Dose Equivalent: The dose equivalent relates the absorbed dose to
the biological effect of that dose. The absorbed dose of specific types of
radiation is multiplied by a "quality factor" to arrive at the dose
equivalent. The SI unit is the sievert (SV), but the rem is commonly
used. Rem is an acronym for "roentgen equivalent in man." One rem is
equivalent to 0.01 SV. When exposed to X- or Gamma radiation, the quality
factor is 1.
• Dose Rate: The dose rate is a measure of how fast a radiation dose is
being received. Dose rate is usually presented in terms of R/hour,
mR/hour, rem/hour, mrem/hour, etc.

For the types of radiation used in industrial radiography, one roentgen equals
one rad and since the quality factor for x- and gamma rays is one,
radiographers can consider the Roentgen, rad, and rem to be equal in value.
More Information on Exposure, Dose, Dose Equivalent, and Dose Rate

Exposure
Exposure is a measure of the strength of a
radiation field at some point. It is a
measure of the ionization of the molecules
in a mass of air. It is usually defined as the
amount of charge (i.e. the sum of all ions
of the same sign) produced in a unit mass
of air when the interacting photons are
completely absorbed in that mass. The
most commonly used unit of exposure is
the Roentgen (R). Specifically, a Roentgen
is the amount of photon energy required to
produce 1.610 x 1012 ion pairs in one gram
of dry air at 0°C. A radiation field of one
Roentgen will deposit 2.58 x 10-4 coulombs
of charge in one kilogram of dry air. The main advantage of this unit is that it is
easy to directly measure with a survey meter. The main limitation is that it is
only valid for deposition in air.

Dose or Absorbed Dose

Whereas exposure is defined for air,
the absorbed dose is the amount of
energy that ionizing radiation imparts to a
given mass of matter. The absorbed dose
is used to relate the amount of ionization
that x-rays or gamma rays cause in air to
the level of biological damage that would
be caused in living tissue placed in the
radiation field. The most commonly used
unit for absorbed dose is the “rad”
(Radiation Absorbed Dose). A rad is
defined as a dose of 100 ergs of energy
per gram of the given material. The SI unit
for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), which
is defined as a dose of one joule per kilogram. Since one joule equals
107 ergs, and since one kilogram equals 1000 grams, 1 Gray equals 100 rads.

The size of the absorbed dose is dependent upon the the intensity (or activity)
of the radiation source, the distance from the source to the irradiated material,
and the time over which the material is irradiated. The activity of the source
 will determine the dose rate which can be expressed in rad/hr, mr/hr,
mGy/sec, etc.

Dose Equivalent
When considering radiation interacting with living tissue, it is important to also
consider the type of radiation. Although the biological effects of radiation are
dependent upon the absorbed dose, some types of radiation produce greater
effects than others for the same amount of energy imparted. For example, for
equal absorbed doses, alpha particles may be 20 times as damaging as beta
particles. In order to account for these variations when describing human
health risks from radiation exposure, the quantity called “dose equivalent” is
used. This is the absorbed dose multiplied by certain “quality” or “adjustment”
factors indicative of the relative biological-damage potential of the particular
type of radiation.

The quality factor (Q) is a factor used in

radiation protection to weigh the absorbed
dose with regard to its presumed biological
effectiveness. Radiation with higher Q
factors will cause greater damage to
tissue. The rem is a term used to describe
a special unit of dose equivalent. Rem is
an abbreviation for roentgen equivalent in
man. The SI unit is the sievert (SV); one
rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. Doses of
radiation received by workers are recorded in rems, however, sieverts are
being required as the industry transitions to the SI unit system.

The table below presents the Q factors for several types of radiation.

pe of Radiation Rad Q Factor Rem

Ray 1 1 1
mma Ray 1 1 1
a Particles 1 1 1
rmal Neutrons 1 5 5
t Neutrons 1 10 10
ha Particles 1 20 20

Dose Rate
The dose rate is a measure of how fast a radiation dose is being received.
Knowing the dose rate, allows the dose to be calculated for a period of time.
Fore example, if the dose rate is found to be 0.8rem/hour, then a person
working in this field for two hours would receive a 1.6rem dose.

Biological Effects

The occurrence of particular health effects from exposure to ionizing radiation

is a complicated function of numerous factors including:

• Type of radiation involved. All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce

health effects. The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta
particles and Gamma and X-rays to cause health effects is the amount
of energy they have. Their energy determines how far they can
penetrate into tissue and how much energy they are able to transmit
directly or indirectly to tissues.
• Size of dose received. The higher the dose of radiation received, the
higher the likelihood of health effects.
• Rate the dose is received. Tissue can receive larger dosages over a
period of time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks,
the results are often not as serious if a similar dose was received in a
matter of minutes.
• Part of the body exposed. Extremities such as the hands or feet are
able to receive a greater amount of radiation with less resulting damage
than blood forming organs housed in the torso. See radiosensitivity
page for more information.
• The age of the individual. As a person ages, cell division slows and
the body is less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once cell
division has slowed, the effects of radiation are somewhat less
damaging than when cells were rapidly dividing.
• Biological differences. Some individuals are more sensitive to the
effects of radiation than others. Studies have not been able to
conclusively determine the differences.

The effects of ionizing radiation upon humans are often broadly classified as
being either stochastic or nonstochastic. These two terms are discussed more
in the next few pages.

Stochastic Effects

Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance and consist primarily of
cancer and genetic effects. Stochastic effects often show up years after
exposure. As the dose to an individual increases, the probability that cancer or
a genetic effect will occur also increases. However, at no time, even for high
doses, is it certain that cancer or genetic damage will result. Similarly, for
stochastic effects, there is no threshold dose below which it is relatively
certain that an adverse effect cannot occur. In addition, because stochastic
effects can occur in individuals that have not been exposed to radiation above
background levels, it can never be determined for certain that an occurrence
of cancer or genetic damage was due to a specific exposure.

While it cannot be determined conclusively, it often possible to estimate the

probability that radiation exposure will cause a stochastic effect. As mentioned
previously, it is estimated that the probability of having a cancer in the US
rises from 20% for non radiation workers to 21% for persons who work
regularly with radiation. The probability for genetic defects is even less likely
to increase for workers exposed to radiation. Studies conducted on Japanese
atomic bomb survivors who were exposed to large doses of radiation found no
more genetic defects than what would normally occur.

Radiation-induced hereditary effects have not been observed in human

populations, yet they have been demonstrated in animals. If the germ cells
that are present in the ovaries and testes and are responsible for reproduction
were modified by radiation, hereditary effects could occur in the progeny of
the individual. Exposure of the embryo or fetus to ionizing radiation could
increase the risk of leukemia in infants and, during certain periods in early
pregnancy, may lead to mental retardation and congenital malformations if the
amount of radiation is sufficiently high.

More on Specific Stochastic Effects

Cancer

Leukemia

Genetic Effects

Cataracts

Nonstochastic (Acute) Effects

Unlike stochastic effects, nonstochastic effects are characterized by a

threshold dose below which they do not occur. In other words, nonstochastic
effects have a clear relationship between the exposure and the effect. In
addition, the magnitude of the effect is directly proportional to the size of the
dose. Nonstochastic effects typically result when very large dosages of
radiation are received in a short amount of time. These effects will often be
evident within hours or days. Examples of nonstochastic effects include
erythema (skin reddening), skin and tissue burns, cataract formation, sterility,
radiation sickness and death. Each of these effects differs from the others in
that both its threshold dose and the time over which the dose was received
cause the effect (i.e. acute vs. chronic exposure).

There are a number of cases of radiation burns occurring to the hands or

fingers. These cases occurred when a radiographer touched or came in close
contact with a high intensity radiation emitter. Intensity on the surface of an 85
curie Ir-192 source capsule is approximately 1,768 R/s. Contact with the
source for two seconds would expose the hand of an individual to 3,536 rems,
and this does not consider any additional whole body dosage received when
approaching the source.

More on Specific Nonstochastic Effects

Hemopoietic Syndrome
The hemopoietic syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that affect
the blood. Hemopoietic syndrome conditions appear after a gamma dose of
about 200 rads (2 Gy). This disease is characterized by depression or ablation
of the bone marrow, and the physiological consequences of this damage. The
onset of the disease is rather sudden, and is heralded by nausea and vomiting
within several hours after the overexposure occurred. Malaise and fatigue are
felt by the victim, but the degree of malaise does not seem to be correlated
with the size of the dose. Loss of hair (epilation), which is almost always seen,
appears between the second and third week after the exposure. Death may
occur within one to two months after exposure. The chief effects to be noted,
of course, are in the bone marrow and in the blood. Marrow depression is
seen at 200 rads and at about 400 to 600 rads (4 to 6 Gy) complete ablation
of the marrow occurs. In this case, however, spontaneous regrowth of the
marrow is possible if the victim survives the physiological effects of the
denuding of the marrow. An exposure of about 700 rads (7 Gy) or greater
leads to irreversible ablation of the bone marrow.

Gastrointestinal Syndrome
The gastrointestinal syndrome encompasses the medical conditions that
affect the stomach and the intestines. This medical condition follows a total
body gamma dose of about 1000 rads (10 Gy) or greater, and is a
consequence of the desquamation of the intestinal epithelium. All the signs
and symptoms of hemopoietic syndrome are seen, with the addition of severe
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea which begin very soon after exposure. Death
within one to two weeks after exposure is the most likely outcome.

Central Nervous System

A total body gamma dose in excess of about 2000 rads (20 Gy) damages the
central nervous system, as well as all the other organ systems in the body.
Unconsciousness follows within minutes after exposure and death can result
in a matter of hours to several days. The rapidity of the onset of
unconsciousness is directly related to the dose received. In one instance in
which a 200 msec burst of mixed neutrons and gamma rays delivered a mean
total body dose of about 4400 rads (44 Gy), the victim was ataxic and
disoriented within 30 seconds. In 10 minutes, he was unconscious and in
shock. Vigorous symptomatic treatment kept the patient alive for 34 hours
after the accident.

Other Acute Effects

Several other immediate effects of acute overexposure should be noted.
Because of its physical location, the skin is subject to more radiation
exposure, especially in the case of low energy x-rays and beta rays, than
most other tissues. An exposure of about 300 R (77 mC/kg) of low energy (in
the diagnostic range) x-rays results in erythema. Higher doses may cause
changes in pigmentation, loss of hair, blistering, cell death, and ulceration.
Radiation dermatitis of the hands and face was a relatively common
occupational disease among radiologists who practiced during the early years
of the twentieth century.

The reproductive organs are particularly radiosensitive. A single dose of only

30 rads (300 mGy) to the testes results in temporary sterility among men. For
women, a 300 rad (3 Gy) dose to the ovaries produces temporary sterility.
Higher doses increase the period of temporary sterility. In women, temporary
sterility is evidenced by a cessation of menstruation for a period of one month
or more, depending on the dose. Irregularities in the menstrual cycle, which
suggest functional changes in the reproductive organs, may result from local
irradiation of the ovaries with doses smaller than that required for temporary
sterilization.

The eyes too, are relatively radiosensitive. A local dose of several hundred
rads can result in acute conjunctivitis.

Exposure Limits
As discussed in the introduction, concern over the
biological effect of ionizing radiation began shortly
after the discovery of X-rays in 1895. Over the
years, numerous recommendations regarding
occupational exposure limits have been developed
by the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) and other radiation protection
groups. In general, the guidelines established for
radiation exposure have had two principle
objectives: 1) to prevent acute exposure; and 2) to
limit chronic exposure to "acceptable" levels.

Current guidelines are based on the conservative assumption that there is no

safe level of exposure. In other words, even the smallest exposure has some
probability of causing a stochastic effect, such as cancer. This assumption
has led to the general philosophy of not only keeping exposures below
recommended levels or regulation limits but also maintaining all exposure "as
low as reasonable achievable" (ALARA). ALARA is a basic requirement of
current radiation safety practices. It means that every reasonable effort must
be made to keep the dose to workers and the public as far below the required
limits as possible.

Regulatory Limits for Occupational

Exposure
Many of the recommendations from the
ICRP and other groups have been
incorporated into the regulatory
requirements of countries around the
world. In the United States, annual
radiation exposure limits are found in Title
10, part 20 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, and in equivalent state
regulations. For industrial radiographers
who generally are not concerned with an
intake of radioactive material, the Code
sets the annual limit of exposure at the
following:

1) the more limiting of:

 • A total effective dose equivalent of 5 rems (0.05 Sv)
or
• The sum of the deep-dose equivalent to any individual organ or tissue
other than the lens of the eye being equal to 50 rems (0.5 Sv).

2) The annual limits to the lens of the eye, to the skin, and to the extremities,
which are:

• A lens dose equivalent of 15 rems (0.15 Sv)

• A shallow-dose equivalent of 50 rems (0.50 Sv) to the skin or to any
extremity.

The shallow-dose equivalent is the external dose to the skin of the whole-
body or extremities from an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is
the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 0.007 cm averaged over and area of
10 cm2.
The lens dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the lens of the eye from
an external source of ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a
tissue depth of 0.3 cm.
The deep-dose equivalent is the whole-body dose from an external source of
ionizing radiation. This value is the dose equivalent at a tissue depth of 1 cm.
The total effective dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the whole-
body.

Declared Pregnant Workers and Minors

Because of the increased health risks to the rapidly developing embryo and
fetus, pregnant women can receive no more than 0.5 rem during the entire
gestation period. This is 10% of the dose limit that normally applies to
radiation workers. Persons under the age of 18 years are also limited to
0.5rem/year.

Non-radiation Workers and the Public

The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public are two
percent of the annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation
worker can receive a whole body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from
industrial ionizing radiation. This exposure would be in addition to the 0.3
rem/year from natural background radiation and the 0.05 rem/year from man-
made sources such as medical x-rays.

Controlling Radiation Exposure

When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure:
acute and chronic. An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a
high dose of radiation during a short period of time. An acute exposure has
the potential for producing both nonstochastic and stochastic effects. Chronic
exposure, which is also sometimes called "continuous exposure," is long-term,
low level overexposure. Chronic exposure may result in stochastic health
effects and is likely to be the result of improper or inadequate protective
measures.

The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1)

limiting the time spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance
away from the source, 3) and using shielding to stop or reduce the level of
radiation.

Time
The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent
in the radiation. Therefore, a person should not stay near a
source of radiation any longer than necessary. If a survey
meter reads 4 mR/h at a particular location, a total dose of
4mr will be received if a person remains at that location for
one hour. In a two hour span of time, a dose of 8 mR
would be received. The following equation can be used to
make a simple calculation to determine the dose that will
be or has been received in a radiation area.

Dose = Dose Rate x Time

(click here for more information on using this formula)

When using a gamma camera, it is important to get the source from the
shielded camera to the collimator as quickly as possible to limit the time of
exposure to the unshielded source. Devices that shield radiation in some
directions but allow it pass in one or more other directions are known as
collimators. This is illustrated in the images at the bottom of this page.

Distance
Increasing distance from the source of
radiation will reduce the amount of radiation
received. As radiation travels from the source,
it spreads out becoming less intense. This is
analogous to standing near a fire. The closer a
person stands to the fire, the more intense the
heat feels from the fire. This phenomenon can
be expressed by an equation known as the
inverse square law, which states that as the
radiation travels out from the source, the
dosage decreases inversely with the square of
the distance.

Inverse Square Law: I1/ I2 = D22/ D12

(click here for more information on using this formula)

Shielding
The third way to reduce exposure to radiation is to place something between
the radiographer and the source of radiation. In general, the more dense the
material the more shielding it will provide. The most effective shielding is
provided by depleted uranium metal. It is used primarily in gamma ray
cameras like the one shown below. The circle of dark material in the plastic
see-through camera (below right) would actually be a sphere of depleted
uranium in a real gamma ray camera. Depleted uranium and other heavy
metals, like tungsten, are very effective in shielding radiation because their
tightly packed atoms make it hard for radiation to move through the material
without interacting with the atoms. Lead and concrete are the most commonly
used radiation shielding materials primarily because they are easy to work
with and are readily available materials. Concrete is commonly used in the
construction of radiation vaults. Some vaults will also be lined with lead
sheeting to help reduce the radiation to acceptable levels on the outside.
 Half-Value Layer (Shielding)

As was discussed in the radiation theory section, the depth of penetration for
a given photon energy is dependent upon the material density (atomic
structure). The more subatomic particles in a material (higher Z number), the
greater the likelihood that interactions will occur and the radiation will lose its
energy. Therefore, the more dense a material is the smaller the depth of
radiation penetration will be. Materials such as depleted uranium, tungsten
and lead have high Z numbers, and are therefore very effective in shielding
radiation. Concrete is not as effective in shielding radiation but it is a very
common building material and so it is commonly used in the construction of
radiation vaults.

Since different materials attenuate radiation to different degrees, a

convenient method of comparing the shielding performance of materials was
needed. The half-value layer (HVL) is commonly used for this purpose and to
determine what thickness of a given material is necessary to reduce the
exposure rate from a source to some level. At some point in the material,
there is a level at which the radiation intensity becomes one half that at the
surface of the material. This depth is known as the half-value layer for that
material. Another way of looking at this is that the HVL is the amount of
material necessary to the reduce the exposure rate from a source to one-half
its unshielded value.

Sometimes shielding is specified as some number of HVL. For example, if a

Gamma source is producing 369 R/h at one foot and a four HVL shield is
placed around it, the intensity would be reduced to 23.0 R/h.

Each material has its own specific HVL thickness. Not only is the HVL material
dependent, but it is also radiation energy dependent. This means that for a
given material, if the radiation energy changes, the point at which the intensity
decreases to half its original value will also change. Below are some HVL
values for various materials commonly used in industrial radiography. As can
be seen from reviewing the values, as the energy of the radiation increases
the HVL value also increases.

Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma

Source

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Source Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Iridium-192 44.5 (1.75) 12.7 (0.5) 4.8 (0.19) 3.3 (0.13) 2.8 (0.11)
Cobalt-60 60.5 (2.38) 21.6 (0.85) 12.5 (0.49) 7.9 (0.31) 6.9 (0.27)

Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from an

X-ray Source

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Peak Voltage (kVp) Lead Concrete
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)
100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)
300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)