See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/315833470

Strength and Conditioning for Netball: A Needs Analysis and Training

Recommendations

Article  in  Strength and conditioning journal · March 2017

DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000287

CITATIONS READS

2 13,337

4 authors:

Christopher Thomas Paul Comfort

51 PUBLICATIONS   329 CITATIONS   
University of Salford
175 PUBLICATIONS   1,455 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Paul A Jones Thomas Dos'Santos

University of Salford University of Salford
107 PUBLICATIONS   894 CITATIONS    56 PUBLICATIONS   242 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Catch phase force-time characteristics of weightlifting exercises and their derivatives View project

Optimal cluster set configuration for the midthigh clean pull View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Christopher Thomas on 13 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Strength and
Conditioning for Netball:
A Needs Analysis and
Training
Recommendations
Christopher Thomas, MSc, CSCS, Paul Comfort, PhD, CSCS*D, Paul A. Jones, PhD, CSCS,
and Thomas Dos’Santos, MSc, CSCS
Directorate of Sport, Exercise and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
THERE IS A LACK OF STRENGTH
AND CONDITIONING RESEARCH
INTO THE DEMANDS AND THE
SPECIFIC AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
REQUIRED TO OPTIMIZE PERFOR-
MANCE AND REDUCE THE RISK OF
COMMON INJURIES IN FEMALE
NETBALL ATHLETES. NETBALL IS
PREDOMINANTLY ANAEROBIC,
CHARACTERIZED BY FREQUENT
HIGH-INTENSITY MOVEMENTS THAT
REQUIRE HIGH LEVELS OF
STRENGTH, POWER, AND LOWER
LIMB CONTROL. HOWEVER, THERE
IS LIMITED RESEARCH IN THE
PREPARATION OF FEMALE NETBALL
PLAYERS FOR TRAINING AND
COMPETITION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE
PRESENT THE PHYSIOLOGICAL
DEMANDS OF TRAINING AND
COMPETITION, COMMON CAUSES
OF INJURY, AND STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING TRAINING RECOM-
MENDATIONS TO ENHANCE
PERFORMANCE AND REDUCE THE
LIKELIHOOD OF INJURY IN FEMALE
NETBALL PLAYERS.
Address correspondence to Christopher
Thomas, c.thomas2@edu.salford.ac.uk.
Copyright
National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
INTRODUCTION although the performance within net-
ball is primarily associated with a play-
etball is a team sport that has
N
er’s aerobic endurance (because of the
one of the largest participation
duration of the game, 60 minutes), the
rates within the British common-
performance, crucial moments, and
wealth, played on a 30.5 3 15.25 m court
the outcome of a netball match is
divided into thirds each measuring
dependent on the performance of deci-
10.17 m. Netball consists of four 15-
sive anaerobic activities (35,37). Net-
minute quarters separated by 5 minutes
ball matches show players change
of rest at half-time and 3 minutes
the intensity of the activity every ;6
between other quarters. Each team con-
seconds during the 60 minutes (26),
sists of 7 players on the court at one
with anaerobic variables such as the
time, with each area of the court acces-
amount of running and sprinting bouts
sible to each player determined by posi-
to be 25–202 and 5–81 times (26,35),
tion. The 7 different positions comprise
respectively. This has shown to equate
center court (center [C], wing attack
to running distances totaling between
[WA], wing defense [WD]), shooters
143–1,758 and 69–555 m as sprinting
(goal attack [GA], goal shooter [GS]),
(26). These decisive anaerobic
and defenders (goal keeper [GK], goal
components associated with netball
defense [GD]). Thus, players are con-
(sprinting, turning, jumping, changing
stantly involved in offensive and defen-
pace, cutting, and accelerating and
sive maneuvers, affecting the technical,
decelerating the body) are forceful and
tactical, and physical demands of each
explosive and require near-maximum
position. To perform at high levels, play-
levels of muscular strength and power
ers must be able to cope with the phys-
production (18,67). Thus, it can be
ical demands of the game.
determined that physical qualities play
During netball matches, published an important role in the requisite
data demonstrate that a high level of performance of netball techniques.
aerobic conditioning is required for
the sport with average heart rates KEY WORDS:
(HRs) reported to be between 75 and athletic qualities; netball; power;
85% of the maximum HR (MHR) strength; testing; training
during match play (17,85). However,
1
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
 Netball Needs Analysis
This article aims to analyze the physi-
ological and injury considerations of
netball and provide practical recom-
mendations for testing and developing
strength and conditioning programs.
TIME-MOTION ANALYSIS
A high level of conditioning is impor-
tant in netball given its intermittent
nature, where players perform frequent
high-intensity bouts of activity, inter-
spersed by periods of low-intensity
recovery. In game play, 6 specific move-
ments have been identified, including
stationary, walking, jogging, shuffling,
running, and sprinting (35), with 35–
52% of active game time spent walking
across all positions (35).
Because of netball rules, players are
required to distribute within 3 seconds
of receiving the ball. Thus, short
duration, high frequency of activity
highlights the intermittent nature of
netball. Fox et al. (35) found the average
duration of work to be ,6 seconds
across all positions, with nearly all
undertaken within 1–2 seconds. In net-
ball, players are allowed one additional
step before either stopping or passing
a ball to a teammate; so, players may
already preempt their next movement
or play before landing or transitioning
to another high-intensity activity. Cen-
ter court players are shown to perform
more frequent multidirectional move-
ments than GK and GS, changing activ-
ity every 2.8 seconds with a work:rest
ratio of 1:2 (26). These findings are
expected because of the positional
demands placed on GKs and GSs as
they are restricted to the shooting circle
only (35).
Analysis of English Superleague match
play reveals that C players cover up to
8 km, whereas GK and GS cover on
average 4.2 km (26). Additionally, GSs
players cover more distance sprinting
than GKs (370 6 233 versus 69 6 54
m), whereas GKs accumulate more dis-
tance shuffling than GSs (2,037 6 233
versus 1,430 6 272 m). However, no
analysis of WA, WD, GD, or GA posi-
tional demands was made. Given GD
marks GA and GK marks GS, one
could speculate that the physiological
2 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
demands placed on these players
would be fairly matched. This notion
is supported by findings by Chandler
et al. (17) who found WA and WD
players to exhibit similar player load
(load per minute), likely because of
similar court restrictions irrespective
of their attacking and defensive duties,
respectively. Fox et al. (35) revealed
that GD and WD perform the highest
average duration for shuffling, possibly
because of defensive responsibilities as
sprinting, passing, and catching are
associated with attacking play. GD
and WA are shown to be the second
most active positions on court, after C
players (32). These findings are likely
because of the short high-intensity
nature of the roles rather than the con-
stant “running” nature of the C.
Although video footage of player
movement in these roles has been es-
tablished, further research is required
to directly investigate the physiological
demands of these positions.
In support of time-motion analyses,
research indicates that higher standard
players accumulate greater load
per minute (AU) in each position in
all periods of the match (9.96 6 2.50
versus 6.88 6 1.88 AU) than lower stan-
dard players (22). Moreover, lower stan-
dard C players have demonstrated
lower (27.7 6 10.8%) load per minute
in the second half compared with the
first half, whereas the difference
between first and second halves’ load
per minute was unclear in higher stan-
dard players. These findings suggest
that netball players progressing from
lower to higher standard of competition
need to develop the physical qualities
required to enable them to perform at
the required intensity. This substantiates
previous research (95) that physical
characteristics develop across age cate-
gories in academy netball players. Fur-
thermore, accelerometer data have
shown centers to exhibit significantly
greater load per minute than all other
positions in collegiate netball match
play (17,32). Specifically, C players had
higher forward, vertical, and sideward
load per minute than all other positions,
likely because of the least positional
restrictions. Fish and Greig (32) also
found that GSs were exposed to the
lowest load per minute, which was sig-
nificantly lower than all other positions,
except GKs. Similarly, Chandler et al.
(17) found that GKs and GSs exhibited
lower load per minute than all other
positions. These findings suggest that
the physical demands of netball are
position specific because of court re-
strictions; however, it is essential that
these athletes have highly developed
aerobic energy systems to cope with
the total distance covered, recover from
high-intensity bouts, and the duration of
the game.
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
TRAINING AND COMPETITION
To date, there is scarce information
relating to the physical demands on
netball match play and training-related
activities (17,85). Steele (85) summa-
rized the physiological responses to net-
ball training and match play, revealing
50% of match play was performed at an
average of 75–85% of MHR, whereas
43% of training time was spent ,75%
of MHR. This reveals that typical net-
ball training activities do not meet the
physical demands of competition. How-
ever, no comparisons of training modal-
ity were made, making it difficult to
identify the most and least demanding
training activities.
Research by Chandler et al. (17) inves-
tigated the physical demands during
match play and training sessions classi-
fied as skills, game based, traditional
conditioning, or repeated high-
intensity effort training in collegiate net-
ball players. Findings revealed that load
per minute was significantly lower in
match play (6.1 AU) and skills training
(6.0 AU) than all other modes of training
(9.0–18.5 AU). Additionally, mean HR
of skills training was significantly lower
(144 beats per minute) than match play
(174 beats per minute) and all other
modes of training (170–179 beats
per minute), whereas peak HR for skills
training (186 beats per minute) and tra-
ditional conditioning (185 beats
per minute) was like match play (193
beats per minute). These results indicate
that traditional conditioning may best
 replicate the HRs observed during
match play, but skills training may best
replicate the movement demands of
match play, in addition to incorporating
technical aspects of play. Furthermore,
greater accelerations were found in all
planes of movement in game-based con-
ditioning. These findings are likely
because of this mode of training using
reduced player numbers, larger playing
area, and rule changes. Similar physio-
logical responses have been observed
during small-sided games (SSGs) in
team sport practices (51). Another
important finding was no difference in
rating of perceived exertion between
match play and training modes, indicat-
ing a mismatch in the physical and per-
ceptual demands of netball training and
competition. Therefore, more research
is warranted into the perceived exertion
of netball match play and common
training sessions to effectively quantify
training and competition loads. Taken
together, these findings indicate that
an integration of training modalities
may be necessary to prepare netball
players for the high-intensity demands
of competition.
INJURY RISKS
Landing is a fundamental skill of many
movements performed during netball.
Given that running with ball in hand
is a rule violation, players often perform
leaps and bounds to evade opposition
to receive and distribute a pass. There-
fore, the choice of landing is dependent
on the situation and needs of the player.
These explosive jumps combined with
abrupt landing decelerations impose
hazardously high ground reaction
forces (GRFs) on the lower body (83).
These GRFs coupled with incorrect
landing technique have been suggested
as a primary cause of lower-body inju-
ries among female netball players
(83,85,87,88). Previous research has
found the ankle to be the site most com-
monly injured in netball (84%), with
67% determined as lateral ligament
sprains (52). Furthermore, research
demonstrates that anterior cruciate lig-
ament (ACL) rupture is the most com-
mon knee injury in netball. The fact that
females tend to demonstrate greater
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
knee valgus angles and moments,
decreased knee flexion, and higher
GRFs during landing and cutting may
in part explain this increase in ACL
injury risk (33,48,78). However, appro-
priate lower limb control and strength
training have been shown to reduce
knee valgus angles and moments
(44,69) and GRFs and increase ham-
string strength while also improving
performance (46,47). For example, Her-
rington (44) found that performing 3 3
15-minute sessions per week of jump
training for 4 weeks reduced knee val-
gus angle by 9.88–12.38 in female bas-
ketball players while increasing
crossover hop distance jumped by
73.6%. Jump training focused on
appropriate landing strategies while
progressing from bilateral to unilateral
exercises in multiple planes. Correct
landing mechanics and strategies should
be emphasized in closed-skill practices
before progression to open-skill jump
training activities to increase transfer-
ence to netball (45). Stuelcken et al.
(88) investigated 16 ACL injuries sus-
tained by elite-level netball players,
identifying 2 common scenarios for
ACL injury to occur: (a) players
received a perturbation in the air when
jumping to receive or intercept a pass,
leading to an unbalanced landing, and
(b) rotation and lateral flexion of the
trunk relative to foot alignment, before
jump landing was completed. Addition-
ally, 13/16 cases landed with a split- or
single-leg technique, apparent knee val-
gus collapse was identified in 8/12
cases, and the positions in which most
injuries occurred were C and WA (13/
16 cases). These findings support those
by Fox et al. (36) in that C, WA, and
WD players perform more jump land-
ings from leaping and hopping and are
involved in multidirectional movements
during play. Therefore, when training C,
WA, and WD players, a wide range of
bilateral and unilateral landing scenarios
should be employed to ensure game
specificity is met.
Previous research (50,59) has shown
that netball players perform jump land-
ing in forward, vertical, and lateral di-
rections, with the majority performed
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
unilaterally. Similarly, Fox et al. (34)
found unilateral landings to occur fre-
quently in elite netball, concluding that
emphasis should be placed on perform-
ing unilateral landings correctly, in
a wide range of landing scenarios to
ensure game specificity is met.
Research has shown attacking players
to frequently (66% of the time) perform
jumps with turns while in flight, in
addition to performing a subsequent
jump upon landing 32% of the time
(62). Therefore, it is likely that different
landings from different jumps per-
formed are specific to the positional
demands and the in-game scenario.
Several studies have revealed that play-
ers produced landing forces of 2.4–5.7
times body weight (BW) for vertical
GRF and 2.0–4.6 times BW for hori-
zontal GRF when landing or coming
to an abrupt stop during laboratory ex-
periments (67,83,84) with the majority
being unilateral landings and GRFs
occurring within the first 30% of the
landing phase, indicating the rate of
loading to be an important factor in
the risk of ACL injury.
ANAEROBIC QUALITIES:
STRENGTH, POWER, SPEED, AND
AGILITY
Sprinting and change of direction
(COD) require high levels of relative
strength to overcome inertia and control
BW through acceleration and decelera-
tion, respectively (81,82). Research has
found GRFs of 1.65–4.22 times body
mass (BM) during COD in volleyball
athletes (6). Therefore, greater levels of
maximum strength may improve an ath-
lete’s ability to hold static and dynamic
positions, such as sprinting and COD
(64,81,82), thus providing a greater accel-
eration, acceptance of higher eccentric
forces, and greater frequency of repeated
high-intensity exercise (24,25).
The normative research data for net-
ball players range from 0.34 to 0.41 m
and 0.35 to 0.46 m for squat jump (SJ)
and countermovement jump (CMJ)
height, respectively (93,95). These
scores are greater than female basket-
ball data (0.25–0.48 m) (41,61), illus-
trating superior strength and power
3
 Netball Needs Analysis
in female netball players. It has been
reported that a strength discrepancy
of $10–15% between limbs is consid-
ered a significant muscle strength
asymmetry (MSA) (57), but it is
inconclusive whether such imbalances
affect athletic performance or a greater
risk of injury. Isometric asymmetrical
differences have been observed between
dominant and nondominant limbs for
peak force and time-specific force val-
ues (1–3,73), with researchers reporting
larger MSA in weaker female athletes
compared with stronger athletes
(3,73). Moreover, larger MSAs have
been associated with lower jump
heights and lower peak power in loaded
and unloaded jumps (1). Therefore,
strength training recommendations to
reduce MSA are found to be equally
proficient at improving jumping, land-
ing, and COD on both limbs, thus high-
lighting the importance of maximum
strength in netball players because of
the high-intensity COD, jump landing,
and injury risks associated with the
sport. MSA has typically been assessed
via isokinetic dynamometry, isometric
midthigh pull, vertical jumping, and
horizontal hop tasks (28,49,55,63,70),
with the magnitude of MSA likely task
dependent. Furthermore, Hewit et al.
(49,50) reported that using jump tests
only performed in one direction may
not represent an accurate player profile,
as jump performance in one direction
may not necessarily predict jump per-
formance in another. Therefore, the
inclusion of a unilateral measure of hor-
izontal hop performance, such as a sin-
gle hop for distance, is recommended.
When compared with Australian
under 17 netball players (93,95), United
Kingdom regional academy under 17
players had faster 5-m (1.25 6 0.09
versus 1.15 6 0.07 seconds) and 10-m
sprint times (2.07 6 0.10 versus 1.98 6
0.08 seconds). These findings are sim-
ilar to those found between under 19
age groups in the same athlete cohorts
(5 m: 1.24 6 0.08 versus 1.10 6 0.07
seconds; 10 m: 2.06 6 0.09 versus 1.94
6 0.08 seconds) (93,95). However,
these differences do not appear to be
the product of superior strength levels.
4 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Data from Australian netball scholar-
ship players reveals similar lower limb
maximum strength data, in terms of
both absolute and relative strength per-
formances (absolute: 71.4 6 12.6 ver-
sus 71.5 6 7.8 kg; relative: 1.0 6
0.2 versus 1.1 6 0.1 kg) in a 3 repetition
maximum (RM) back squat (93).
These findings suggest that maximal
strength and speed development
should be emphasized as part of
a periodized training program, ensur-
ing appropriate development of each
component dependent on the athletes’
specific needs.
Professional netball players have been
reported to execute a change in activ-
ity pattern on average every 6 seconds
(26,35). However, positional and court
restrictions prevent players from
achieving a maximal velocity. There-
fore, the ability to change velocity or
direction to evade a defender or when
reacting to an attacker plays an
important role in netball performance
(35,37). Accordingly, agility and COD
tests are commonly included in netball
physical performance testing batteries
to evaluate the physical attributes
which underpin these performance
qualities. The 505 is a commonly used
test to assess COD in team sport ath-
letes (5,72,81,82). Previous studies
have reported 505 time to range from
2.43 to 2.59 seconds in netball players
(5,95). These values are similar to
those reported in female collegiate
basketball players (2.43–3.03 seconds)
(81,82), highlighting similar COD abil-
ities between the 2 sports. In contrast,
Farrow et al. (31) found that netball
players were able to demonstrate faster
time to completion during a reactive
agility test than previously reported in
female basketball players (3.57–3.83
versus 4.47–5.34 seconds) (81). Farrow
et al. (31) also found that moderately
and highly skilled netball players were
able to perform agility testing signifi-
cantly faster than less skilled players.
This finding is consistent with findings
of past studies (38,77,99), revealing
agility testing can distinguish between
higher and lower level players but
COD testing cannot.
AEROBIC CAPACITY
Previous research suggests that aerobic
and anaerobic performances are of
high importance in team sport ath-
letes, with higher level players achiev-
ing greater distances in the Yo-Yo
intermittent recovery test level 2 com-
pared with lower level players (4).
Research using the Yo-Yo intermittent
recovery test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) found
that national team players from Aus-
tralia achieve greater distances than
under 17 and under 19 players (1,492
versus 1,013 and 1,320 m, respectively)
(93). The Yo-Yo IR1 determines a play-
er’s ability to recover from and repeat-
edly perform high-intensity exercise
(60). Research shows that peak speed
reached during the Yo-Yo IR1 is related
(r 5 0.75–0.83) to VO2max-related var-
iables in soccer players (16). However,
the Yo-Yo IR1 test has limitations in
testing and prescribing training in
intermittent team sport athletes.
Although the Yo-Yo IR is a popular test
to administer, final velocity achieved
during the Yo-Yo IR tests does not
allow for individualized high-intensity
training (HIT) (10,30). In contrast, final
velocity (VIFT) achieved during the 30-
15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15IFT)
has been shown to be more accurate
(coefficient of variation 5 3%) for indi-
vidualizing HIT in team sport athletes
than when using continuously deter-
mined running speeds (10). Recent evi-
dence suggests that the 30-15IFT
demonstrates high validity and reliabil-
ity in athletes competing in handball,
basketball, soccer, ice hockey, and
rugby league (9,42,75). Thus, the 30-
15IFT is highly specific, not to netball
but, to the HIT sessions commonly
performed in intermittent team sports
(11). Regional academy netball players
demonstrate VIFT values ranging from
16.40 to 18.14 km/h during the 30-
15IFT (95). The majority of these scores
are similar to those reported in male
and female handball, male soccer, and
rugby league (11,75), illustrating that
high levels of cardiorespiratory fitness
are required for netball competition,
despite the positional restrictions
placed upon players. In general, it is
 Table 1
Battery of field- and gym-based tests suitable for netball players
Skinfold assessment
Identifies body fat percentage. This assessment is to enable the regulation of nonfunctional mass, which would impede
performance by reducing propulsion and exercise economy by the muscular system having to continuously overcome the
body’s inertia.
SJ
Measure of lower-body explosive performance. Allows the calculation of SSC performance using different equations including
RSI, EUR, PSA. If coaches have access to a force platform, then the DSI can be calculated by the formula: SJ peak force/
isometric midthigh pull peak force.
Countermovement jump
Measure of lower-body explosive performance
Drop jump (0.3 m)
Measure of an athlete’s SSC ability from dividing jump height by ground contact time to determine RSI. Additionally, if
equipment is not available to measure ground contact time, researchers and practitioners can simply monitor jump height as
the performance measure.
Single hop
Measure of MSA. Using jump tests only performed in one direction may not represent an accurate player profile, as jump
performance in one direction may not necessarily predict jump performance in another (49,50). Additionally, horizontal hop
tests are commonly used to assess both performance and injury risk (63,68).
5- and 10-m sprint
Evaluation of acceleration and short-sprint performance. Sprint distances are indicative of mean sprint durations during match
play (26,34), given netball players rarely sprint distances to achieve a maximum velocity.
Modified 505 CODS
Assesses an athlete’s ability to change direction. The modified 505 is recommended because of the inclusion of a single change
in direction. Furthermore, as 505 time is highly influenced by linear sprint speed, a more isolated measure of CODS can be
calculated via the COD deficit formula: mean modified 505 time 2 mean 10-m sprint time (71).
Isometric midthigh pull
Measure of isometric lower-body strength, which is strongly correlated with jumping (59), sprinting (94), and changing
direction (81). Performance of this test requires the use of a force platform to determine an athlete’s isometric force-time
characteristics.
1RM back squat
Measure of maximum muscular strength, which as described is significantly related to jumping, sprinting, and changing
direction. This should only be included once an athletes’ technique is of sufficient standard.
30-15IFT
Measure of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, intereffort recovery ability, anaerobic speed reserve, and COD ability. The 30-15IFT
allows prescription of individual HIT based on VIFT achieved during the test to achieve the desired physiological responses
and adaptations. The velocity attained during the last completed stage is noted as the player’s VIFT
30-15IFT 5 30-15 intermittent fitness test; CODS 5 change of direction speed; EUR 5 eccentric utilization ratio; HIT 5 high-intensity training;
MSA 5 muscle strength asymmetry; PSA 5 prestretch augmentation; RM 5 repetition maximum; RSI 5 reactive strength index; SSC 5 stretch-
shorten cycle; VIFT 5 maximal intermittent running velocity.

suggested that the aerobic fitness levels Research in rugby union has shown (92). Furthermore, players who show
of female netball players should be aerobic performance to strongly relate greater levels of lower-body strength
developed to the highest levels because (r 5 0.75) to distance covered during and high-intensity running ability
of the intermittent nature of the sport. match play in elite rugby union players (Yo-Yo IR1) demonstrate lesser change

5
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Netball Needs Analysis

Table 2
Example strength endurance program

Session 1 Session 2

Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM) Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM)

Back squat 2–3 10–12 70–80 Front squat 2–3 10–12 70–80
Split squat 2–3 10–12 70–80 RFESS 2–3 10–12 70–80
RDL 2–3 10–12 70–80 Deadlift 2–3 10–12 70–80
Press-ups 2–3 10–12 BW Chin-ups 2–3 10–12 BW
Drop landings 2–3 4–6 0.30 m box Nordic curls 3 3 BW
BW 5 body weight; RDL 5 Romanian deadlift; Reps 5 repetitions; RFESS 5 rear foot elevated split squat; RM 5 repetition maximum.

in creatine kinase levels after match
play, despite performing more repeated
high-intensity efforts than players of
lower fitness and strength levels on
Yo-Yo IR1 performance (56). There-
fore, a higher level of aerobic condi-
tioning is likely to enable the
netballer to practice and compete lon-
ger at higher intensities.
FITNESS TESTING BATTERY
Based on the needs analysis conducted
above, a suggested battery of tests have
been identified to assist researchers
and practitioners in determining a net-
ball player’s level of development for
each of these physical qualities
(Table 1). This information plays an
important role in the evaluation of
training effects and can provide a ratio-
nale with which to individualize
strength training programs to improve
specific physical qualities required for
successful netball performance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
STRENGTH TRAINING
RECOMMENDATIONS
Several studies have documented the
importance of relative maximum
strength within athletic performance
(91). This may be explained by the fact
that peak GRFs and impulse are strong
determinants of netball-specific ac-
tions, such as jumping, sprinting, and
COD (27,54,80,81,96–98). Greater
lower limb relative strength is required
to overcome the inertia of BM and im-
proves an individual’s ability to accel-
erate and decelerate during actions,
such as jumping, sprinting, and COD,
thereby reducing injury risk and perfor-
mance decrement (24,25,86).
McBride et al. (64) demonstrated that
collegiate football players with a high
relative strength ($2.1 kg/kg) in the
back squat had significantly faster sprint
times (10 and 40 yd) compared with
players with a lower relative strength
(,1.9 kg/kg). These results are likely
attributed to the fact that high levels
of strength and acceleration are
required to overcome the inertia of
the BM. Similarly, Hori et al. (53) found
that athletes with a greater 1RM hang
power clean performance (top 50%)
demonstrated significantly superior 20-
m sprint and CMJ performances than
those in the bottom 50%.
The strong relationships between rela-
tive maximum strength and netball-
specific performance measures might
be explained by the fact that athletes
who exhibit greater strength levels are
able to produce higher propulsive GRFs
and impulse during actions, such as
jumping, sprinting, and changing direc-
tion (27,54,80,81,96–98). Also, training-

Table 3
Example strength program
Session 1 Session 2

Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM) Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM)
Back squat 3–5 4–6 80–85 Deadlift 3–5 4–6 80–85
Lunge 3–5 4–6 80–85 Midthigh clean pull 3–5 4–6 120–140
RDL 3–5 4–6 80–85 Leg press 3–5 4–6 80–85
Military press 3–5 4–6 BW Chin-ups 3–5 4–6 BW
Drop landings 2–3 4–6 0.30 m box Nordic curls 3 3 BW
BW 5 body weight; RDL 5 Romanian deadlift; Reps 5 repetitions; RM 5 repetition maximum.

6 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Table 4
Example power training program

Session 1 Session 2

Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM) Exercise Sets Reps Intensity (% 1RM)
a
Jump shrug 3–5 4–6 30–45 Midthigh clean pull 3–5 4–6 40–60a
Deadlift 3–5 4–6 80–85 Back squat 3–5 4–6 80–85
Push press 3–5 4–6 50–70a CMJ 3–5 4–6 BW
Depth jumps 3–5 4–6 BW Nordics 3 3 BW
a
Repetitions, sets, and loads are all recommendations from National Strength and Conditioning Association (2015) with exceptions of jump shrug
(percent 1RM hang power clean) (84), push press (20), and midthigh clean pull (21).

BW 5 body weight; CMJ 5 countermovement jump; Reps 5 repetitions; RM 5 repetition maximum.

induced increases in measures of maxi-
mum strength have been shown to result
in improved jump, sprint, and COD per-
formances (58,72,76,89,91) while reduc-
ing MSA in weaker athletes (7). It is
therefore likely that being equally profi-
cient in producing and accepting GRFs
on both limbs for jumping, sprinting, and
COD will improve netball performance
because of the number of high-intensity
bouts, unilateral jump landings, and un-
predicted COD.
Previous research has shown that im-
provements in relative strength
improve sprint performances (76,91).
Throughout a 20-week competitive
season in female softball players (72),
sprint performances were significantly
faster (21.7%, effect size [ES] 5
20.20) from pre- to mid-training and
2.8% (ES 5 20.53) from pre- to post-
training. In addition, absolute and rel-
ative back squat 1RM significantly
increased with small-to-moderate
effect from pre- to posttraining
(10.3%, ES 5 0.73; 12.2%, ES 5 0.48,
respectively) and from pre- to mid-
training values (10.7%, ES 5 0.65;
10.7%, ES 5 0.39, respectively). Similar
to findings in youth soccer players (18),
Comfort et al. (19) found increases in
relative strength were accompanied by
improvements in sprint performance
over 8 weeks of training in professional
rugby league players.
High-power movements such as weight-
lifting exercises and similar movements
such as depth jumps, jump squats, etc.
are beneficial to improve netball-specific
performance measures like jumping,
sprinting, and COD because of the
kinetic and kinematic similarities
between the tasks (53,81,82). Although
beneficial, many inconsistencies exist
across research regarding the load to

Table 5
Example neuromuscular training program
Training phase Training focus Example exercise

Strength endurance Technique and landing mechanics— Bilateral exercises: drop landings, SJs in place, box jumps, broad
mesocycle single plane jumps, forward jumps over hurdles
Unilateral exercises: hop and holds, drop landings, split squats,
walking lunges, reverse lunges, single-leg balance drills
Strength mesocycle Eccentric and concentric strength— Bilateral exercises: drop landings, continuous jumps and stick, box
multiple plane jumps, broad jumps, lateral jumps over hurdles, zigzag jumps,
908 jumps
Unilateral exercises: hop and holds, drop landings, walking lunges,
reverse lunges, single-leg balance drills, 908 hops
Power mesocycle Reactive strength—multiple plane Bilateral exercises: depth jumps, depth jump to broad jump,
continuous tuck jumps, continuous forward jumps over
hurdles, box jumps, 1808 jumps
Unilateral exercises: continuous hop and stick, crossover hop,
continuous lateral hops, split SJs, 1808 hops
SJ 5 squat jump.

7
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Netball Needs Analysis

Table 6
Example HIT program

Training phase Mode of HIT Example session

Strength endurance mesocycle Long and short intervals LIT: 5 3 3-min intermittent running (90% MAS/77% VIFT )
interspersed with 90 s of passive recovery
SIT: 2 sets of 12–15 3 15-s intermittent running (120% MAS/102%
VIFT ) interspersed with 15 s of passive recovery
Strength mesocycle Short intervals 2 sets of 12–15 3 15-s intermittent running (130% MAS/110%
VIFT ) interspersed with 20 s of passive recovery
Power mesocycle SSG 2 sets of 3–4 min games played 4 versus 4, interspersed with 2 min
of passive recovery
HIT 5 high-intensity training; LIT 5 HIT with long intervals; MAS 5 maximal aerobic speed; SIT 5 HIT with short intervals; SSG 5 small-sided
games; VIFT 5 peak speed reached at the 30-15IFT.

which produces optimum peak power
output. Additionally, the optimal load
may be specific to the exercise and joint,
system, or bar power output (66). For
example, during the clean pull from the
floor, no difference in peak power has
been observed between 90 and 120%
1RM power clean (40). In contrast, the
greatest peak power output during the
jump shrug occurs at 30–45% 1RM hang
power clean (90), whereas the greatest
peak power and velocity occur at 40%
1RM power clean during the midthigh
clean pull (21). Peak power appears to
occur at approximately 0–30% 1RM in
jumping exercises (SJs, jump squats,
loaded jumps, etc.) (23,65). Possible
reasons for the inconsistencies in these
findings are because of different mea-
surement methods, knee angles, strength
levels, and the varied training histories of
subjects tested. Taken together, these
findings indicate that to increase power,
a variety of loading schemes for all ex-
ercises should be used and may be im-
plemented (39). Furthermore, strength
and power should be developed in
a mixed manner to allow for a more
complete adaptation across the entire
force-velocity curve (39). Additionally,
strength and power training should con-
tinue to be developed during the in-
season, with recent work by Carr et al.
(15) demonstrating the demands of the
competitive cricket season and that cur-
rent in-season training practices do not
provide a sufficient stimulus to maintain
strength, jump, and sprint performances
in English county cricketers. Rønnestad
et al. (74) found that professional soccer
players who performed one strength
maintenance training session per week
were better able to maintain strength,
sprint, and jump performances com-
pared with players who performed
one strength maintenance training ses-
sion every second week. Similarly, Sil-
vestre et al. (79) found that collegiate
soccer players who performed strength
and plyometric sessions maintained
maximum strength, sprint, and jump
performances across a 16-week compet-
itive season. Taken collectively, these
data indicate performing in-season
strength and power training results in
maintenance of maximum strength,
sprint, and jump performances (Tables
2–5).
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
CONDITIONING TRAINING
RECOMMENDATIONS
Anaerobic performance is of high
importance in netball players in order
to be first to the ball before an oppo-
nent, perform frequent accelerations,
sprints, and jumps and to tolerate the
pace of the game. Similarly, high levels
of aerobic performance are needed to
play the duration of the match, main-
tain the level of intensity throughout
the match, and recover quickly
between high-intensity bouts. A num-
ber of studies have found that HIT
has shown to induce substantial im-
provements in maximal aerobic
capacity and endurance performance
(12,43). Billat (8) defined HIT as
“repeated short (10 seconds to 1 minute)
to long (2–4 minutes) bouts of rather
high-intensity exercise interspersed
with recovery periods.” Numerous
HIT modalities, including short inter-
vals, repeated sprint training, sprint
interval training, and SSGs, have been
used to successfully develop aerobic
endurance in team sport athletes
(12,43). Research has found that 2 times
per week 6–12 minutes of intermittent
running for 15 seconds (95% VIFT)
interspersed with 15 seconds of passive
recovery, for 10 consecutive weeks,
improved VIFT and mean repeated
sprint time in young handball players
(13). In the same study, the authors
found handball-specific SSGs to be an
equally effective training mode for train-
ing adolescent handball players.
Handball-specific SSGs were organized
in 4-a-side teams, consisting of 2–4 3
2 minutes 30 seconds to 4-minute
games, for 10 consecutive weeks, with
additional coach encouragement and
rule modifications to avoid game inter-
ruption and promote a high intensity of
exercises during play. Dupont et al. (29)
found that 2 series of 12–15 intermittent
runs at 120% maximal aerobic speed
(MAS) interspersed with 15 seconds
of passive recovery, performed 1 time
per week for 10 consecutive weeks, sig-
nificantly improved 40-m sprint time
and MAS in professional soccer players.
Dupont et al. (29) also found that

8 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 performing 12–15, 40-m repeated
sprints interspersed with 30 seconds of
passive recovery, 1 time per week, also
contributed to improved sprint and
MAS performances. Furthermore, the
soccer team won 77.8% of its games
during the 10-week intervention
period compared with 33.3% during
the control period (normal technical
and tactical skills, games, and
matches). Buchheit et al. (14) found
that performing sprint interval training
for 4 consecutive weeks consisting of
3–6 repetitions of 30-second all-out
shuttle sprints over 40 m, interspersed
with 2 minutes of passive recovery,
demonstrated improvements in VIFT
but only trivial changes in acceleration
and repeated sprint measures, in well-
trained male handball players. How-
ever, a number of studies show that
the physiological responses to HIT
sessions are highly variable and train-
ing modality specific (10). Therefore,
choosing the “right” HIT modality,
practitioners must consider (a) individ-
ual needs, (b) HIT responses to tech-
nical and skills sessions, and (c)
integration into the micro- and meso-
cycle when selecting and implement-
ing HIT sessions (Table 6).
CONCLUSIONS
It is highly recommended that netball
players develop high levels of relative
bilateral and unilateral strength and
power because it is likely to transfer
to sprint and jump performances
while improving lower limb control
to reduce the risk of common injuries.
Netball players should use HIT meth-
ods to improve their aerobic and
anaerobic endurances in line with
the physiological demands of compe-
tition. More research is needed to
better understand the workloads of
netball players of different competi-
tion levels and the strength and
power characteristics of netball play-
ers to establish normative values for
monitoring and assessment of netball
player’s strengths and weaknesses.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Christopher Thomas is a PhD student
in Biomechanics and Strength and Con-
ditioning at the University of Salford.
Paul Comfort is a Senior Lecturer and
program leader of the MSc Strength and
Conditioning at the University of
Salford.
Paul A. Jones is a Lecturer in Biome-
chanics and Strength and Conditioning
at the University of Salford, UK.
Thomas Dos’Santos is a PhD student
in Biomechanics and Strength and Con-
ditioning at the University of Salford.
REFERENCES
1. Bailey C, Sato K, Alexander R, Chiang CY,
and Stone MH. Isometric force production
symmetry and jumping performance in
collegiate athletes. J Trainology 2: 1–5,
2013.
2. Bailey CA, Sato K, Burnett A, and Stone
MH. Carry-over of force production
symmetry in athletes of differing strength
levels. J Strength Cond Res 29: 3188–
3196, 2015.
3. Bailey CA, Sato K, Burnett A, and Stone
MH. Force-production asymmetry in male
and female athletes of differing strength
levels. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 10:
504–508, 2015.
4. Bangsbo J, Iaia FM, and Krustrup P. The
Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test. Sports
Med 38: 37–51, 2008.
5. Barber OR, Thomas C, Jones PA,
McMahon JJ, and Comfort P. Reliability of
the 505 change of direction test in netball
players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 11:
377–380, 2016.
6. Barnes JL, Schilling BK, Falvo MJ, Weiss
LW, Creasy AK, and Fry AC. Relationship
of jumping and agility performance in
female volleyball athletes. J Strength Cond
Res 21: 1192–1196, 2007.
7. Bazyler CD, Bailey CA, Chiang CY, Sato K,
and Stone MH. The effects of strength
training on isometric force production
symmetry in recreationally trained males.
J Trainology 3: 6–10, 2014.
8. Billat LV. Interval training for performance:
A scientific and empirical practice. Sports
Med 31: 13–31, 2001.
9. Buchheit M. The 30-15 intermittent fitness
test: Reliability and implication for interval
training of intermittent sport players.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
Presented at: 10th European Congress of
Sport Science; July 13–16, 2005;
Belgrade, Serbia.
10. Buchheit M. The 30-15 intermittent fitness
test: Accuracy for individualizing interval
training of young intermittent sport players.
J Strength Cond Res 22: 365–374, 2008.
11. Buchheit M. The 30–15 intermittent fitness
test: 10 year review. Myorobie J 1: 1–9,
2010.
12. Buchheit M and Laursen P. High-
intensity interval training, solutions to the
programming puzzle: Part II: Anaerobic
energy, neuromuscular load and
practical applications. Sports Med 43:
927–955, 2013.
13. Buchheit M, Laursen P, Kuhnle J, Ruch D,
Renaud C, and Ahmaidi S. Game-based
training in young elite handball players. Int J
Sports Med 30: 251–258, 2009.
14. Buchheit M, Mendez-Villanueva A, Quod
M, Quesnel T, and Ahmaidi S. Improving
acceleration and repeated sprint ability in
well-trained adolescent handball players:
Speed versus sprint interval training. Int J
Sports Physiol Perform 5: 152–164,
2010.
15. Carr C, McMahon J, and Comfort P.
Changes in strength, power and speed
across a season in English county
cricketers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 12:
50–55, 2016.
16. Castagna C, Impellizzeri F, Chamari K,
Carlomagno D, and Rampinini E. Aerobic
fitness and yo-yo continuous and
intermittent tests performances in soccer
players: A correlation study. J Strength
Cond Res 20: 320, 2006.
17. Chandler PT, Pinder SJ, Curran JD, and
Gabbett TJ. Physical demands of training
and competition in collegiate netball
players. J Strength Cond Res 28: 2732–
2737, 2014.
18. Chelly MS, Fathloun M, Cherif N, Amar MB,
Tabka Z, and Van Praagh E. Effects of
a back squat training program on leg
power, jump, and sprint performances in
junior soccer players. J Strength Cond Res
23: 2241–2249, 2009.
19. Comfort P, Haigh A, and Matthews MJ. Are
changes in maximal squat strength during
preseason training reflected in changes in
sprint performance in rugby league
players? J Strength Cond Res 26: 772–
776, 2012.
20. Comfort P, Mundy PD, Graham-Smith P,
Jones PA, Smith LC, and Lake JP.
Comparison of peak power output during
exercises with similar lower-limb
kinematics. J Trainology 5: 1–5, 2016.
9
 Netball Needs Analysis
21. Comfort P, Udall R, and Jones PA. The
effect of loading on kinematic and
kinetic variables during the midthigh
clean pull. J Strength Cond Res 26:
1208–1214, 2012.
22. Cormack SJ, Smith RL, Mooney MM,
Young WB, and O’Brien BJ.
Accelerometer load as a measure of activity
profile in different standards of netball
match play. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 9:
283–291, 2014.
23. Cormie P, McCaulley GO, Triplett NT, and
McBride JM. Optimal loading for maximal
power output during lower-body
resistance exercises. Med Sci Sports
Exerc 39: 340, 2007.
24. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
Adaptations in athletic performance after
ballistic power versus strength training. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 42: 1582–1598, 2010.
25. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
Influence of strength on magnitude and
mechanisms of adaptation to power
training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 1566–
1581, 2010.
26. Davidson A and Trewartha G.
Understanding the physiological demands
of netball: A time-motion investigation. Int J
Perform Anal Sport 8: 1–17, 2008.
27. Dos’Santos T, Paul CT, Jones A, and
Comfort P. Mechanical determinants of
faster change of direction speed
performance in male athletes. J Strength
Cond Res 2016. [Epub ahead of print].
28. Dos’Santos T, Thomas C, Jones P, and
Comfort P. Assessing muscle strength
asymmetry via a unilateral stance
isometric mid-thigh pull. Int J Sports
Physiol Perform 2016. [Epub ahead of
print].
29. Dupont G, Akakpo K, and Berthoin S. The
effect of in-season, high-intensity interval
training in soccer players. J Strength Cond
Res 18: 584–589, 2004.
30. Dupont G, Defontaine M, Bosquet L,
Blondel N, Moalla W, and Berthoin S. Yo-
Yo intermittent recovery test versus the
Universite de Montreal Track Test: Relation
with a high-intensity intermittent exercise.
J Sci Med Sport 13: 146–150, 2010.
31. Farrow D, Young W, and Bruce L. The
development of a test of reactive agility for
netball: A new methodology. J Sci Med
Sport 8: 52–60, 2005.
32. Fish K and Greig M. The influence of
playing position on the biomechanical
demands of netball match-play. J Athl
Enhanc 3: 1–5, 2014.
33. Ford KR, Myer GD, and Hewett TE. Valgus
knee motion during landing in high school
10 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
female and male basketball players. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 35: 1745–1750, 2003.
34. Fox A, Spittle M, Otago L, and Saunders N.
An investigation of in-game landings in elite
netball: Implications for injury risk. J Sci
Med Sport 15: S229, 2012.
35. Fox A, Spittle M, Otago L, and Saunders
N. Activity profiles of the Australian
female netball team players during
international competition: Implications
for training practice. J Sports Sci 31:
1588–1595, 2013.
36. Fox AS, Spittle M, Otago L, and Saunders
N. Descriptive analysis of landings during
international netball competition:
Enhancing ecological validity of laboratory
testing environments. Int J Perform Anal
Sport 13: 690–702, 2013.
37. Fox A, Spittle M, Otago L, and Saunders N.
Offensive agility techniques performed
during international netball competition. Int
J Sports Sci Coach 9: 543–552, 2014.
38. Gabbett TJ, Kelly JN, and Sheppard JM.
Speed, change of direction speed, and
reactive agility of rugby league players.
J Strength Cond Res 22: 174–181, 2008.
39. Haff GG and Nimphius S. Training
principles for power. Strength Cond J 34:
2–12, 2012.
40. Haff G, Whitley A, McCoy L, O’Bryant H,
Kilgore JL, Haff E, Pierce K, and Stone M.
Effects of different set configurations on
barbell velocity and displacement during
a clean pull. J Strength Cond Res 17:
95–103, 2003.
41. Häkkinen K. Force production
characteristics of leg extensor, trunk flexor
and extensor muscles in male and female
basketball players. J Sports Med Phys
Fitness 31: 325–331, 1991.
42. Haydar B and Buchheit ML. 30–15
intermittent fitness test-application pour le
Basketball. Pivot 2–5, 2009.
43. Helgerud J, Engen LC, Wisloff U, and Hoff
J. Aerobic endurance training improves
soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc
33: 1925–1931, 2001.
44. Herrington L. The effects of 4 weeks of
jump training on landing knee valgus and
crossover hop performance in female
basketball players. J Strength Cond Res
24: 3427–3432, 2010.
45. Herrington LC and Comfort P. Training
for prevention of ACL injury:
Incorporation of progressive landing skill
challenges into a program. Strength
Cond J 35: 59–65, 2013.
46. Hewett TE, Ford KR, and Myer GD.
Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in female
athletes: Part 2, a meta-analysis of
neuromuscular interventions aimed at injury
prevention. Am J Sports Med 34: 490–
498, 2006.
47. Hewett TE and Myer GD. Reducing knee
and anterior cruciate ligament injuries
among female athletes: A systematic review
of neuromuscular training interventions.
J Knee Surg 18: 82–88, 2005.
48. Hewett TE, Myer GD, Ford KR, Heidt RS,
Colosimo AJ, McLean SG, Van den Bogert
AJ, Paterno MV, and Succop P.
Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular
control and valgus loading of the knee
predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk
in female athletes a prospective study. Am
J Sports Med 33: 492–501, 2005.
49. Hewit JK, Cronin JB, and Hume PA.
Asymmetry in multi-directional jumping
tasks. Phys Ther Sport 13: 238–242,
2012.
50. Hewit J, Cronin J, and Hume P.
Multidirectional leg asymmetry assessment
in sport. Strength Cond J 34: 82–86,
2012.
51. Hill-Haas SV, Dawson B, Impellizzeri FM,
and Coutts AJ. Physiology of small-sided
games training in football: A systematic
review. Sports Med 41: 199–220, 2011.
52. Hopper D, Elliott B, and Lalor J. A
descriptive epidemiology of netball injuries
during competition: A five year study. Br J
Sports Med 29: 223–228, 1995.
53. Hori N, Newton RU, Andrews WA,
Kawamori N, McGuigan MR, and Nosaka
K. Does performance of hang power clean
differentiate performance of jumping,
sprinting, and changing of direction?
J Strength Cond Res 22: 412–418, 2008.
54. Hunter JP, Marshall RN, and McNair PJ.
Relationships between ground reaction
force impulse and kinematics of sprint-
running acceleration. J Appl Biomech 21:
31–43, 2005.
55. Impellizzeri FM, Rampinini E, Maffiuletti N,
and Marcora SM. A vertical jump force test
for assessing bilateral strength asymmetry
in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39:
2044–2050, 2007.
56. Johnston RD, Gabbett TJ, Jenkins DG, and
Hulin BT. Influence of physical qualities on
post-match fatigue in rugby league players.
J Sci Med Sport 18: 209–213, 2015.
57. Kannus P. Isokinetic evaluation of muscular
performance: Implications for muscle
testing and rehabilitation. Int J Sports Med
15: S11–S18, 1994.
58. Keiner M, Sander A, Wirth K, and
Schmidtbleicher D. Long-term strength
training effects on change-of-direction
 sprint performance. J Strength Cond Res
28: 223–231, 2014.
59. Kraska JM, Ramsey MW, Haff GG, Fethke
N, Sands WA, Stone ME, and Stone MH.
Relationship between strength
characteristics and unweighted and
weighted vertical jump height. Int J Sports
Physiol Perform 4: 461–473, 2009.
60. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Amstrup T, Rysgaard
T, Johansen J, Steensberg A, Pedersen PK,
and Bangsbo J. The yo-yo intermittent
recovery test: Physiological response,
reliability, and validity. Med Sci Sports
Exerc 35: 697–705, 2003.
61. Lamonte M, Mckinnex J, Quinn S,
Bainbridge C, and Eisenmann P.
Comparison of physical and physiological
variables for female college basketball
players. J Strength Cond Res 13: 264–
270, 1999.
62. Lavipour D. Development of a Netball
Specific Dynamic Balance Assessment
[thesis, dissertation]: Auckland University
of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand,
2011.
63. Lockie RG, Callaghan SJ, Berry SP, Cooke
ERA, Jordan CA, Luczo TM, and Jeffriess
MD. Relationship between unilateral
jumping ability and asymmetry on
multidirectional speed in team-sport
athletes. J Strength Cond Res 28: 3557–
3566, 2014.
64. McBride JM, Blow D, Kirby TJ, Haines TL,
Dayne AM, and Triplett NT. Relationship
between maximal squat strength and five,
ten, and forty yard sprint times. J Strength
Cond Res 23: 1633–1636, 2009.
65. McBride JM, Triplett-Mcbride T, Davie A,
and Newton RU. A comparison of strength
and power characteristics between power
lifters, olympic lifters, and sprinters.
J Strength Cond Res 13: 58–66, 1999.
66. Moir GL, Gollie JM, Davis SE, Guers JJ, and
Witmer CA. The effects of load on system
and lower-body joint kinetics during jump
squats. Sports Biomech 11: 492–506,
2012.
67. Mothersole GA, Cronin JB, and Harris NK.
Key prerequisite factors influencing landing
forces in netball. Strength Cond J 35: 47–
54, 2013.
68. Munro AG and Herrington LC. Between-
session reliability of four hop tests and the
agility T-test. J Strength Cond Res 25:
1470–1477, 2011.
69. Myer GD, Ford KR, Palumbo OP, and
Hewett TE. Neuromuscular training
improves performance and lower-extremity
biomechanics in female athletes.
J Strength Cond Res 19: 51–60, 2005.
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
70. Newton RU, Gerber A, Nimphius S, Shim
JK, Doan BK, Robertson M, Pearson DR,
Craig BW, Hakinnen K, and Kraemer WJ.
Determination of functional strength
imbalance of the lower extremities.
J Strength Cond Res 20: 971–977, 2006.
71. Nimphius S, Geib G, Spiteri T, and Carlisle
D. Change of direction deficit
measurement in division I American football
players. J Aust Strength Cond 21: 115–
117, 2013.
72. Nimphius S, McGuigan MR, and Newton
RU. Changes in muscle architecture and
performance during a competitive season
in female softball players. J Strength Cond
Res 26: 2655–2666, 2012.
73. Owens E, Serrano A, Ramsey M,
Mizuguchi S, Johnston B, and Stone M.
Comparing lower-limb asymmetries in
NCAA DI male and female athletes.
J Strength Cond Res 25: S44–S45,
2011.
74. Rønnestad BR, Nymark BS, and Raastad T.
Effects of in-season strength maintenance
training frequency in professional soccer
players. J Strength Cond Res 25: 2653–
2660, 2011.
75. Scott TJ, Delaney JA, Duthie GM,
Sanctuary C, Ballard DA, Hickmans JA, and
Dascombe BJ. The reliability and
usefulness of the 30-15 intermittent fitness
test in rugby league. J Strength Cond Res
29: 1985–1990, 2015.
76. Seitz LB, Reyes A, Tran TT, de Villarreal ES,
and Haff GG. Increases in lower-body
strength transfer positively to sprint
performance: A systematic review with
meta-analysis. Sports Med 44: 1693–
1702, 2014.
77. Serpell BG, Ford M, and Young WB. The
development of a new test of agility for
rugby league. J Strength Cond Res 24:
3270–3277, 2010.
78. Sigward SM, Cesar GM, and Havens KL.
Predictors of frontal plane knee moments
during side-step cutting to 45 and 110
degrees in men and women: Implications
for anterior cruciate ligament injury. Clin J
Sport Med 25: 529–534, 2015.
79. Silvestre R, Kraemer WJ, West C, Judelson
DA, Spiering BA, Vingren JL, Hatfield DL,
Anderson JM, and Maresh CM. Body
composition and physical performance
during a National Collegiate Athletic
Association Division I men’s soccer
season. J Strength Cond Res 20: 962–
970, 2006.
80. Spiteri T, Cochrane JL, Hart NH, Haff GG,
and Nimphius S. Effect of strength on plant
foot kinetics and kinematics during
11
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
a change of direction task. Eur J Sport Sci
13: 646–652, 2013.
81. Spiteri T, Newton RU, Binetti M, Hart NH,
Sheppard JM, and Nimphius S. Mechanical
determinants of faster change of direction
and agility performance in female
basketball athletes. J Strength Cond Res
29: 2205–2214, 2015.
82. Spiteri T, Nimphius S, Hart NH, Specos C,
Sheppard JM, and Newton RU.
Contribution of strength characteristics to
change of direction and agility performance
in female basketball athletes. J Strength
Cond Res 28: 2415–2423, 2014.
83. Steele J and Lafortune M. A kinetic analysis
of footfall patterns at landing in netball: A
follow-up study. ISBS-Conference
Proceedings, Footscray, Victoria, Australia.
1989.
84. Steele J and Milburn P. Effect of different
synthetic sport surfaces on ground
reaction forces at landing in netball. J Appl
Biomech 4: 130–145, 1988.
85. Steele JR. Biomechanical factors
affecting performance in netball.
Implications for improving performance
and injury reduction. Sports Med 10: 88–
102, 1990.
86. Stone MH, Stone M, and Sands WA.
Principles and Practice of Resistance
Training: Human Kinetics, Champaign,
Illinois, 2007.
87. Stuelcken M, Greene A, and Smith R. Knee
loading patterns in a simulated netball
landing task. Eur J Sport Sci 13: 475–482,
2013.
88. Stuelcken MC, Mellifont DB, Gorman AD,
and Sayers MGL. Mechanisms of anterior
cruciate ligament injuries in elite women’s
netball: A systematic video analysis.
J Sports Sci 34: 1516–1522, 2015.
89. Suchomel TJ. The Acute Effects of Ballistic
and Non-Ballistic Concentric-Only Half-
Squats on Squat Jump Performance. East
Tennessee State University, Johnson City,
Tennessee. 2015.
90. Suchomel TJ, Beckham GK, and Wright
GA. Lower body kinetics during the jump
shrug: Impact of load. J Trainology 2: 19–
22, 2013.
91. Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, and Stone MH. The
importance of muscular strength in athletic
performance. Sports Med 46: 1419–1449,
2016.
92. Swaby R, Jones PA, and Comfort P.
Relationship between maximum aerobic
speed performance and distance covered
in rugby union games. J Strength Cond
Res 30: 2788–2793, 2016.
 Netball Needs Analysis
93. Taylor KL, Bonetti DL, Tanner R, Tanner R,
and Gore C. Netball players. Physiol Tests
Elite Athletes 341–352, 2013.
94. Thomas C, Comfort P, Chiang C, and
Jones PA. Relationship between
isometric mid-thigh pull variables and
sprint and change of direction
performance in collegiate athletes.
J Trainology 4: 6–10, 2015.
95. Thomas C, Ismail K, Comfort P, and Jones
P. Physical profiles of regional academy
12 VOLUME 0 | NUMBER 0 | MONTH 2017
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
View publication stats
netball players. J Trainology 5: 30–37,
2016.
96. Weyand PG, Lin JE, and Bundle MW.
Sprint performance-duration relationships
are set by the fractional duration of
external force application. Am J Physiol
Regul Integr Comp Physiol 290: R758–
R765, 2006.
97. Weyand PG, Sandell RF, Prime DNL, and
Bundle MW. The biological limits to
running speed are imposed from the
ground up. J Appl Physiol (1985) 108:
950–961, 2010.
98. Weyand PG, Sternlight DB, Bellizzi MJ, and
Wright S. Faster top running speeds are
achieved with greater ground forces not
more rapid leg movements. J Appl Physiol
(1985) 89: 1991–1999, 2000.
99. Young W, Farrow D, Pyne D, McGregor W,
and Handke T. Validity and reliability of agility
tests in junior Australian football players.
J Strength Cond Res 25: 3399–3403, 2011.