EKSPLORASI GEOFISKA

Metode Gravitasi
• PRINCIPAL OF GRAVITY METHOD
• INSTRUMENT
• GRAVITY UNIT
• GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION
• DATA PROCESSING
• REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION
• GRAVITY PROFILES
• MICROGRAVITY
4D SURVEY

2
PRINCIPAL OF GRAVITY METHOD

Newton’s Law
• Universal Law of Gravitation
• Newton’s Second Law
UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

Newton’s Second Law

 INSTRUMENT
Gravity meter
LaCoste & Romberg
Based on mass-spring system

Worden
 INSTRUMENT
Accuracy less than 100 mGal

1 mGal 1 mGal 1-5 mGal

Superconducting Gravimeter 0,001 mGal

 GRAVITY UNIT
AND EARTH GRAVITY VARIATION
Earth gravity variation

Differences between equator and pole ~ 5,000,000 mGal

Unit of gravity
acceleration (g) Differences between highest mountain and lowest ocean
floor
g = 9.8 ms-2 ~ 3,000,000 mGal
= 980,000 mgal
Regional geology structure
1 ms-2 = 10-6 mms-2 ~ 100,000 mGal
= 10-9 nms-2
Tidal effect of moon and sun
1Gal = 10-2 ms-2 (SI) ~ 300 mGal
1mGal = 10-8 ms-2 (SI)
Microgravity survey ~ 10 mGal

Gravimeter accuracy: 1 mGal

The Relevant Geologic
Parameter is NOT
Density,

But

Density Contrast
GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION
GRAVITY DATA ACQUISITION

Day 2 Day 1

CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN

PRIHADI SA / 2002
13
DRIFT CORRECTION is applied to eliminate the effect of
spring fatigue of the La Coste instrument. This correction is
derived by double check the starting base station at
appropriate time interval.

TIDAL CORRECTION is applied to eliminate gravity of the

sun and moon which are time function due to relative
motion among earth, moon and sun. The tidal correction
had been calculated in advance using computer by
applying the Longman’s formula.
GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS
Drift and Tidal Variation
Drift Tidal

Drift + Tidal
 GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING
The data obtained from the sites are sent directly to
the base camp and processed.

1. DATA REDUCTION

2. GRAVITY PROFILES

3. GRAVITY MAP

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 GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING

DATA REDUCTION
The gravity data reduction consists of two types of correction which are internal
and external correction.
The internal corrections are drift and tidal corrections.
The external corrections are ellipsoid gravity value, free air, bouguer, and terrain
corrections.

17
 GRAVITY DATA PROCESSING
Factors affecting gravity measurement which are not related to geology, need to be
reduced or corrected

Temporal based variations:

-Instrument drift,
-Tidal effects

Spatial based variations:

-Latitude variations
-Elevation variations
-Slab effects
-Topographic effects

18
GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS
Latitude variation

Earth’s Shape
Earth’s Rotation

Centrifugal force reduces

gravitational acceleration

19
 DATA ACQUISITION
* Gravity Measurement
* GPS Positioning

DRIFT and TIDAL

CORRECTION
GRAVITY
DATA
* FREE AIR CORRECTION
* BOUGUER CORRECTION

* Bouguer Anomaly
PROCESSINGFLO
W
TERRAIN CORRECTION

CHART
* Complete Bouguer Anomaly

GRAVITY PROFILES
GRAVITY MAPS

20
ELLIPSOID EARTH GRAVITY reference has to be applied to produce an earth gravity value
at the mean sea level as a function of location latitude.
This reference implies an homogenous mass distribution of the ellipsoid earth model.
The ellipsoid model in the IUGG 1979 formula is :

gq = 978.03185 (1 + 0.005278895 sin2 q + 0.000023462 sin4 q) , mgal

where
gq = theoretical gravity as function of q
q = latitude of the observation point.

21
GRAVITY ANOMALIES

g theory = g n + g h
gn = Gravity value from Geodetic Reference System
g = Gravity due only to increased distance from the center of mass
h

22
FREE-AIR CORRECTION (FAC) is applied to estimate the earth gravity at certain
altitude of an observation above mean sea level.
The free air correction formula is calculated for average earth radius at elevation h
in meters.
FAC = - 0.3086 h, mgal

23
GRAVITY ANOMALIES

FREE-AIR ANOMALY

D gFA = gobservation - gtheory

24
 GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS
Variation due to
Free-Air correction
elevation
g FA = -0.3086 mgal / meter

The minus sign indicates

as the elevation increases, the
observed gravitational acceleration
decreases
Note:
the primary costs of a high-precision gravity survey is
in obtaining the relative elevations needed to
compute the Free-Air correction
e.g.
for precision of 0.01 mGals, relative station elevations
need to be known to about 3 cm

Need to be corrected so the gravity

acceleration is due to subsurface geology, NOT
due to elevation differences.
25
BOUGUER CORRECTION (BC) is applied to estimate the earth gravity at
elevation h above sea level with earth mass of density r (gr./cm3) fill up the
space of thickness h.
This theoretical Bouguer correction can be written as:
BC = 2h r Gh = 0.04187 r h, mgal
where :
G = 6.67 x 10-9 Cgs unit
r = the chosen density in gr./cm3
H = altitude of observation point in meters.

BOUGUER ANOMALY (BA) is the difference between the observation gravity

value (gobs) and the expected earth normal gravity at an observation point.

BA = gobs - (gq - FAC + BC)

where the magnitude in the bracket is the expected earth normal gravity.

26
GRAVITY ANOMALIES

BOUGUER ANOMALY

D gBA = D gFA - 0.4192rh

27
 Variation due to Bouguer correction
excess mass
g BC = -0.04193rh mgal

more mass below the reading taken Excess mass can be approximated as
at a higher elevation than one taken a slab of material with thickness h
at a lower elevation. dan density ρ

ρ can be chosen graphically using

Nettleton or any other method
available

28
GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS
Nettleton method

29
 TERRAIN CORRECTION

Pengukuran gaya berat sering dilakukan pada daerah dengan topografi yang cukup
bervariasi.
Koreksi terrain harus dihitung untuk menghilangkan efek relief permukaan bumi
terhadap nilai anomali Bouguer yang dihitung.
Koreksi ini dihitung sebagai efek gaya berat yang ditimbulkan oleh suatu badan massa
tiga dimensional yaitu adanya bukit dan lembah di sekitar stasion pengukuran gaya
berat.

30
31 PRIHADI SA / 2002
 INNER ZONE CORRECTION
To apply this correction, a simple topographic survey has to be performed at every
gravity station along a radius of ± 35 and ± 68 meters which may be done before or
after gravity reading.
Such survey should include the nature of local morphology and the distance to the
gravity station which affects the observation.
The correction was directly calculated at the field by using a certain gravity terrain
inner correction chart.

32
 OUTER ZONE CORRECTION
This correction was done by using the Hammer Chart, usually based on a topographic
map of 1 : 250.000 scale.
Applying the terrain correction, the Bouguer Anomaly (BA) can be refined to be a
Complete Bouguer Anomaly (CBA) following this formula :

CBA = gobs - (gq - FAC + BC - TC)

or
CBA = BA + TC

33
METODA PERHITUNGAN KOREKSI TERRAIN

Metoda konvensional untuk menghitung koreksi terrain adalah dengan

menggunakan Hammer Chart dan peta topografi berskala tertentu.

Sekarang ini perhitungan koreksi terrain dilakukan dengan bantuan

komputer, salah satunya adalah Metoda Integrasi Numerik.

34
TERRAIN CORRECTION CALCULATION FLOW
CHART
Topographic
Gravity
Observation Map

Station Digitizing,
Position X, Y, Z Gridding and
Merging

N Projection
System Similar to
the Map

Transformation
of the Coordinate
Y

TerrainCorrection

35
 NW

A
RIVER

D
HILLROCK

m
65
B

Sketch measurement topographic for Terrain Correction

36
 GRAVITY DATA REDUCTIONS
Terrain correction

Variation in gravity due to nearby topography

We always observe a smaller gravitational acceleration at B, because:

- pulled by mountain mass
- no mass in valley

Terrain Corrections are always positive in value!!

37
COMPLETE BOUGUER ANOMALY
CBA= gobs - gn + 0.3086h - 0.04193r h + TC (mGal)

38
GRAVITY ANOMALIES
REGIONAL- RESIDUAL SEPARATION

39
40
 REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION

CBA/BA = regional + residual

Regional:
-regional or trend geology , deep subsurface,
-featured as long wavelength in gravity signal

Residual:
- local geology or shallow subsurface
- featured as short wavelength in gravity signal

41
REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION

Profile

42
REGIONAL-RESIDUAL SEPARATION

Map

43
Example Observed gravity

44
Example Regional gravity

45
Example Residual gravity

46
 MASS INHOMOGONEITY
ACROSS A NORMAL FAULT

47
 10.0

data
ANOMALI SISA (MGAL)

5.0 perhitungan
GRAVITASI
PROFIL
0.0 ANOMALI SISA
DAN
MODEL
-5.0
132 136 140 144 148
2-DIMENSI
SELATAN UTARA

LHD-4 LHD-5 LHD-2 LHD-3

1.0
andesit basaltik terubah (2.5 gr/cc)

tuffa, ignimbrite (2.0 gr/cc)

0.0

andesit (2.6 gr/cc)

ELEVASI (KM)

-1.0 sedimen (2.2 gr/cc)

andesit (2.67 gr/cc)

-2.0
intrusi diorit (2.9 gr/cc)

PRIHADI SA /
-3.0
2002

48
 10.0
ANOMALI SISA (MGAL)

data
5.0 perhitungan GRAVITASI
PROFIL
0.0
ANOMALI SISA
DAN
MODEL
-5.0 2-DIMENSI
696 700 704 708 712

BARAT TIMUR

LHD-5 LHD-7
1.0 LHD-1
andesit basaltik terubah (2.5 gr/cc)

tuffa, ignimbrite (2.0 gr/cc)

0.0

andesit (2.6 gr/cc)

ELEVASI (KM)

-1.0 andesit (2.67 gr/cc)

intrusi diorit (2.9 gr/cc)

-2.0

-3.0

49
 GRAVITY PROFILES
Gravity profile will be produced for each line using its reduced data to present
the trend of gravity values along the line.

GRAVITY MAP
Consists of CBA/BA anomaly map, regional gravity map, residual gravity map.

50
 Density of Common Geologic Material ( Telford et al. 1990 )

Density range Approximate average

No. Material Type ( Mg / m3 ) density ( Mg / m 3 )

Unconsolidated Sediment
1. Alluvium 1.96 - 2.00 1.98
2. Clay 1.63 - 2.60 2.21
3. Gravel 1.70 - 2.40 2.00
4. Loess 1.40 - 1.93 1.64
5. Silt 1.80 - 2.20 1.93
6. Soil 1.20 - 2.40 1.92

Sedimentary Rocks
7. Sand 1.70 - 2.30 2.00
8. Sandstone 1.61 - 2.76 2.35
9. Shale 1.77 - 3.20 2.40
10. Limestone 1.93 - 2.90 2.55
11. Dolomite 2.28 - 2.90 2.70
12. Chalk 1.53 - 2.60 2.01
13. Halite 2.10 - 2.60 2.22
14. Glacier Ice 0.88 - 0.92 0.90

Igneous Rocks
15. Rhyolite 2.35 - 2.70 2.52
16. Granite 2.50 - 2.81 2.64
17. Andesite 2.40 - 2.80 2.61
18. Syenite 2.60 - 2.95 2.77
19. Basalt 2.70 - 3.30 2.99
20. Gabbro 2.70 - 3.50 3.03

Metamorphic Rocks
21. Schist 2.39 - 2.90 2.64
22. Gneiss 2.59 - 3.00 2.80
23. Phylite 2.68 - 2.80 2.74
24. Slate 2.70 - 2.90 2.79
25. Granulite 2.52 - 2.73 2.65
26. Amphibolite 2.90 - 3.04 2.96
27. Eclogite 3.20 - 3.54 3.37

( from John M. Reynolds, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 1997 )

51
 Densities of Minerals and Miscellaneous Materials ( Telford et al, 1990 )

Density Range Approximate average density

No. Material Type ( Mg/m3 ) ( Mg / m3 )

Metallic minerals
1. Oxides, Carbonates
A. Manganite 4.2 - 4.4 4.32
B. Chromite 4.2 - 4.6 4.36
C. Magnetite 4.9 - 5.2 5.12
D. Haematite 4.9 - 5.3 5.18
E. Cuprite 5.7 - 6.15 5.92
F. Cassiterite 6.8 - 7.1 6.92
G. Woframite 7.1 - 7.5 7.32
H. Uraninite 8.0 - 9.97 9.17
2. Copper n.d 8.7
3. Silver n.d 10.5
4. Gold 15.6 - 19.4 17.0
5. Sulphides
A. Malachite 3.9 - 4.03 4.0
B. Stannite 4.3 - 4.52 4.4
C. Pyrrhotite 4.5 - 4.8 4.65
D. Molybdenite 4.4 - 4.8 4.7
E. Pyrite 4.9 - 5.2 5.0
F. Cobaltite 5.8 - 6.3 6.1
G. Galena 7.4 - 7.6 7.5
H. Cinnabar 8.0 - 8.2 8.1

Non-metallic minerals
6. Gypsum 2.2 - 2.6 2.35
7. Bauxite 2.3 - 2.55 2.45
8. Kaolinite 2.2 - 2.63 2.53
9. Baryte 4.3 - 4.7 4.47

Miscellaneous materials
10. Snow 0.05 - 0.88 n.d
11. Petroleum 0.6 - 0.9 n.d
12. Lignite 1.1 - 1.25 1.19
13. Anthracite 1.34 - 1.8 1.50

52 PRIHADI SA / 2002
148

146 GRAVITASI
LHD-3
ANOMALI
144 BOUGUER
rapat massa = 2.67
LHD-2
142 gr/cm3
LHD-1 LHD-5 LHD-7
U
140

LHD-4,8,9,10 LHD-6

138

136

2 km
134

132
696 698 700 702 704 706 708 710 712

53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
MICROGRAVITY
4D SURVEY

61
 MICROGRAVITY
• The cause of microgravity anomalies:
– Changes in elevation
– Changes in subsurface density (e.g., changes in
groundwater depth, filled-pore fluids, pressure)

Gobs (t=1) Gobs (t=2)

4D Grav gt=2
gt=1

62
 MONITORING APPLICATIONS
• Geothermal reservoirs
• Gas reservoirs
• Oil reservoirs
• Volcano activities
• Land subsidence
• Rainfall and its influence on hydrology

63
 4D MICROGRAVITY
CASE STUDY

SIDOARJO MUD EXTRUSION

64
 4D MICROGRAVITY ANOMALIES
27 AUGUST – 17 SEPTEMBER 2006
Negative anomalies: decreasing density (mud flow to surface)
Positive anomalies : increasing density (land subsidence)

mGal

Mass movement direction

65
Observation:
Mass movement versus Watukosek fault lineament 4D Microgravity anomalies
27 August – 12 October 2006
Hypothesis:
Mud extrusion are controlled by fault?? mGal

Mass movement direction

66
 GEOHAZARD RISKS
Vulnerable
area

mGal

Mass movement direction

67
4D MICROGRAVITY

OTHER EXAMPLES

68
Groundwater Example

Extraction Injection

69
 Mass Example
changes

High Anomaly
Injection zone

Low Anomaly
Extraction
zone

70
Land Subsidence
Example
Period 1978-1996
Groningen, The Netherlands

Land Subsidence (in cm) Gravity changes

71
 REFERENCES
• Thomas M. Boyd, University of Melbourne
http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/
MODULES/GRAV/main.html
• Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P. and Sheriff, R.E.,
1990. Applied Geophysics. Cambridge
University Press, 770 pp.
• Sarkowi, M., 2006. Gayaberat-Mikro Antar
Waktu untuk Analisa Perubahan Kedalaman
Muka Air Tanah Studi Kasus Dataran Aluvial
Semarang. PhD Thesis, Institut Teknologi
Bandung (ITB), Bandung, Indonesia, 118 pp.
72