iy Dr.

Mae, avidow
 THE ABACUS MADE EASY

A Simplified Manual

for

Teaching the Cranmer Abacus

by

Mae E. David ow, Ed.D.

Teacher of Mathematics
Overbrook School for the Blind
64th Street and Malvern Avenue
Philadelphia, Penna. 19151

Published By
OVERBROOK SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND
 Copyright, 1966

OVERBROOK SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form without permission in writing from the author,
except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in
connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine
or newspaper.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Davidow has been a teacher at Overbrook School

for the Blind since 1935. This gifted teacher, however, first

came to Overbrook as a student, having lost her sight at the

age of 10. She received a B.A. from New Jersey College

for Women, now Douglas College, part of Rutgers University.

Temple University granted her a Master's Degree in 1949

and then a doctorate in I960.

Here at Overbrook, Dr. Davidow was instrumental

in establishing the use of the Cranmer Abacus as a part of

the regular curriculum. Her enthusiasm for this pioneer

method of teaching mathematics led others to follow her

eagerly. In her role as coordinating teacher, she worked

with the members of the Mathematics Department and the

results Were highly successful. Hopeful that this success at

Overbrook might be experienced by many teachers elsewhere,

she was encouraged to write the following manual.

We are indeed appreciative of the unstinting effort of

Dr. Davidow in presenting Abacus Made Easy.

Joseph J . Kerr
Assistant Principal
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012 with funding from
National Federation of the Blind (NFB)

http://www.archive.org/details/abacusmadeeasysiOOmaee
 11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the writing of this manual I have received invaluable

aid and suggestions from the many teachers and students with

whom; I have worked on the abacus.

I owe a great debt of gratitude to the administrators

of the Overbrook School for the Blind who encouraged me to delve

more deeply into the study of the abacus and who made it pos-

sible for me to attend the first Abacus Institute ever held in

America. I appreciate the opportunity that was given to me to

work with the instructors of mathematics as they were teaching

the use of the abacus to their students. In this manner both

teacher and student learned the language and method of operation,

I feel it is appropriate to acknowledge with gratitude

the work of Fred Gissoni whose text, Using the Cranmer Abacus,

helped lay the foundation and groundwork which enabled me to

write this manual.

I wish to express my special thanks to the many volun-

teers who gave unstintingly of their time to work directly with

me in compiling this manuscript.

 Ill

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ii

Foreword v

Introduction to the Tool 1

Setting Numbers 3

Addition 5

Addition of Two Digit Numbers 11

Subtraction 14

Multiplication 21

Treatment of the Zero 27

Multiplication of Two Digits 29

Division. 31

Long Division 35

Addition of Decimals 43

Subtraction of Decimals. ............. 46

Multiplication of Decimals 48

Division of Decimals . 50

Fractions 54
 IV

Addition, of Fractions 56

Subtraction of Fractions 60

Multiplication of Fractions 63

Division of Fractions • . . . . . 67

Per Cent 69

Square Root 71

Conclusion 76
 .

FOREWORD

Using the Cranmer Abacus is an excellent text writ-

ten by Fred L. Gissoni of the Bureau of Rehabilitation Ser-

vices, Kentucky Department of Education, at Lexington,

Kentucky

In 1964 I attended the Abacus Institute at the Univer-

sity of Kentucky, held under the direction of Mr. Gissoni.

This was the first such institute ever conducted in America.

We were also privileged at that time to have with us Professor

Paske, an instructor of the abacus at the School for the Blind

in Copenhagen, Denmark.

In the past two years, I have taught the Cranmer

Abacus using Fred Gissoni's text. However, as an instructor

of the abacus to both teachers and students. I found it desirable

to have a simplified manual at our fingertips. During this

period I have made, with Mr. Gissoni's permission, adapta-

tions of his text. This has been done while working with

teachers and with children from second grade through high

school- It is my hope that this manual will make the teaching

and the learning of the abacus more meaningful to both students

and teachers. I shall attempt to explain in the simplest, most

 VI

concise manner how to add, subtract, multiply, divide,

handle decimals, fractions, percent and square root.

The method of instruction for an individual or for a

class is essentially the same. The approach to teaching the

abacus is likewise the same for a second grade student, a

senior in high school, a college student, a teacher, a parent,

or any interested person, either blind or sighted, who wishes

to learn the abacus. When we first examine the abacus, we

all learn about the tool in the same manner. We must move

slowly; the language must be simple; every step must be

understood. The slow learner, as well as the gifted child,

learns the abacus in the same manner. However, after the

learning has taken place, and the individual knows how to

manipulate the tool, then each one operates it at his individual

speed.

In teaching the use of the abacus, one must be very

patient. One must use the language level of the individual.

The abacus is studied one step at a time. As one step is

learned, it must be practiced again and again. Then one may

move to the next step. One takes his time and learns it

thoroughly.
 INTRODUCTION TO THE TOOL

The first lesson consists of handling the abacus. One

must become acquainted with the tool. We notice that the

frame is oblong in shape. There are thirteen rods, or columns.,

attached to the frame. On each column there are five beads

which travel up and down. There is a separation bar which

cuts across all thirteen columns, approximately two-thirds

the distance from the bottom of the frame. This bar separates

four of the beads or counters from the fifth bead.

We shall now examine the abacus in its proper opera-

ting position. The abacus will always be on our desk in the

position which is about to be described. The bar which sepa-

rates the one bead from the other four beads runs from right

to left. The section containing the single beads is on the upper

part of the abacus, and the four beads are toward the bottom

of the frame .

First let us run our fingers along the face of the

lower edge of the frame. Here we find a dot at the end of each

column. In addition to these dots, we will find a short., verti-

cal line between every third column. The dots are to help

us locate our place, and the lines, which are called "unit

marks" or commas in writing numbers, can also serve as a

 .

decimal point. These same dots and lines are found on the

separation bar between the four beads and the one bead.

Now let us place the index finger of our right hand

on the dot to the extreme right, on the bottom of our frame

This dot corresponds with the column to the extreme right.

It is the units column. Moving from right to left, the next

column is the tens column and the next is the hundreds column.

Then we touch the line between the columns which separates

the hundreds column from the thousands column. Next we

have the thousands column, ten thousands, hundred thou-

sands, separation line, millions, etc. , up to one trillion.

As our fingers move along the frame, the index finger of our

left hand is always immediately to the left of the index finger

of the right hand. The position of our hands is extremely

important in all of our operations as we manipulate the abacus.

The keyword, while learning the fundamentals of the Cranmer

Agacus, is patient repetition.

 SETTING NUMBERS

When we put a number on our abacus, we do not say

we write it. In abacus language we use the word "set."

When we want to remove a number or erase it, we say that

we ^clear" it. As we move a bead toward the bar or rr

set"

it, it takes on a value. When we move it away from the bar,

or "clear"' it, it loses its value. On a single column we can

show the ten digits from zero to 9- When there are no beads

moved toward the bar, the column is in a zero position. Then

to write 1 , we set one bead by pushing it up to the bar. To

write 2, we set another bead; then we set a third bead, and we

have 3; set a fourth bead and we have 4. Each one of the

beads below the separation bar has a value of one. The single

bead above the bar has a value of five.

Let us now write from 1 to 5 --writing each number

separately. To set the number 1 , we would move one of the

beads on a column up to the separation bar. To set the number

2. we would set 2 beads up to the bar. To set 3, we would

move 3 beads up to the bar. To set 4, we move all 4 beads

up to the bar. To set 5, we would move the upper bead down

to the bar, However., we must be sure that there are no beads

below the bar on that column. To set the number 6, we would

move the upper bead down, and move one lower bead up in

the same column. Five plu$ 1 equals 6. To set 7, we set a

5 and then set 2 on the same column. Five and 2 equals 7.

To set 8, we set 5 above the bar and 3 below. To set 9. we

set the 5 bead and the four l's. In setting 9 we see that all

the beads on a column are moved as close to the bar as pos-

sible.

Much time must be devoted to setting numbers. As

we write our numbers with the right index finger, or thumb and

index finger, our left index finger is always resting on the

column immediately to the left of the right hand. Let us

write 12. The right index finger sets a 1 in the tens column

while the left index finger rests on the hundreds column.

Then both hands move to the right and the right index finger

and thumb push up or set two beads in the units column. Much

practice is needed in writing and reading numbers. Little

children can write how many desks there are in the classroom;

how many sisters they have, etc. , etc. Each teacher gives

numbers according to the level of her group, Older children can

write their phone numbers and then have a classmate read them.

When the student can set and read numbers quickly, then he is

ready to begin addition.

 ADDITION

We will start our addition by adding the number 1 to

itself a number of times. We will place the index finger of

the right hand on the extreme right column on the abacus.

This is the units column. The left hand, as we mentioned

before, is immediately to the left of the right hand on the

tens column. We set the number 1 by moving one of the lower

beads up to the bar. This is done with the index finger of the

right hand. Next add 1 to this 1. This is done in the same

manner with the index finger of the right hand. Now add another

1 . Now add another 1 . We now have four beads in our unit

column. It is permissible to use the thumb if one finds it

easier. We find that if we want to add 1 more, we cannot add

it directly. There are no more lower beads to move up to

the bar. Since there are no more rf

ones ,r to add to the four

beads that we have in our units column, our right index finger

moves above the bar and sets a 5. We only wanted to add 1

more, but we added 5 more. We must now figure out how

many more beads were added than the one bead that we wanted.

There are several ways that this can be done. Each teacher

figures out according to her grade level which method to use.

One teacher might say, "I asked you to give me one cent and
you gave me a nickel, how much change should I give you"?

The student figures out that 1 from 5 is 4 and he must return

four pennies. We can think of the four beads that we have set

on the abacus as four pennies and when we clear the four

beads, we are returning the four pennies. This is known as

indirect addition. There are many different ways this can be

explained. This depends on the age of the student and his

understanding of numbers.

One second grade teacher refers to this indirect

addition as working with partners. The child learns that if he

wishes to add 1 to 4, and there are no more beads on the bot-

tom of the bar, he must go to the top of the bar and set a 5.

The child learns that the partners of 5 when you add 1 to 4

are 4 and 1. So the child clears the 4. If, on the other hand,

we were adding 4 to 1 , the child would set a 5 and clear 1 .

After the student learns the relationship of the 5 and its

partner 1, he can set the 5 and clear the 4 in one continuous

motion. We slide the 5 bead down to the bar, move our finger

down across the bar, and slide the four lower beads away from

the bar. By doing this we have added 1 to the 4 and we now

have the digit 5 showing on the units column. In order to add 1

to this 5, we continue as we did before. We move one lower

counter up to the bar. We now have a 5 above the bar and a

1 bead or counter below the bar. Five plus 1 equals 6. Then

we add 1 to 6 and we have 7. Add 1 to 7 and we will have 8.

Add 1 to 8 and we will have 9- We want to add 1 more to 9

and we find that there are no more beads on the unit column

to add directly,

Our left index finger that has been resting on the

column immediately to the left of the right hand (on the tens

column) now comes into play. We can refer to that index

finger as the "helping finger." When we can add no more

beads with the right index finger, the left hand comes into

play and assists. The left hand will set one bead on the tens

column (push it up to the bar). This one bead has a value of

10 since it is in the tens column. We only wanted 1 more, but

the left index finger gave us 10 more. Now we must figure

out how many extra we have.

This can be done again in several ways: (1) We had 9,

we wanted 1 more; our left hand gave us 10; let us see how

many extra we have. One from 10 is 9- We have 9 too many,

so our right hand will clear the 9- We now have a ten in the

tens column and a zero in the units column. This gives us a

value of 10. We see then that 9 plus 1 equals 10. (2) We can
speak of it in terms of money. We want a penny to add to 9-

We received a dime. We must give 9 cents change. One

from 10 is 9- (3) Again we can refer to our partners. The

partners of 1 are 1 and 9- Here again, we have added

indirectly.

As we continue to add more I's, we add them in the

unit column with the right index finger, or thumb, as mentioned

above. One added to 10 gives us the digits 11. When we add

another bead in the units column, we have 1Z. Thus, one 10

and one 1 gives us 11; one 10 and two l's give us 12, etc. , etc.

We continue adding 1 until we have 44. Then with the right

pointer finger we set 5, clear 4, and we have 45. We con-

tinue to add 1 until we have 49- Then with our left index fin-

ger (our helping hand) we set the 5, clear 4, and with our

right index finger clear the 9- We now have 50. We continue

adding 1 until we have 99- We find we cannot add 1 more

with the right hand; neither can the left hand assist us by

giving us another 1 in the tens column. So the left hand

reaches over and gives us a 10 in the hundreds column.

(This ten has the value of ten 10's or 100.) But we now have

nine extra 10's,. so with our left index finger we clear the nine

10's and the right index finger clears the nine units. Although
we wanted to add only 1 more, we added 10 more and thus had

9 extra to clear.

A good addition exercise to introduce in the beginning

is to add from 1 to 45. First add 1 to zero.. Begin with the

hands in starting position- -the right hand on the units column

and the left hand immediately to the left of it on the tens

column. With the right index finger we set 1. Then with our

pincher fingers (the index finger and the thumb) we set 2

more beads. We are now ready to add 3 more beads. But we

see that there is only 1 bead. So we must turn to the 5. We

set 5. How many extra did we set? Three from 5 is 2.

Since we have 2 too many, we will clear 2, We check our

abacus and find that we have 6. We have learned that two

sets of 3 makes 6, so we are sure that the abacus is right.

We will now add 4 more. We find that we only have 3 beads,

so our left hand will help us. The left index finger will set a

10. What is 4's partner to make 10? The child has learned

it is 6. So he will clear 6 with the right hand. Or we may say

we gave 10, but we wanted only 4 more; how much too many

did we give? Four from 10 is 6, so we clear 6. The 6

is cleared with the right hand. We now add 5. That can be

added directly. Now we add 6. We cannot add 6 directly.

Here again, the left hand sets another 10. One says, 6 from
 10

10 is 4; so we must clear 4. We cannot clear 4 directly

with the right hand; so the right hand clears a 5 and sets 1 .

Here again figuring 4 from 5 is 1 tells us we must give back

a 1 . We wanted to take away 4 pennies; but we took away a

nickel, so we owe 1 cent. We give back 1.

We now have 21 on the abacus. We add 7. This can

be added directly by setting 5 and 2 more. We now have 28.

We are ready to add 8. We cannot add 8 directly, so the left

hand sets a 10. Eight from 10 is 2; so the right hand clears

2. We now add 9- This cannot be done directly. Here again

the left hand sets a 10. Nine from 10 is 1, so the right hand

clears 1. We now have 45.

This same exercise is continued by starting out by

setting 1 on the units column and then adding 1, 2, 3, etc.

through 9. When we start with 1 on the abacus, our answer is

46. When we start with 2 on the abacus, our answer is 47, etc

Following are some one -digit addition examples for

practice:

2 + 2= 3 + 5= 7 + 2 =

6 + 1= 4 + 5= 5 + 1 =

2 + 5= 2 + 3= 3+4 =

4 + 1 =
 11

ADDITION OF TWO DIGIT NUMBERS

Addition on the abacus is done from left to right.

When addition is done from left to right, we do not have to

carry . Let us add 36 plus 27, On the tens column we set a

3; then on the units column we set a 6. Since we were going

to write 36, we put our right hand on the tens column. The

left hand is immediately to the left of the right hand resting

on the hundreds column. Then the right hand moves to the

right to the units column to write the 6. The left hand fol-

lows the right hand, and when the right hand is writing the

6 in the units column, the left hand is resting on the 3 in the

tens column. For low vision students and sighted teachers,

it is helpful to keep the pointer fingers on the lower part of

the columns instead of resting the fingers on the beads. In

this manner we do not cover the numbers we have set; thus

making it possible to read with the eye what we have written.

We are now ready to add 27. We place our right hand

on the tens column and add 2. Since we do not have 2 beads,

we must add 5. Two from 5 is 3, so we clear 3. Then our

right hand moves to the units column (followed by the left

hand) and we are ready to add 7. We cannot add a 7 directly,

so the left hand will set a 10. Since we only wanted 7, we

 12

will say 7 from 1 is 3. We will clear 3 with the right hand

in the units column. We cannot clear 3 directly, so we clear

5. Three from 5 is 2. Since we cleared 5 and had to take

away 3, we took away 2 extra beads. We will give back 2

with our right hand. The answer is 63.

Direct addition is not difficult and in the beginning,

one should give the student simple problems such as 123 plus

321. Here we set 1 in the hundreds column with the right

hand (the left hand being immediately to the left of the right

hand) . Both hands move to the right and the right hand sets

the 2 in the tens column. Then both hands move to the right

and we write the 3 in the units column. We then go back to

the hundreds column and the right hand sets the 3 in the

hundreds column. Then both hands move to the right and the

right hand sets the 2 in the tens column. We move again to

the right and set the 1 in the units column with our right hand,

Our answer is 444. Our left hand did not have to assist the

right hand. Now let us add 789 to 444. We place our right

hand on the 4 in the hundreds column. We cannot add a 7 to

the 4 directly, so the left hand will give us a 10 in the thou-

sands column. This 10 is equal to 1 hundreds, but we wanted

only 7 more hundreds. Therefore, we must clear 3 hundreds

 13

(7 from 10 gives us 3) .

Both hands move to the right and we are ready to

add 8 tens. We do not have 8 tens, so our left hand will

assist. The left hand will give us 10 tens or 1 bead in the

hundreds column. We have added 2 tens too many, so we

clear 2 tens. We now move to the units column and add 9

ones. We do not have 9 units, so our left hand assists again

by setting a 10. Although we only wanted 9, we add 10. We

say 9 from 10 is 1. We then clear a 1 in the units column.

Our answer is 1233.

Exercises in two- and three-digit addition:

23 + 25 = 52 + 17 = 34 + 15 =

71 + 16 = 81 + 8 = 62 + 20 =

24 + 65 = 12 + 72 = 72 + 16 =

25 + 23 = 653 + 230 = 825 + 162 =

907 + 52 = 425 + 23 = 873 + 34 =

769 + 25 = 473 + 192 = 395 + 232 =

439 + 123 = 892 + 532 =

 14

SUBTRACTION

Subtraction, can be introduced at the same time that

addition is being taught. For example, when we add 1 to 1,

we have 2. Now let us take 1 away, or subtract 1. What do

we have left? We find that we have 1 left. Clear the abacus.

Then we add 2 and 2. We have 4. Now let us subtract 2. We

have 2 left. In setting beads and clearing, we must always keep

in mind our hand position; the left hand always follows the

right.

Let us set 32 and subtract 21 . We set the 3 of the 32

in the tens column with the right hand. Then we move our hands

to the right and set the 2 in the units column. From this we

wish to subtract 21. Here again, as in addition, we work from

left to right. We place our right hand on the 3 in the tens column

of the 32 and take 2 away, leaving a 1 in the tens column.

Then both hands move to the right and the right hand clears a

1 in the units column from the 2. Our answer is 1 1 . This is

subtracting directly.

For every addition problem, a subtraction example

can be given. We start by saying let us add 1 to zero. We set

1. Let us subtract 1 from 1. Our answer is zero. Now to

 .

15

zero add 1 . Let us add two more. We have 3. Subtract 1 .

We have 2 left. Subtract 2 and we have zero. We set 1. We

add 2 more. Let us add 3 more. We find that we cannot add

3 directly, so we set 5 and we recall that the- partner of 5 and

3 is 2. So we clear 2 and our answer is 6. We now subtract 1.

We clear 1 and our answer is 5 . In other words, the difference

between 6 and 1 is 5. We could also have said that you had 3

cents and I will give you 3 more. But since I do not have 3

cents I will give you a nickel. Then how much money must you

give back to me? The child will return 2 cents and have 6

remaining

To continue with the subtraction example, we took 1

from 6 and have 5 remaining. Let us take away 2 more. We

cannot clear 2 directly, but we can clear 5. What is the part-

ner of 5 and 2? We recall that it is 3, so we return 3. We

wanted to subtract 2 from 5. We subtracted 5. How many-

extra did we take away? We took away 3 too many. So we

return 3. Now we see that when we took 2 from 5 we have a

remainder of 3 , or the difference between 5 and 2 is 3. We

now have 3 left on the abacus. We subtract 2. This can be done

directly. There is 1 left. We subtract 1. This can be done

directly and our answer is zero.

 16

We now start from the beginning and add 1 . Then 2

more. Then we add 3. We must set 5 and clear 2. We now

wish to add 4. We cannot do it directly with the right hand,

so our left hand will help us. The left hand sets 10. We gave

10, but we only wanted 4 more; how much too many did we give?

Four from 10 is 6, so we clear 6 with the right hand. In

working with partners, we can also ask what is 4's partner to

make 10? It is 6. We set a 10 with the left hand, clear 6

with the right, and find that the sum of 6 and 4 is 10.

Now we turn again to subtraction; 10 minus 1. Since

we have to subtract a 1, we put our right hand on the units

column. Since there is a zero in the units column, we turn to

the left hand to assist us. Our left hand will clear a 10. But

we only wanted to subtract 1 . We check to see how many

extra we took away. We say, 1 from 10 is 9- We must there-

fore return 9- So our right hand will give back 9 by setting a

5 and 4 more in the unit column. We now wish to subtract 2.

We clear 2 directly. We have 7 left. We wish to subtract 3.

We cannot subtract 3 directly, but our right index finger can

clear 5. We wanted to subtract 3. So we clear 5 and set 2.

We now have 4. Seven minus 3 gave us 4. The partner of

5 and 3 is 2, so we gave back 2 after clearing the 5. We now

 17

subtract 2 more. This can be done directly. Let us add 2

more to the 2. Now subtract 4. We have zero left.

We start again and add from 1 to 45 by adding 1, 2,

3, 4, 5, 6, 7 , 8, and 9- We now have 45. We now subtract

1 . Our right hand is on the units column and the left hand is

on the tens column immediately to the left of the right hand.

We cannot subtract 1 directly, so we say 1 from 5 is 4; we

cleared 5 and set 4. We subtract 2 directly by clearing 2

beads with the right hand. We are now ready to subtract 3.

The right hand cannot subtract a 3, but the left hand can help

us. We subtract a 10. How many extra did we clear? Three

from 10 is 7. That means that we cleared 7 too many, so we

must return 7. The right hand will give back 7. We will set

5 and 2. We now have 9 in the units column and 3 in the tens

column. We subtract 4. This is done directly. We clear 4

with the right hand. We now subtract 5. This is done directly

with the right hand. We are now ready to subtract 6 from 30.

The right hand cannot subtract a 6 because there is a zero in

the units column, so the left hand must assist us. The left

hand clears a 10. We wanted to subtract 6 and we subtracted

10. How many extra did we subtract? Six from 10 is 4; or

the partner of 1 and 6 is 4; so we give back 4 leaving us 24.

 18

Now we are ready to subtract 7. Since we have only 4 in the

units column, we must go to the tens column. The left hand

will subtract a 10. We have taken away 3 too many. "We wanted

to subtract 7, but we subtracted 10, so we check by saying

7 from 10 is 3. That means we took away 3 too many, so we

must give back 3 in the unit column. We cannot give back 3

directly, but we can give back a 5. We gave back 2 too many;

so we must clear 2 beads. We now have 17. We subtract 8.

We cannot subtract 8, so we clear 10. We have taken away 2

too many, so the right hand returns 2 beads. Eight from 10

gives us 2. We now have 9 beads on the abacus. We are

ready to subtract 9- We do this directly, and our result is

zero.

For the next exercise, start by setting 1 on the abacus.

To this add 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9- We now have 46

on the abacus. We subtract in the same manner, starting with

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9- We have 1 left on the abacus. Then

we set 1 more bead and start out with 2 on the abacus. Now

we continue as before by adding 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9

When we get to 47 we begin subtracting 1, 2, 3, etc. , etc

This is an excellent exercise for addition and subtraction.

Let us examine a few subtraction examples. We shall

 19

set 64 on the abacus. We write 6 with the right hand in the tens

column and the left hand is on the rod to the left of it. Both

hands move to the right to set the 4 in the units column.

While the right hand sets the 4, the left hand rests on the tens

column. We will now subtract 46. We place the right hand on

the 6 in the tens column. To subtract 4, we find we cannot

subtract it directly, so we clear a 5 with the index finger and

set 1 with the thumb. This leaves a Z in the tens place. Both

hands move to the right and we are ready to subtract a 6 from

the 4 ones. Since we cannot take away 6 from 4, our left hand

must help us. The left pointer finger will take away a 10

and since we only wanted to subtract 6, we will say 6 from 10

is 4 and give back 4 ones. We cannot give back 4 ones directly,

so we give back 5. But we had to give back 4 and we gave back

5, so we have given back 1 too many; therefore, we clear a 1.

Our answer is 1 8.

Now let us subtract 89 from 182. We put our right

hand on the tens column to subtract the 8 from the 8. We move

both hands to the right to subtract the 9 in the units column.

Since we cannot take 9 from 2, our left hand will help us.

There is a zero in the tens column, so our left hand will go to

the hundreds column and clear 1 bead which is equal to 1:0 tens.
 20

Since we wanted to clear only 1 ten, we will return 9 tens in

the tens column. We now say 9 from 10 is 1 and return a 1

in the units column with the right hand. Our answer is 93,

Subtraction Exercises:

24 - 12 - 124 - 93 =

46 - 31 = 275 - 184 =

76 - 35 = 378 - 179 -

82 - 19 = 500 - 9 =

97 - 68 = 328 - 29 =
 21

MULTIPLICATION

Since multiplication is a rapid form of addition, the

teacher can introduce multiplication whenever she feels it

fits into her mathematical curriculum. The second grade

teacher may wish to demonstrate to her class that if we want

to add 2 two times, we can say 2 twos are 4. And the child

can set first 1 set of 2 and then another set of 2 and see that

the answer is 4. The child may have learned at an earlier

age to count by 2's, but now he sees how he gets 2, 4, 6, 8,

etc. The mathematics becomes meaningful. The teacher then

shows the child that 2 x 1 is 2, 2 x 2 is 4, etc. , etc. Now

let us examine how this is set up on the abacus.

The student must learn that each part of a multipli-

cation problem has a name. We learn these names so that we

all speak the same language. The number which is multiplied

is the multiplicand. The number by which the multiplying is

done is the multiplier. These two together are called the

factors. The answer is called the product.

Let us multiply 3x6. The multiplier 3 is placed all

the way to the left on the extreme left column. Now we go to

the right hand side of the abacus to figure out where the
 22

multiplicand should be placed. We count up how many columns

are used in the multiplier, how many are used in the multipli-

cand and add one column for the abacus. For example, in

the digit 3 there is one place; in the digit 6, there is 1 place

and we add one for the abacus giving us 3 places. From the

extreme right, we count in 3 places - -first column units, second

column tens, and third hundreds - -there we place our 6. The

left hand is immediately to the left of the right hand. With

the right hand on 6, we say 3 x 6 is one eight As we say one,

the right hand moves to the right of the 6 and sets the 1 . The

left hand follows the right hand and as we write the 1 with the

right hand, the left hand rests on the 6 or the column where

the 6 is. After we have set the 1, move to the right and set

the 8 as we say it. As the right hand has moved to the right

to set the 8, the left hand has followed it and is resting on

the 1, or the column where the 1 is. We then pick up the right

hand and clear the 6. Our answer is 18.

Let us now multiply 7 x 43. We will write our multi-

plier 7 to the extreme left. We must now figure out where to

write the 43 of the multiplicand. We count up our digits:

1 digit in the multiplier, 2 digits in the multiplicand and add

one place for the abacus. We go in 4 columns from the extreme

 23

right column and write, or set, 43. (The 4 is set in the

thousands place, and the 3 in the hundreds place.) We now

must check and see how many empty columns we have after

the 3 of the 43. There should be 2- -one for the digit in the

multiplier and one for the abacus. We are now ready to multi-

ply. With our right index finger on the 3 of the 43 and our

left index finger resting on the 4 of the 43 we say: 7 x 3 is

two (setting the 2 in the tens column as we say it), then we

move both hands to the right as we say one, and set it in the

units column. We pick up the right hand and clear the 3. We

now place the right hand on the 4 of the 43 and say 7 x 4 is

two (the right hand moves to the right as we set the 2 and the

left hand follows it, resting on the 4). Then we move to the

right and are ready to write the 8 of the two eight with the 2

in the tens column. The left hand is now resting on the 2

that was just written in the hundreds column. Since the right

hand cannot set an eight with the 2 already in the tens column,

the left hand can help us. It will give us 10 which is equal to

10 tens in the hundreds column. Because we added 10 when we

wanted only 8, the right hand will clear the 2 that is there;

since 8 from 10 is 2 and we have added 2 too many, the right

hand clears the 2 in the tens place. We pick up the right hand
 24

and clear the 4. The answer or product is 301. There should

be no difficulty in reading the answer because it will always be

on the extreme right side of the abacus.

Let us now multiply 43 x 7. We will set the 43 as

the multiplier to the extreme left and we shall determine where

to set the multiplicand, 7. We count 2 digits for the multi-

plier, one for the multiplicand and one for the abacus. That

means we go in 4 columns from right to left and we write the

7 in the thousands column. We put our right hand on the 7

and the left hand to the left of it, and we say. 4 of the 43 x

7 is two, and we move our hands to the right and write the

2 in the hundreds column. Then we move both hands to the

right and set the eight in the tens column, (our left hand resting

on the 2 of the hundreds column) . We hold the hands in that

position while we say: 3 (of the 43) x 7 is two, (and we set the

2 where the right hand is resting, with the 8). Since we cannot

write a 2 where the 8 is, the left hand will help us. The left

hand will give 10. Because we wanted only 2, and 2 from 10

is 8, the right hand will clear the 8 on which it was resting.

Then we move both hands to the right and set the 1 (of the 21)

in the units column. The left hand is now resting on the zero

of the tens column. We pick up the right Ijand and clear the 7.
 25

We now read the product, 301. When we multiply 43 x 7, we

must remember to multiply the 7 by the digits of the multi-

plier in the order of their occurrence. For example, we first

said, 4x7, and then we said 3x7.

We might mention here that when a zero is to be re-

corded on the abacus in multiplication, we press the rod or

column gently or touch it and hold the hand there so that we

know our position. For example, let us multiply 5 x 47. We

will set the 5 to the extreme left and count 4 columns from

right to left to set the 47. By counting up our digits we find

that we have 3 and 1 for the abacus. We place our right hand

on the 7 and say: 5 x 7 is three (we move our hands to the

right and set the 3 in the tens place). We then say five, move

to the right and set it in the units place. We pick up the right

hand and clear the 7. Place the right hand on the 4. With

our right hand on the 4 we say: 5 x 4 is two (our right hand

moves to the right and sets the 2 in the hundreds place). As

we say zero (for the zero of 20), our right hand rests on the

3 which is already in the tens place and we give the 3 a little

touch as if we were recording the zero. Then we pick up the

right hand and clear the 4. The answer or product is 235.

Let us multiply 4 x 32. Place the 4 to the extreme

 26

left; then count in 4 places from the extreme right and set the

32, putting the 3 in the thousands place and 2 in the hundreds

place. We are now ready to multiply. Place the right hand on

the 2 and the left hand on the 3. "We say 4 x 2 is zero 8. As

we say zero, our hands move to the right and our right hand

is on the tens column as we record the zero by touching the

bar. Then both hands move to the right and our right hand

sets the 8 in the units column. (We must learn that whenever

we multiply one digit by another digit, our answer will have

2 digits. If it is an 8, it is zero eight.) We pick up the right

hand and clear the 2. We put the right hand on the 3 and say:

4 x 3 is one two. As we say one, both hands move to the right

setting the 1 immediately to the right of the 3. We then move

both hands to the right and set the 2 in the tens column. We

pick up the right hand and clear the 3. The answer is 128.

Multiplication Exercises:

17 x 14 = 25 x 5 =

37 x 6 = 43 x 7 =

63x5= 82 x 7 =

49x9= 95 x 3 =

56 x 8 = 71x6=
 28

tens place; we move our hands to the right and set the 2 in

the units place. We pick up the right hand and clear the 3.

The product is 912.

Let us now multiply 4 x 3 02. We will put our right

hand on the 2 and say: 4 x 2 is zero eight. Our right hand

moves to the right and touches the rod on the tens column as

we say zero. Then we move to the right and the right hand

sets the 8 in the units column. We pick up our right hand and

clear the 2. We then put the right hand on the 3 and say:

4 x 3 is one, (moving to the right and setting the 1 in the

thousands column) , and we say two as the hands move to the

right and set the 2 in the hundreds column. We pick up the

right hand and clear the 3. The product is 1208.

Multiplication Exercises Using Zeros:

5 x 302 = 703x4 =

902 x 3 = 204 x 7 =

809 x 5 = 207 x.14 =

805 x 32 = 107 x 36 =

608 x 24 = 506 x 203 =

 29

MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DIGITS

Let us take the example 45 x 67, Write 45 to the

extreme left. There are two digits in the multiplier, 45, and

two digits in the multiplicand, 67, giving us four digits, then

we add one more place for the abacus, making it 5 places.

We count 5 rods from right to left and set 67 (the 6 being placed

in the ten thousands place, and the 7 in the thousands place) .

This leaves us 3 empty columns or rods to the extreme right.

We are now ready to multiply.

With our right pointer finger on the 7 and the left

hand pointer finger on the 6, we say. 4 x 7 is two eight. We

set the 2 to the right of the 7 and then set the 8 to the right of

the 2. The left hand follows the right hand. We hold our right

hand on the 8 and our left hand is on the 2. Now we say:

5 x 7 is three five. We write the 3 where our right hand is

on the 8. We cannot write a 3 where the 8 is; so our left hand

adds a 10 and our right hand clears a 7, because 3 from 10

is 7. Then we move our right hand to the right and set a 5 in

the units column. The left hand rests on the 1 in the tens

column. Pick up the right hand and clear the 7 from the 67.
 30

Place the right pointer finger on the 6 and say: 4 x

6 is two four. Set the 2 to the right of the 6 and add 4 to 3,

We add 4 by setting 5 and clearing 1, and we hold the right

hand on the 7 and the left hand on the 2. Then we say: 5x6
is three zero- We write the 3 where our right hand is holding

the 7. Since we cannot write a 3 where the 7 is, our left

hand will help us by adding 10 where the 2 is and our right

hand will clear 7, because 3 from 10 is 7. Then we move our

hands to the right and set the zero where the 1 is. We record

the zero by touching the 1 with the right hand. We pick up the

right hand and clear the 6. Our answer is 3015,

Multiplication of two digits by three digits is done in

a similar manner. Multiplication by three or more digits is

done in the same manner.

Exercises:

34 x 29 = 98 x 56 =

103 x 42 = 235 x 74 =

206 x 18 = 104 x 36 =

87 x 45 = 246 x 39 =

342 x 58 = 234 x 125 =

 31

DIVISION

As we begin division, we must acquaint ourselves

with the names of the different parts of a division problem.

The number that does the dividing is called the divisor.

The number into which it is divided is called the dividend.

The answer is the quotient. For example., if we would

divide 6 into 48. the 6 would be the divisor, the 48 is the

dividend, and the 8 is the quotient.

In setting up an example in division on the abacus, we

set the divisor to the extreme left of the abacus. The divi-

dend is set to the extreme right on the frame. The quo-

tient will appear to the left of the dividend.

In short division, we have one digit in the divisor

and as many digits as we wish in the dividend. We then divide

the divisor into one or, if necessary, more digits in the divi-

dend. This results in a quotient figure which is entered on

the abacus. The figure which has been entered in the quotient

is then multiplied by the divisor and the product resulting

from this multiplication is subtracted from the dividend.

Let us now work an example . Our first example

will be 792 divided by 4. Our divisor is 4; our dividend is

 32

792. We will set our divisor to the extreme left. We will

set our dividend, 792, to the extreme right. We put our

right hand on the 7 of the 7 92 and ask: 4 will go into 7

how many times, or how many 4's in 7? Four will go into 7

one time. The question arises where to place the first quo-

tient, digit 1. We examine the divisor, 4, with the first

digit in our dividend. If the divisor is equal to, or smaller

than, the first digit in the dividend, we skip one column to

the left of the dividend and set the 1 in our quotient. Four

went into 7 one time. We skip one column and set the 1 with

the right hand. Then with our right hand on the 1 and the

left hand to the left of it, we say: 1 x 4 is zero four. As

we say zero, the right hand moves to the right and rests on

the column with a zero. Then as we say four, our right

hand moves to the 7 and subtracts 4. We subtract 4 by clear-

ing 5 and setting 1 with the right hand. We are then ready to

divide again, and we say: 4 into 39 will go 9 times. Where

to place the 9? We examine the divisor with the first number

in the dividend. Our divisor 4 is larger than the 3 in the divi-

dend. Since it is larger, we will write the quotient digit, 9,

immediately to the left of the 3 in the dividend. Now, with the

right hand on the 9, we will say: 9 x 4 is three six or 36. As

 33

we say three, the right hand leaves the 9, moves to the next

column where there is a 3, and subtracts it. We move to

the right and say 6. The right hand is now where the 9 is

in the dividend, and we subtract 6. This leaves 3 and we

examine the dividend and see that we have 3Z. We say:

4 into 32 goes 8 times. Since 4, the divisor, is larger than

the 3 in the dividend, we will write it immediately to the left

of the 3. Now, with the right hand on the 8 and the left hand

immediately to the left of it, we say: 8 x 4 is three two or

32. We move to the right and the right hand falls on the 3

of the 32. As we say three, we clear it. Then we move the

right hand to the 2, say two and clear it.

We are now ready to read the answer. We go to

the extreme right of the abacus and count off one column for

the digit in the divisor, and one for the abacus. Everything

to the left of that is quotient. Our quotient is 198, We can

now check the division by multiplying the divisor by the quo-

tient. We place the right hand on the 8 and the left on the 9

We say: 4 x 8 is three two or 32. We move to the right

and set the 3 in the tens place. We then move to the right

and write 2 in the ones place. We pick up the right hand and

clear the 8, We place the right hand on the 9 and say: 4x9
 34

is three six or 36. As we say three, we put the 3 to the

right of the 9, then move our hand to the right and set the

6 where the 3 is in the tens column. We pick up the right

hand and clear the 9- Then we place the right hand on the 1

and say: 1 x 4 is zero four. As we say zero, the hand

moves to the right and touches the column next to the 1

to record the zero. We move on to the right and the right

hand sets the 4 with the 3, making it 7. We pick up the right

hand and clear the 1. We now have 792. This is what we

had in the dividend when we first started to divide 4 into 792.

It is a good policy to do the same problem over and

over until the process is well established. It is also good

practice to divide and then check it through by multiplica-

tion. In this way we have the practice of dividing, subtrac-

ting, adding and multiplying.

Exercises:

255 f 5 = 357 * 7 =

8199 t 9 = 2112 t 3 =

2418 t 6 = 896 t 6 =

3936 + 8 = 812 * 4 =

9876 - 6 = 2348 s 9 =
 35

LONG DIVISION

Long division is the process by which a dividend

made up of any number of digits is divided by a divisor made

up of two or more digits. We set it up on the abacus in the

same manner as we set up the short division example.

Let us take an example with a divisor of 45 and the

dividend of 3 015. We write our divisor to the extreme left.

We write our dividend 3015 to the extreme right.

When we divide with more than one digit, we look

for a trial divisor. Since 45 is close to 50 we say that our

trial divisor should be 5 . I have found that when dividing

from 43 to 49 it is a good idea to use 5 as a trial divisor.

We are now ready to check and see how many times

the trial divisor, 5, will go into the first two numbers of the

dividend. Since it would not go into the first digit of 3, we

say that 5 will go into 30 six times. We check the first

digit of our divisor with the first digit of the dividend and we

find that the 4 in 45 is larger than the 3 in 30. So we write

the 6 immediately to the left of the 3 in 30. With our right

hand on the 6 we say: 6 x 4 is two four. As we say two, our

right hand moves to the right and we subtract the 2 from the 3.
 36

Then our hands move to the right and as we say four our

right hand touches the column with a zero. Since we cannot

take 4 from zero, we subtract a 10 with the left hand. We

wanted to subtract only 4 but the left hand cleared a 10, so

the right hand will return 6. Our right hand remains on

the 6 and the left hand is on the zero to the left of it, and

we say: 6 of the quotient times the second digit in the

divisor, which is 5, is three zero. As we say three, the

right hand, which is on the 6 will subtract a 3 by clearing 5

and setting 2. Then both hands move to the right as we say

zero. As we say zero, the right hand, which is now on the 1,

records the zero by pressing the rod. We are now ready to

divide again. We take the trial divisor, 5, into 31 and we

see that 5 will go into 31 six times. Since the 4 in the divi-

sor is greater than the 3 of the 31 in the dividend, we write

the 6 immediately to the left of the 3 of the 31 . And with our

right hand on the 6 we say: 6 times the first digit in the

divisor, 4, is two four. As we say two, the right hand

slides over to the 3 and we subtract 2. Then both hands

move to the right as we say 4; and since the right hand cannot

subtract 4 from 1, the left hand assists by clearing a 10.

Now we wanted only 4 and the left hand cleared 10. That
 37

means we took away 6 too many; so the right hand will return

a 6. With our right hand on the 7 and the left hand on the

zero to the left of it, we say: by going back to the last digit

we have in our quotient 6 times the 5 in the divisor is three

zero. As we say three we subtract it from the 7 by clearing

5 and setting 2. "We move to the right and with the right

hand record the subtraction of the zero by pressing the

column where the 5 is. We are now ready to divide again.

We look at our divisor and we examine our dividend. We

see that we have 45 left. Then we say that 45 will go into

45 one time. Since the 4 in the 45 is the same as the 4 in

the divisor and the second digit in each are the same, we

must skip a space from the 4 in the dividend and set the 1

with the 6. We now multiply again, the 1x4 giving us

zero four, the right hand moving to the right and the left

following. We say zero, then move to the right and say

four. As we say four, we subtract the 4. We move both

hands to the right. As the right hand rests in the column

where we cleared the 4, we say: 1 x 5 is zero 5. As we say

zero five, we move to the right and when we reach the 5 we

clear it.

We are now ready to read the answer. In order to

 38

read our answer we must figure out how many spaces we

must go in from right to left before we read it. First we

count the number of digits in our divisor- -we have 2; then

we add 1 column for the abacus-- 2 and 1 is 3. So we will

count in 3 places from right to left. Everything after that is

quotient. Our quotient is 67.

We can now check our answer by multiplying the

quotient 67 by the divisor 45.

In examining how the example is set up at this

moment, we find that the quotient, 67, is located in the

proper position for multiplication. The 6 of the 67 is in

5 spaces or rods from right to left. We can check and see

that there are 2 columns for the multiplier, 2 for the multi-

plicand and 1 for the abacus.

Every division example should be checked by

multiplication; and every example that is multiplied should

be checked by division.

These are excellent exercises and the student

requires continual practice.

Let us work an example with a remainder. The

division is done in the same manner, but let us see where the

remainder will be and how we should treat it.

 39

Let us take the simple example of 4 into 1234. We

set the 4 to the extreme left. TThen we set the 1234 to the

extreme right. We say: there are 3 fours in 1 2 . Since

the 1 in the dividend is smaller than the 4 in the divisor, we

place the 3 of our answer immediately to the left of the 1.

Then we say: 3 x 4 is one two or 12. As we say one, we

move the hand to the right and subtract 1. When we say two,

we move the right hand to the right and subtract the 2.

Then we say: 4 into 34 will go 8 times. Since the 4 in our

divisor is larger than the 3 in the dividend, we set the 8

immediately to the left of the 3. We say: 8 x 4 is three two

or 32. We move the right hand to the right and subtract 3.

Then we move the right hand to the right as we say two and

subtract 2 from 4. This leaves a 2 in the units column.

Since 4 will not go into 2, the 2 is our remainder. We are

now ready to check our answer, or quotient. We count off

one place for the divisor, one place for the abacus --this

makes 2 places from right to left. We read our answer. Our

answer is 308 and a remainder of 2. Any figure that would be

in the last columns would be remainders.

Now let us check our answer. We will multiply the

quotient by the divisor. We will put our right hand on the 8

 40

of the quotient and say: 8 x 4 is three two. As we say three,

we move our hands to the right and add 3; then we move our

hands to the right as we say two and add 2 to the remainder

that is already in the units place. We pickup the right hand

and clear the 8. Then we place our hand on the 3 and say:

3 x 4 is one two. As we say one, we move our hands to the

right and set the 1. When we say two, we move our hands

to the right and set the 2. Clear the 3. We now have in our

answer 1234. This is what we had when we started. We

divided 4 into 1234.

This is an excellent exercise for division. Start

out by dividing 2 into 1234. Then try 3 into 1234, and so on.

Both young people and teachers should do the same

example over and over. This is as true in addition and sub-

traction as it is in division and multiplication.

We will notice in division that if we have not esti-

mated correctly the number of times our trial divisor goes into

the dividend, we can always divide another time as we go

along. When the divisor is compared with the dividend and

found to be smaller than the first digit in the dividend, we

skip a column. At this time the correction is added to the

estimated quotient. If we have not put down the correct

 .

41

answer in each part of the quotient, we correct our answer as

we go along.

Let us divide 225 by 26, Since 26 is greater than 22

let us use 3 for a trial divisor- We compare 3 with the 22

of 225 and find that it will go 7 times. Since 26 is greater

than 22, we set the quotient 7 immediately to the left of the

22. We multiply the estimated quotient figure, 7, times 26.

Seven times 2 is 14; subtract the 14 from the 22; the difference

is 8. We now have 85 on the abacus. Seven times 6 is 42,

and the difference is 43, We note that the remainder, 43, is

greater than the divisor, 26. Hence, our estimate of 7 is

too low. We will take our trial divisor, 3, and divide it into

4. The answer will be 1 . Since 26 is smaller than 43, we

skip 1 rod and add the 1 to the 7, making the quotient 8. We

multiply the 1 just added times 26 and subtract this from 43,

leaving us 17. Our quotient is 8 and 17 remaining.

In Mr. Gissoni's text, Using the Cranmer Abacus,

he refers to this as "upward correction." He also discusses

"downward correction" and how to work the examples and

make our corrections. I find that if a trial divisor is intro-

duced early, it will not be necessary to make a downward

correction
 42

Examples:

444 ft 12 = 9734 *. 18 =

56883 - 38 = 73983 - 72 =

33456 - 272 = 63345 ft 123 =

4933 - 11 = 27615 - 95 =

25025 - 25 = 9826 t 64 =
 43

ADDITION OF DECIMALS

The fundamentals of adding and subtracting decimals

are the same as those in the addition and subtraction of

whole numbers. The comma or "unit mark" is used as a

decimal point in both addition and subtraction of decimals.

When we have one, two, or three decimal places in

the example, we use the first decimal point from right to

left. Should there be more than 3 places in the decimal, we

must use the second decimal point from right to left. That

becomes our decimal point for that particular example.

For example, let us add 3. 1 plus 2. 04 plus 2, 005,

Since the smallest decimal is thousandths, we need 3 decimal

places. Therefore, we will put our first whole number to

the left of the first; decimal point. Going from right to left,

we find our first decimal place and set the whole number, 3,

immediately to the left of it. Immediately to the right of the

decimal point we will set our 1 tenth. We are now ready to

add 2. 04. We add the whole number, 2, to the 3 which is to

the left of the first decimal. This gives us 5. Next we place

the 4 hundredths in the hundredths place which is to the right

of the tenths place. This is 2 places to the right of the

 44

decimal place.

Now we are ready to add 2. 005. We add 2 to the

whole number 5. T hen we add . 005 by setting the 5 in the

thousandths place which is 3 places to the right of the deci-

mal point. Our answer is 7. 145.

Let us now look at an example with more than 3

decimal places, i.e. , more than 3 digits in the decimal.

Example; 4. 0005 + 2. 006 + 1 . 000002 + 3 . 05 +

10. 3 + 1. 00002.

Since there are more than 3 digits in some of our

decimals; we must use the second decimal point, or unit

mark, from right to left as our decimal point in this parti-

cular example.

First we set the whole number 4 to the left of the

second decimal point(from right to left) . Since 5 ten thou-

sandths requires 4 places after the decimal point, we touch

the first three columns for the zeros, and then we set the 5.

We then add 2. 006 by adding 2 to the whole number 4, making

the whole number 6. We now go in 2 places for the zeros

after the decimal point and write the 6 for 6 thousandths. We

add 2 and 2 millionths by adding the whole number 2 to the 6,

making it 8; and the 2 millionths is set in the sixth place

 45

after the decimal point. We now add 3, 05 by adding the 3 to

the 8, making it 1 1 , and setting the 5 hundredths in the hun-

dredths place. Now add 10.3 to the 11, making it 21 in the

whole number and set 3 tenths in the tenths, place . Then add

1 and 2 hundred thousandths by adding 1 to the 21, making it

22, and set the 2 in the hundred thousandths place, which is

5 places after the decimal. Our answer is 22,356522.

Examples:

3. 86 + 2. 06 = 6.446 + 6. 002 =

4. 09 + 6.29 = 7.678 + 9. 085 =

3.2+9-934= 2.3367+15.00245=

67. 5932 + 84. 000945 = 7, 003456 +15. 3274 =

69-93574 + 182.37095 = 21.7765 + 19-329 =

 46

SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS

We have already mentioned that the subtraction of

decimals is done in the same manner as the subtraction of

whole numbers. However, we must determine where to place

the decimal. We follow the same procedure as we did in

addition of decimals.

Let us examine a subtraction example: 5. 354 - 2. 13Z.

Going from right to left, we set the whole number 5 to the left

of the first decimal point. Then set 354 thousandths to the

right of the whole number. We are now ready to subtract

2. 132.

From the whole number 5 subtract the whole number

2. This leaves us 3. From 3 tenths subtract 1 tenth and this

leaves us with 2 tenths. From 5 hundredths subtract 3 hun-

dredths and that gives us 2 hundredths. From 4 thousandths

subtract 2 thousandths and we have 2 thousandths. Our answer

is 3.222.

Let us now work a subtraction example that has more

than 3 places in the decimal: 7. 674598 - 5. 342165.

The whole number 7 is set to the left of the second

decimal place from right to left. The next six digits in the

decimal are written to the right of the whole number 7. From

 47

the whole number 7 subtract 5, leaving 2. From 6 tenths

subtract 3 tenths, leaving 3 tenths. From 7 hundredths sub-

tract 4 hundredths, leaving 3 hundredths. From 4 thousandths

subtract 2 thousandths, leaving 2 thousandths. From 5 ten

thousandths subtract 1 ten thousandth leaving 4 ten thousandths.

From the 9 hundred thousandths subtract 6 one hundred thou-

sandths leaving 3 one hundred thousandths. From 8 millionths

subtract 5 millionths, leaving 3 millionths. Our answer is

2.332433.

Indirect addition and subtraction examples are done in

the same manner with decimals as they are done with whole

numbers .

Examples:

6.42 - 4. 01 = 9- 173 - 4. 152 =

67.081-42.931= 78.403-57.132 =

89-573 - 48.374 = 62.7193 - 54.0347 =

49-2339 - 19-8745 = 123.73092 - 54.39705 =

784. 03964 - 522. 7432 = 548. 85357 - 528 78538 =

 48

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS

In the multiplication of decimals, we set the multi-

plier and multiplicand in the same manner on the abacus as

we set whole numbers when we learned the process of multi-

plication. After we have completed our multiplication, we

point off as many places in our product as there were places

in the multiplier and multiplicand combined. In other words, we

add up all the decimal places in the multiplier and multipli-

cand and then point off that many places in our product by

counting from right to left.

For example, let us multiply 5 tenths by 37 hundredths.

We will set our 5 to the extreme left. Then we count in 4 rods

from right to left and set the 37. Now we are ready to multiply.

With our right hand on the 7 and the left hand on the 3,

we say: 5 x 7 is three five. Set the 3 as we move to the

right, and then set the 5 as we move to the right. We pick up

our right hand and clear the 7. We put our right hand on the

3 and say: 5 x 3 is one five. Move the right hand to the right,

followed by the left hand, and as we say one, set it with the

right hand. As we move to the right and say five, set the 5 with

the 3. Pick up the right hand and clear the 3. Our product is
 49

185. Since we had one decimal place in the multiplier and two

decimal places in the multiplicand, we add them together and

get three. Then we must point off 3 places in our product

from right to left. Our answer is .185.

Let us multiply 2 tenths by 4 tenths. We set the 2

to the extreme left. Then in order to know where to set the 4,

we count one place for the 1 digit in the multiplier one for the

1 digit in the multiplicand, and 1 place for the abacus. That

gives us 3 places. We count in 3 columns from right to left

and set the 4. With our right hand on the 4 we say: 2 x 4 is

zero eight. As we say the zero, we move our hands to the

right and press the bar to the right of the 4 and move both

hands to the right as we say eight and set the 8. Then clear

the 4. Since there was one decimal place in the multiplier and

one decimal place in the multiplicand, we will point off two deci-

mal places. Thus our product is . 08.

Examples:

.4x9-7= 63.2 x 14.43 =

.6x5.32= 2. 71 x 82. 3 =

7.2x9-85= 8.6 x 54. 35 =

.24 x 9- 38 = 7. 65 x 9- 326 =
 50

DIVISION OF DECIMALS

In our practice with division of decimals on the abacus,

we treat the division as if we were working, with whole num-

bers. Then we subtract the number of decimal places in the

divisor from the number of decimal places in the dividend.

The difference indicates the number of places to point off in

the quotient.

However, if we do not have any decimal places in the

dividend and we do have one or more in the divisor, then add

as many zeros to the dividend as there are decimal places in

the divisor and divide as in working with whole numbers.

Since we have changed both divisor and dividend to whole

numbers, there are no places to point off.

Let us take the example .4 into 8.4. We will set our

4 to the extreme left. Our 84 is written to the extreme right.

Four into 8 goes 2 times. Since the 4 in the divisor is smaller

than the 8 in the dividend, we will skip a rod, and write the 2.

Then with our right hand on the 2, we say: 2 x 4 is zero eight.

As we say zero we move to the right, press the column, move

on tp the right and subtract the 8.

We then say: 4 will go into 4 once. Since the 4 in the

 51

divisor is equal to the 4 in the dividend, we will skip a column

placing the 1 immediately to the right of the 2 in the answer or

quotient. We say: 1 x 4 is zero four. We move our hands to

the right, touch the column as we say zero and subtract the 4

when we say four. Since there is one digit in the divisor and

one for the abacus, we count in two columns from right to

left. Everything to the left of this is the answer.

Since we had one decimal place in our divisor, and

one decimal place in our dividend, we subtract. 1 from 1 and

we get zero. We do not point off any places in our answer.

Our answer or quotient is 21.

Let us use the example .3 into 96. Since we have one

decimal place in the divisor and no places in the dividend,

we will add as many zeros in our dividend as there are deci-

mal places in the divisor. There is one decimal place in the

divisor, so the divisor becomes a whole number and our 96

becomes 960. This done by multiplying both divisor and divi-

dend by 1 when there is one place in the divisor. If there are

two places in the divisor, then we multiply both divisor and divi-

dend by 100. This clears the decimal in the divisor and gives

2 zeros in the dividend. Hence, there are no decimal places

in the quotient.
 52

We divide 3 into 9 and it will go 3 times. Since the 3

in our divisor is smaller than the 9 in the dividend, we will

skip a column and place the 3 and say; 3x3 is zero nine,

moving to the right, touching the column for the zero, moving

on to the right and subtracting the 9 as we say nine. Then we

say: 3 will go into 6 how many times? It will go twice. Here

again the 3 is smaller than the 6 in the dividend. So we skip a

column and place the 2 to the right of the 3 in the answer. And

with the right hand on the 2, we say; 2 x 3 is zero six., moving

the hands in the proper manner and subtracting the 6. Since

there is one digit in the divisor and one for the abacus, we

count in two places from right to left, and everything to the left

of these 2 columns is the answer. Our answer is 320, There

are no decimal places in our quotient.

Fred Gissoni, in his text, Using the Cranmer Abacus,

describes a completely different method for locating the deci-

mals in both the product and the quotient, The writer hopes

that when the contents of this manual are fully examined by

interested people in the field, we may perfect a more simplified

method of locating the decimal point.

Exercises:

.205 * .5 = .189-* 3 =
 53

.279 r .9 = . 330 * 7 =

25.25 * 2.5 = 96.3 t 3 -

6.66 t 1.8 = 370. 37 r .11 ^

43.56 * .71 = 27.24 * .32 =

 54

FRACTIONS

A fraction is a numeral such as 1/2 or 3/4. In the

introduction of fractions we must learn to distinguish between

the numerator and the denominator. For example, in the com-

mon fraction 1/2, 1 is the numerator and 2 is the denominator.

The numerator 1 indicates the number of fractional units

taken. The denominator 2 tells into how many equal parts

the unit is supposed to be divided.

The whole number 1 may take many forms. For

example, 2/2 = 1 / 1 = 1 ; 3/ 3 = 1 / 1 = 1 ; 4/4 = 1/1 = 1, etc. It

may have many names. If you divide a pie into 6 parts and

keep all 6, you will have 6/6 of your pie, or all of it. If you

divide it into fourths and keep all 4, you will have 4/4 or all

your pie. Nine-ninths, 2/2, 3/3, 100/100 are all names for

1 because we have all the parts into which the number is di-

vided.

Any number divided by 1 or multiplied by 1 keeps its

own value. Seven t 1 is 7; 3 x 1 is 3; 1/2 x 1 is 1/2. This

will be true no matter what name is used for 1 .

Let us check this on the abacus. We set the numera-

tor 2 to the extreme left, skip two rods and set the denomina-
 55

tor 2. In order to reduce 2/2 to its simplest form, we must

first find the greatest common factor of the numerator and the

denominator. The factor common to 2, the numerator, and to

2, the denominator, is 2. We divide the common factor 2

into the numerator 2 and change it to 1; we divide the common

factor 2 into the denominator 2 and change it to 1. We have 1/1

which equals the whole number 1 .

Let us find the simplest name for 4/8. Set the

numerator 4 to the extreme left, skip two rods and set the

denominator 8. What is the largest common factor of 4 and

8? It is 4. Dividing 4 into the numerator 4 is 1 . We change

the 4 to 1 . Dividing 4 into the denominator 8 gives us 2. We

change the 8 to 2. Thus, the simplest form is 1/2. This pro-

cess is commonly referred to as the reduction of fractions.

Examples:

3/6 = 5/10 =

7/14 = 10/16 =

3/9 = 4/12 -

6/15 = 8/14 =

2/18 = 7/21 =
 56

ADDITION OF FRACTIONS

In the addition and subtraction of fractions , we divide

the abacus into three sections. One section is for the whole

number, the second section is for the numerator, and the

third section is for the denominator.

Since a common denominator is necessary in the addi-

tion and subtraction of fractions, we shall first determine

what it will be, and then place it in the denominator section.

The common denominator is placed to the extreme right.

The whole number is placed to the left of the second comma,

or the second unit marker from right to left on the abacus.

If there is one digit in the whole number, it is placed on the

seventh column from the right.

The numerator is placed to the left of the first comma,

or unit marker (from right to left). The denominator, as

mentioned before, is placed to the extreme right. If the de-

nominators should be 3 digits or more, a system must be

worked out whereby the three sections are moved to the left

and arranged in such a manner that they do not run into one

another.

Since we generally need a common denominator in

 57

the addition of fractions, we shall get the common denominator

by multiplying the two denominators together. Then place

the common denominator in the denominator section of the

abacus. We are now ready to work an example: 4 5/6 f

5 7/9.

We must first find the lowest common denominator.

One way to do this is to take the largest denominator, which is

9, and multiply it by 2 . Two x 9 is 18. Then we check to see

if the other denominator 6 will go into 18. If it does, we will

use the 18; if nbt, we would multiply the 9 by the next number

higher than 2, which is 3, etc (Many times we multiply the

two denominators and thereby find the common denominator.)

In this case it is 18; so we place the denominator 18 to the

extreme right, which is the section for the denominator.

We are now ready to work the example . We take the

whole number 4 of the 4 5/6 and set it in the whole number

section, which is to the left of the second unit marker or

comma (the 7th column) We are now ready to change the 5/6

to eighteenths. In order to change 5/6 to 18ths 9 we set the 5

to the extreme left, skip a space and set the 6. We divide the

denominator 6 into the common denominator 18 and we get 3,

Then we multiply that 3 by the numerator 5 and we get 15.

 58

We set the numerator 15 in the numerator section of the abacus,

which is to the left of the first unit marker or comma.

For the student who is learning for the first time how

to change a fraction to a common denominator, the following

method might prove helpful. In this example we are changing

the 5/6 to 18ths.

The student sets the numerator 5 to the extreme

left; then he skips a space and sets the denominator 6. With

the right hand on the denominator 6, he asks: 6 will go into

the common denominator 18 how many times? It will go 3

times. He clears the denominator 6 and places his right hand

on the numerator 5 and says: 5 x 3 is 15. Then he clears

that 5 and places the 1 5 in the numerator section. He now

has the whole number 4, the numerator 15, and the denomina-

tor 18.

We are ready to add the 5 7/9 We add the 5 to the

4 in the whole number section. We now have the whole number

9- We must change the 7/9 to I8ths. Nine into 18 will go

twice; Z x 7 is 14. We shall add 14 to our numerator in the

numerator section. We have 29 in the numerator. We

examine our numerator and denominator and find that the

numerator is larger than the denominator, so, we divide the

 59

denominator into the numerator. Eighteen into 29 will go

once. Then we add the 1 to the whole number 9 and get a 10

in the whole number section. We say: 1 x 18 is 18. We

subtract the 1 from the 2 in the 29; and subtract the 8

from the 9 in the 29- This leaves us 1 1 in the numerator.

As we look at the three sections we read our answer:

10 11/18.

Examples:

3 1/3+4 5/6 = 4 1/5+2 3/5 =

5 2/7+4 4/7 = 12 2/9 + 11 4/9 -

6 3/8 + 7 7/8 = 5 2/3+4 5/6 =

7 3/5+4 3/4 = 9 5/7 + 3 5/8 =

8 2/5+3 4/9 = 11 5/6 + 7 4/9 =

 60

SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

Subtraction examples are set up as in addition.

Again, we divide the abacus into three sections- -whole num-

bers to the left of the second unit marker; numerator to the

left of the first unit marker; and the common denominator to

the extreme right.

Let us work the example; 7 5/8 - 5 2/3.

First we find the common denominator by multiplying

the two denominators 8 and 3. Eight x 3 is 24. "We will set

the 24 to the extreme right. We are now ready to write 7 5/8

We will set the 7 in the whole number section which is to

the left of the second unit marker (from right to left). Then

we change our 5/8 to the common denominator 24.

To change 5/8 to the common denominator 24, set

the 5 of the 5/8 to the extreme left. Skip a space and set the

8. With the right hand on the 8 of the 5/8 say: 8 into 24 goes

3 times . Clear the 8 and put the right hand on the 5 and say:

5 x 3 is 15. Clear the 5 and set a 15 to the extreme left.

Now we have changed our 5/8 to 15/24. Clear the 15 and set

the 15 in the numerator place which is to the left of the first

comma.
 61

We are now ready to subtract the whole number 5

from the 7 which leaves 2. We then subtract the 2/3 from the

15/24. However, since we cannot subtract thirds from 24ths,

we will change the 2/3 to 24ths . Set the 2 to the extreme left.

Skip a space and set the 3 , With the right hand on the 3 say:

3 into 24 goes 8 times. Clear the 3 and say 8 x the numerator

2 is 16. Clear the 2 and set the 16 to the extreme left. We

now have 16/24, We will subtract the 16/24 from 15/24.

Since we cannot take 16 from 15, we will have to

borrow a whole one from the whole number 2., which "will

leave us a 1 in the whole number section. Since the whole

number 1 has 24/24, we will add that tothe 15/24 and this

gives us 39/24. We are now able to subtract the 16 in the

numerator from the 39, and we have 23/24, Our answer is

1 23/24,

Addition and subtraction must first be done with

simple examples with common denominators. At this moment

we are demonstrating how to work with lowest common denomina-

tors. In the beginning of fractions, one should work the

examples with direct addition and subtraction.

Examples:

7 4/5-2 2/5 = 9 5/7-5 3/7 =

 62

15. 5)56 -4 1/6 = 23 7/9 - 12 5/9 =

18 11/15 - 9 8/15 8 3/5-2 4/7 =

9 4/9-7 3/4 = 14 1/2 - 7 8/9 =

17 7/8 - 11 2/3 = 13 3/7 - 12 3/4 =r

 63

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

In the multiplication of fractions, we again divide

the abacus into sections. We will place our numerators on

the left side of the abacus and our denominators will be

placed on the right.

Let us take the example 1/2 x 3/4, We will set the

numerator, 1, to the extreme left. Then place the denomina-

tor, 2, to the extreme right. Since we are multiplying that

by 3/4, we will place the numerator, 3, two columns to the

right of the first numerator, 1 . We will then place the

denominator, 4, two columns to the left of the denominator 2.

On the left side of the abacus we now have the

numerators 1 and 3; and on the right section we have the

denominators 4 and 2.

The student learns that in the multiplication of frac-

tions we multiply numerator by numerator, and denominator

by denominator. We place our right hand on the first numera-

tor 1 and say: 1x3 (the second numerator) is 3. As the

right hand moves from the numerator 1 to the numerator 3,

the left hand is placed on the 1, and as we say 3, the left

hand clears the 1 and the numerator 3 remains.

 64

Then we put our right hand on the denominator, 4,

and say: 4 x 2 is 8. As the right hand leaves the denomina-

tor 4 and moves to the denominator 2, the left hand is placed

on the denominator 4, and as we say 4 x 2 is 8, the left hand

clears the 4, and the right hand sets an 8 where the 2 was.

Our answer is 3 in the numerator and 8 in the denominator,

or 3/8.

Let us now take as an example 3 1/2 x 1 1/7, Three

and one -half is changed to an improper fraction, or 7/2. We

set the numerator 7 to the extreme left. We set. the denomina-

tor 2 to the extreme right- Then we change 1 1/7 to 8/7.

We skip two columns after the first numerator 7 and set the

numerator 8. Then we place the denominator 7 two columns

to the left of the denominator 2. We check to see if we can

cancel.

This example calls for an introduction to cancella-

tion. We check to see if there is a number that can be divided

evenly into one of the numerators and one of the denominators.

We put our right hand on the first numerator, which is a 7.

Then we place our left hand on that 7 ^yhile the right hand

checks in the denominator section for a number that can be

divided by 7. The right hand sees another 7. Seven will go

 65

into 7 one time. The right hand changes that 7 to a 1. The

right hand returns to the left hand and we say: 7 into 7 goes

once; and change that 7 to a 1 .

The right hand checks the second numerator. It is

an 8. The left hand is placed on the 3 while the right hand

moves to check the denominators. The first denominator is

a 1 and the second denominator is a 2. What number will go

evenly into 2 and 8? Two will go into 2 and 8. Two will go

into 2 once. The right hand changes the 2 to a 1 . Then the

right hand returns to the 8 and we say: 2 into 8 goes 4 times

and we change the 8 to a 4. We are now ready to multiply.

The right hand is placed on the numerator 1 as we

say: 1 x 4 is 4. As the right hand leaves the numerator 1

and moves to the numerator 4, the left hand is placed on the

numerator 1, and as we say 4 the left hand clears the 1 and

the 4 remains. Then we put our right hand on the first de-

nominator and say: 1 x 1 is 1 . As the right hand leaves the

denominator 1 and moves to the second denominator _l the

left hand is placed on the first denominator 1 . As we say:

1 x 1 is 1, the left hand clears the 1 and the right hand re-

mains on the other 1 . Our answer is 4 in the numerator and

1 in the denominator, or the whole number 4-

 66

Examples:

1/3 x 4/5 - 2/5 x 5/6 =

3/4 x 7/9 = 7/8 x 4/7 =

3/8 x 4/9 - 2 1/2 x 4 1/3 =

1 1/7x1 1/8 = 2 1/3x1 2/7 =

3 3/4 x 2 1/5 - 11/6x2 2/5 =

 67

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

Division, of fractions is done in f

he same manner as

multiplication. The only difference is that we invert the divi-

sor and proceed as we did in multiplication of fractions 5 i.e. ,

multiply numerator by numerator and denominator by deno-

minator .

Since division of fractions is the inverse of the multi-

plication of fractions 3 we can refer to the division of fractions

as multiplying the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.

The inverse of a number is a reciprocal of a number of any

fraction. For example., the reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2. We

rewrite each division example as a multiplication example

and then find the answer. For example j let us divide 2/3 by

1/5. Of the dividend 2/3, we set the numerator 2 to the

extreme leftj and the denominator 3 to the extreme right.

We then multiply this by the reciprocal of l/5 ;

which is 5/1,

Of the 5/l ;
we set the numerator 5 two rods removed from

the numerator 2 of the dividend The 1 of the denominator is

set on the third rod to the left of the 3, We then proceed as in

multiplication of fractions, by multiplying the numerators

(2 x 5) giving us 1 in the numerator, and the denominators

 68

(1x3) giving us 3 in the denominator. Our answer is 10/3.

Since 10/3 is an improper fraction, we will divide the de-

nominator 3 into the numerator 10, and our answer is 3 1/3,

Examples:

1/2 * 3/4 = 4/5 * 1/2 =

5/9 * 2/3 = 4/5 * 2/5 -

1 1/2 * 1 1/3 = 2 1/2 * 5/9 =

2 1/4*1 2/7 = 11/8* 1/4 =

5 2/3*1 2/5 = 3 1/3 * 2. 1/2 .=

 ,

69

PER CENT

Since per cent means hundredths, it should be easy

for us to write per cents as fractions or decimals. If we

were to say 15%,yOf 125, we would change the 15% to 15/100

or . 15 and multiply . 15 x 125/1. This would set up on the

abacus in the same manner as we set up .15 x 125. We would

set the 15 to the extreme left and on the sixth, fifth and

fourth rods from the extreme right, we would set 125 and

multiply. The answer would be 1875. We then point off two

places in our answer since per cent is the same as hundredths

The answer is 18, 75.

When the per cent has a simple fractional equivalent,

such as 25% =1/4, or 33 1/3% =1/3, it would be quicker to

revert to the multiplication of fractions. For example:

33 1/3% of 129- Instead of multiplying .33 1/3x129, we

could multiply 1/3 x 129- This would set up as follows: the

numerator 1 of the 1/3 would be placed to the extreme left

and the denominator 3 to the extreme right. We skip two

rods from the numerator 1 and set the 129- The denominator

1 (of the whole number 129) is placed two rods to the left of

the denominator 3. We check for cancellation and find that

 70

3 will go into 129 forty-three times (changing the 129 to 43);

3 will go into the denominator 3 one time, changing the 3 to

a 1 . We then multiply the numerator by the numerator and

the denominator by the denominator, and our answer is

43/1 or 43.

Examples;

17% of 215 = 23% of 368 =

9% of 420 = 33 1/3% of 912 =

12.3% of 47 = 87 1/2% of 168 =

6. 05% of 103 = 25% of 210 =

5 0% of 1232 = 62 1/2% of 1 84 =
 71

SQUARE ROOT

We know that the square root of a number is one of

the two equal factors of the number. The square root of

16=4 since 4 x 4 is 16, or 4 squared = 16. Though there are

many tables of squares and square roots, they are not always

at our fingertips. In this manual we shall discover how to

extract the square root of a number by division. This is done

in much the same way as in long division, but the divisor

changes with each step. Instead of doubling the divisor, in

this manual we shall halve the dividend, thereby working with

smaller numbers in our dividend.

Let us extract the square root of 1225. We will

move 6 places from right to left and set 1225. We separate

our digits into groups oi two from right to left starting from

the decimal point. We will have as many digits in the square

root as we have groups in the original number. We here have

two groups, 12 and 25. For the first trial divisor , take the

square root of the largest perfect square which is less than

the first group (12).

First we will extract the square root of the 12 and

say: what is the greatest square in 12? The greatest square

 72

in 12 is 9 and the square root of 9 is 3. We proceed as in

division by dividing; multiplying and subtracting. Set the 3

immediately to the left of 1 in the 12 group. Three x 3 = 9

Subtract 9 from 12. We now have 325- We divide the 325

in half, and this gives us 162. 5. We divide 3 into 16 and

get 5. Set the 5 to the left of the 16. Five x 3 =15. Subtract

15 from 16 leaving us 1. We now have 12.5. We square the

5 of the 35. Five x 5 =25. Divide the 25 by 2 and the answer

is 12.5. Since the remainder on our abacus is exactly 1/2

of the square of 5, we know that 1225 is a perfect square and

the square root of 1225 is 35.

Let. us extract the square root of 86. Since we know

that 86 is not a perfect square, we shall carry our answer out

to a decimal place. After the 86 we set the decimal and carry

it out to two more groups t thus adding 4 zeros after the

decimal and dividing it into groups of two from left to right

from the decimal point.

The greatest square in 86 is 9(9x9 = 81). Set the

9 to the left of the 8 in the 86. We subtract 81 from 86 and

the answer is 5. We now have 5. 0000. We divide 5. 0000

in half and we get 2. 5000. We now divide 2.5 by 9 and we

have . 2 ( . 2 X.9 = 1 • 8) . Place . 2 in the quotient to the right

 73

of the 9- We subtract the 1.8 from 2,5 and the difference is

. 7. We now have . 7000. We divide 92 into . 7000 and we

have approximately 7. Place the 7 to the right of 9-2 and our

answer is 9- 27 .

Let us take the example 7396. We separate the

number from right to left into groups of 2. Our two groups are

73 and 96. The greatest square in the first group, 73, is

8 (8 x 8 = 64). We subtract 64 from 73 giving us 9- We now

have 996. We divide that number in half and we have 498.

When we divide 8 into 49, we get 6(8x6 = 48). We subtract

that from 49 leaving us 1. We now have 18. We square the

6 and divide it in half (6 x 6 = 36; 36 * 2 = 1 8) . We have 18

on the abacus and that is 1/2 of the square of 6. Again we

see that 7396 is a perfect square and the square root of it is

86.

Let us extract the square root of 841. We divide

841 into two groups from right to left giving us 8 and 41 .

For the first trial divisor, take the square root of the largest

perfect square which is less than the first group (8). The

greatest perfect square in 8 is 4. The square root of 4 is 2.

Since the trial divisor 2 is smaller than 8, we skip a place

from the 8 and set the 2. We square 2(2x2 =4) and subtract
 .

74

it from the 8 leaving us 4. We now have 441 . We divide it

in half giving us 220. 5. Let us divide the trial divisor 2 into

22. Although 22 * Z is 11, we still must have but one digit

to place next to the 2 in the quotient. We take the highest

possible one -digit number (9) and place it next to the 2 giving

us 29- We multiply 9x2(18) and subtract it from 22, leaving

us 4. We now have 40. 5. We square the 9 and divide it in

half (9 x 9 = 81; 81 * 2 = 40. 5) . Again we see that this is a

perfect square

Here is a five -digit number- - 1 7689- To find the

square root s we divide 17689 into three groups moving from

right to left (l - 76 - 89). We extract the square root of the

first two groups 1-76. The square root of 176 is 13. Place

that figure to the left of 176. We square 13 which gives us

169. We subtract 1 69 from 176 giving us 7, We now have

789- We halve that, giving us 394.5. We divide 13 into 39

giving us 3 (3 x 13 = 39). We subtract 39 from 39 leaving us

4. 5 on the abacus. We square the final j3 of 133 in the quo-

tient, giving us 9- We halve the 9» giving us 4.5- Since

this is half of the square of the final 3 in our quotient, we

know that 17689 is a perfect square and that 133 is the square

root of 17689-
 75

Examples:

9801 4 °96

6889 15Z1

1936 864 9

6241 - 7744

1849 8649
 76

CONCLUSION

The foregoing manual is offered to both teachers and

students in order to advance the use of the Cranmer Abacus

The writer has found that mastery of this tool has

been of inestimable help in increasing the speed and accuracy

of mathematical computation among her students at the

Overbrook School for the Blind. This manual was written

in the hope that these step-by-step explanations will make it

easier for each teacher to learn the procedure, as well as

to facilitate the teaching of the operations to the student.

The enthusiastic teacher will find a ready response

from the students to whom a new world of mathematics is

opened through the use of the Cranmer Abacus.

 E&rUBwfiaBfl

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511.2 The abacus made easy.
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