UNIT-1

PART-A

1. Define network.
A. A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication. A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in
order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through
cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
2. List different types of networks.
A. Some of the different networks based on size are:
 Personal area network, or PAN
 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN
Some of the different networks based on their main purpose are:
 Storage area network, or SAN
 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN
3. Discuss why are protocols needed.
A. Network protocols made the modernization of the Internet possible. Such
protocols allow computers to communicate with other computers without users
having to know what is happening in the background.
4. List two advantages and two disadvantages of bus topology in network.
A. Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology,
all the nodes (computers as well as servers) are connected to the single cable
(called bus), by the help of interface connectors.
Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

2) Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other
networks.
3) Bus topology costs very less.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.
Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

1) There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be
connected.
2) Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages.If the
main cable (i.e. bus ) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
3) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
4) Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
5) Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it
increases.
6) It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.

5. State Nyquist Bit Rate.

A. Bit Rate For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
Bit Rate = 2 × bandwidth × log2 L
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of
signal levels used to represent data, and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per
second.
6. Discuss the circuit switched networks.
A. A circuit-switched communication system involves three phases: circuit
establishment (setting up dedicated links between the source and destination);
data transfer (transmitting the data between the source and destination); and
circuit disconnect (removing the dedicated links).
The system decides on which route to follow, based on a resource-optimizing
algorithm, and transmission goes according to the path.
7. List two advantages of layering principle in computer networks.
 A. Troubleshooting - With layered approach it is always easier to
debug problems in your network. For example if your email client stop
working, you don't have to debug by looking at the cables. Ping the
mail server & if its reachable you can be sure that connectivity is not
the issues and start looking deeper into you mail application.
  Reduce complexity -With layered approach the network is broken in
smaller parts and makes design, development & learning more easier.

8. List two advantages and disadvantages of the following: (i)Optical fibers (ii)
Satellites (iii) Microwaves.
A. (i) Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
Advantages:
a) Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher
bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.
Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited
not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology
available.
b) Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly
greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without
requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair
cable.
c) Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
Disadvantages:
a) Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new
technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet
available everywhere. o Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is
unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
b) Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of
other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of
optical fiber cannot be justified.

(ii) Advantages and Disadvantages of Satellite:

Advantages:
a) It is used for mobile and wireless communication applications independent of
location.
b) It covers wide area of the earth hence entire country or region can be covered
with just one satellite.
 c) It is used for voice, data, video and any other information transmission.
Satellite system can be interfaced with internet infrastructure to obtain internet
service. It is also used for GPS applications in various mobile devices for
location determination.
Disadvantages:
a) Satellite manufacturing requires more time. Moreover satellite design and
development requires higher cost.
b) Satellite once launched, requires to be monitored and controlled on regular
periods so that it remains in the orbit.
(iii) Advantages and Disadvantages of Microwaves:
Advantages:
a) The microwave spectrum has larger bandwidth and hence large amount of
information can be transmitted using it.
b) Microwave communication is used since earlier days as one of the Line of
Sight Communication in hilly remote areas where other means of wired
communication is not possible to be installed. Microwave and satellite
communications are prefect choice in such places.
Disadvantages:
a) As microwave communication is limited to line of sight mode only, Other
modes of communication are not possible.
b) For the frequencies which are below 30MHz standard circuit analysis can be
applied. For the frequencies in the microwave range, E-H wave analysis need to
be applied.
9. State two disadvantages of twisted pair cables.
A.

 Easily pick up noise signals which results in higher error rates when the line
length exceeds 100 meters.
 Being thin in size, it is likely to break easily.
 It can support 19,200 bps up to 50 feet on RS-232 port.

10. Define packet switching.

A. The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The
switching information is added in the header of each packet and transmitted
independently. It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small
size packets and they do not take much resources either on carrier path or in the
internal memory of switches.
11. Define Data rate.
A. The speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a
peripheral device and the computer, measured in bytes per second.
12. Discuss two points to improve the performance of network.
A. a) Balance your system bus load
In the same vein as disk striping, you don't want all your I/O for your NIC and
your hard drives and tape drives, etc. on the same bus. Most servers have
several, so put some thought into how you can optimize this. Specifically,
realize that data doesn't go directly from the hard drive to the NIC if they're on
the same bus. All the components still have to chat with your CPU, so if there's
contention, it's faster if they're on separate busses.
b) Clean up network protocols
If you're one of those people that still has NetWare IPX, and Appletalk and
NetBEUI and TCP/IP protocols bound to every interface on your server, get rid
of the ones you're not using.
13. What is meant by topology? Name some popular topologies.
A. A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and
connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
There are five common types of network Topologies.

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology

14. Define switching.

A. Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port
leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress,
and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A communication
system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level, switching
can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No
previous handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination,
there is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints.
15. Describe Why are standards needed.
A. Without networking standards, it would be difficult—if not impossible—to
develop networks that easily share information. Standards also mean that
customers are not locked into one vendor. They can buy hardware and software
from any vendor whose equipment meets the standard. In this way, standards
help to promote more competition and hold down prices.

The use of standards makes it much easier to develop software and hardware
that link different networks because software and hardware can be developed
one layer at a time.

16. Write the importance about MAN.

A. A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network
across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a
LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the
configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to tens
of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a
bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a college
campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.
17. Describe the Noise.
A. Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be
Noise in signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.
18. Write a short note on WAN.
A. A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire
country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks,
such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a public
WAN.
19. List the Transmission Impairments.
A. In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media,
which tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection causes
signal impairment.
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with
increasing distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of
medium. This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify
the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back.
Distortion – It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its
own propagation speed travelling through a medium. Every component arrive at
different time which leads to delay distortion. Therefore, they have different
phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is
called noise. There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk
noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
20. Discuss on Distortion.
A. It means change in the shape of signal. This is generally seen in composite
signals with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. Every component arrive at
different time which leads to delay distortion. Therefore, they have different
phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
21. Discuss on internet history.

A. the first practical schematics for the Internet would not arrive until the early
1960s, when MIT’s J.C.R. Licklider popularized the idea of an “Intergalactic
Network” of computers. Shortly thereafter, computer scientists developed the
concept of “packet switching,” a method for effectively transmitting electronic
data that would later become one of the major building blocks of the Internet.

The first workable prototype of the Internet came in the late 1960s with the
creation of ARPANET, or the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
Originally funded by the U.S. Department of Defense, ARPANET used packet
switching to allow multiple computers to communicate on a single network.
The technology continued to grow in the 1970s after scientists Robert Kahn
and Vinton Cerf developed Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol, or TCP/IP, a communications model that set standards for how data
could be transmitted between multiple networks. ARPANET adopted TCP/IP
on January 1, 1983, and from there researchers began to assemble the “network
of networks” that became the modern Internet. The online world then took on a
more recognizable form in 1990, when computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee
invented the World Wide Web. While it’s often confused with the Internet
itself, the web is actually just the most common means of accessing data online
in the form of websites and hyperlinks.

22. List the types of the Transmission mediums.

A. Copper cable—Types of cable include unshielded twisted-pair (UTP),
shielded twisted-pair (STP), and coaxial cable.
Wireless—Wireless media include radio frequencies, microwave, satellite, and
infrared.
Fiber optics—Fiber offers enormous bandwidth, immunity to many types of
interference and noise, and improved security.
23. Give the importance of LAN.
A. A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single
site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing
resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively
inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.
LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources
among themselves but not with the rest of the outside world.
24. Define Attenuation.
A. It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This
is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated
signal which gives the original signal back.
25. Define Shannon Capacity.
A. to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth × log2 (1 + SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to
noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
28. Differentiate four basic topologies.
A.
29. Write two advantages and disadvantages of computer networks.

A. Advantages of Computer Networking

1. It enhances communication and availability of information.
Networking, especially with full access to the web, allows ways of
communication that would simply be impossible before it was developed.
Instant messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to
other people wherever they are in the world, which is a huge boon for
businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast amount of useful information,
including traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news and
current events.

2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing.

This benefit is very important, particularly for larger companies that really need
to produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people. Since the
technology involves computer-based work, it is assured that the resources they
wanted to get across would be completely shared by connecting to a computer
network which their audience is also using.

Disadvantages of Computer Networking

1. It lacks independence.
Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers, so
people will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for
their tasks at hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file
server, which means that, if it breaks down, the system would become useless,
making users idle.
 2. It poses security difficulties.
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a
computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain
user’s security would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities
that would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware of.

30. List the Layers of the OSI model.

A.
 Layer 7: The application layer. ...
 Layer 6: The presentation layer. ...
 Layer 5: The session layer. ...
 Layer 4: The transport layer. ...
 Layer 3: The network layer. ...
 Layer 2: The data-link layer. ...
 Layer 1: The physical layer.

31. List the layers of the TCP/IP reference model.

A. 1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Layer
32. List out the functions of the Physical Layer.
A. We can say that the physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits
in a frame across the link. Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the
TCPIIP protocol suite, the communication between two devices at the physical
layer is still a logical communication because there is another, hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer. Two devices are connected by a
transmission medium (cable or air). We need to know that the transmission
medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals. So the bits
received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed and sent through
the transmission media, but we can think that the logical unit between two
physical layers in two devices is a bit. There are several protocols that transform
a bit to a signal.
 PART – B

1. Explain how are OSI and ISO related to each other.

A.
Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP
protocol suite, this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined. Established in
1947, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. Almost
three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization; OSI is the model The OSI model is a layered
framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across
a network.

Lack of OSI Model's Success

The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite. Most experts were at
first excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully replaced by
the OSI model. This did not happen for several reasons, but we describe only
three, which are agreed upon by all experts in the field. First, OSI was
completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had
been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot. Second, some layers in the
OSI model were never fully defined. For example, although the services
provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed in the document,
actual protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were they fully
described, and the corresponding software was not fully developed. Third, when
OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not
show a high enough level of

performance to entice the Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol
suite to the OSI model.
2. Illustrate some of the factors that determine whether a unification system is a
LAN or WAN?
A. Any computer network greater than LAN is WAN. Now how much is the
limit of LAN is subjective but can be approximated as the networks of
computers within the reach of one location now that one location can be your
single room, your house, one building, make be two or more building in a
campus but sure not a big as collection of 100 plus buildings or so.

Second thing that originates from total area covered by LAN is that since LAN
is a network of computers in small geographical area so the network technology
like wire used, speed of the connection that connects computer is of less power
than that required for computers in WAN as the two computer in WAN can
span to two cities, two countries.
3. Define computer networks? Describe various types of networks topologies in
computer network. Also discuss various advantages and disadvantages.
A. A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication.
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected
to another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two
neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the
ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used
in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as
a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted,
has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more

nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through
a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the
central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network
nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to
link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest
distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it
avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the
failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no
routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose
the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected
in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected
to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

4. Define switching. Explain circuit switching.

A. Switching: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port
to a port leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called
ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A
communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad
level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No
previous handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination,
there is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints.
Data is then forwarded on that circuit.
After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be
turned down immediately. Circuit Switching When two nodes communicate
with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called circuit
switching.There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels
and no other data is permitted.In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit
must be established so that the data transfer can take place. Circuits can be
permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to
go through three phases:  Establish a circuit  Transfer the data  Disconnect
the circuit
 Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best
suitable example of circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual
path between caller and callee is established over the network.
5. Give a detailed note on three types of transmission impairment.
A. part – a 19th ans
6. Distinguish between baseband transmission and broadband transmission.
A. Baseband
Baseband transmissions typically use digital signaling over a single wire; the
transmissions themselves take the form of either electrical pulses or light. The
digital signal used in baseband transmission occupies the entire bandwidth of
the network media to transmit a single data signal. Baseband communication is
bidirectional, allowing computers to both send and receive data using a single
cable. However, the sending and receiving cannot occur on the same wire at the
same time.

Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals on a

single cable by using a process known as multiplexing. Baseband uses Time-
Division Multiplexing (TDM), which divides a single channel into time slots.
The key thing about TDM is that it doesn't change how baseband transmission
works, only the way data is placed on the cable.

Broadband
Whereas baseband uses digital signaling, broadband uses analog signals in the
form of optical or electromagnetic waves over multiple transmission
frequencies. For signals to be both sent and received, the transmission media
must be split into two channels. Alternatively, two cables can be used: one to
send and one to receive transmissions.

Multiple channels are created in a broadband system by using a multiplexing

technique known as Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM). FDM allows
broadband media to accommodate traffic going in different directions on a
single media at the same time.
7. Define switching.Explain packet switching.
A. Switching: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port
to a port leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called
ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A
communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad
level, switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connectionless: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No
previous handshaking is required and acknowledgements are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination,
there is a need to pre-establish circuit along the path between both endpoints.
Data is then forwarded on that circuit. After the transfer is completed, circuits
can be kept for future use or can be turned down immediately.
Packet Switching: Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of
packet switching. The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called
packets. The switching information is added in the header of each packet and
transmitted independently. It is easier for intermediate networking devices to
store small size packets and they do not take much resources either on carrier
path or in the internal memory of switches.

Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications

can be multiplexed over the carrier. The internet uses packet switching
technique. Packet switching enables the user to differentiate data streams based
on priorities. Packets are stored and forwarded according to their priority to
provide quality of service.
8. With a neat sketch explain ISO/OSI reference model.
A. ISO stands for International organization of Standardization. This is called a
model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI
model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or
levels in a complete communication system.
Feature of OSI Model :

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this

OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Principles of OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive
at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not
be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that
architecture does not become unwieldly.

Functions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data
over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical
layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over

the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free
from one node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this
layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and
sent respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is
also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages
the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to
stop, when the frame buffers are full.

Layer 3: The Network Layer :

1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming
packets into messages for higher levels.
Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are
done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message
into smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two

different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages
are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the
data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready
for the application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems.
Under this condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
Layer 7: Application Layer :

1. It is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services
provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to
be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model:

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model:

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

9. Define topology and explain the various topologies of the network.

A. A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and
connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the
physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
+ part b 3 ans.
10. Discuss and compare various types of networks.
A. There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks
can be classified by their size as well as their purpose. The size of a network can
be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of computers
that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of
devices within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire
globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:  Personal area network, or
PAN  Local area network, or LAN  Metropolitan area network, or MAN 
Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which
means they are used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing
the Internet. Some of the different networks based on their main purpose are: 
Storage area network, or SAN  Enterprise private network, or EPN  Virtual
private network, or VPN
Personal Area Network: A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer
network organized around an individual person within a single building. This
could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or
more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and other
personal entertainment devices.  Upload a photo from your cell phone to your
desktop computer.  Watch movies from an online streaming service to your
TV. If this sounds familiar to you, you likely have a PAN in your house without
having called it by its name.
Local Area Network: A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer
network at a single site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very
useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be
built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and
Ethernet cables. The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger
LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies
mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost are
the defining characteristics of LANs. LANs are typically used for single sites
where people need to share resources among themselves but not with the rest of
the outside world.
Metropolitan Area Network: A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of
a computer network across an entire city, college campus or small region. A
MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or
site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several
LANs together to form a bigger network. When this type of network is
specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a
campus area network, or CAN.

Wide Area Network: A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area,
such as an entire country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple
smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known
example of a public WAN.
11. List out and explain are the applications of Computer Networks.
A. There are 2 types of network applications:-
1. Pure network applications
2. Standalone network application
(A) Pure Network Applications
These are applications created to be used in networks; using pure network
applications on a single computer doesn't make sense. They help us to transfer
data and communicate within a network. Such applications have a separate and
distinct user interface that users must learn for instance:-
Outlook Express

Outlook Express, an email program | Source

1. Email programs
They allow users to type messages at their local nodes and then send to
someone on the network. It is a fast and easy way of transferring mail from one
computer to another. Examples of electronic mail programs (Clients) are:-
  Pegasus mail
 Outlook express
 Eudora Windows mail
 Fox mail
 Opera
 Poco mail
 Mozilla Thunderbird
 Windows mail
2. File transfer protocol (FTP)
This application facilities transfer of files from one computer to another e.g.
from a client to a server. There are 2 common processes involved in FTP
Downloading: - This is the process of obtaining files from a server to a
workstation or a client (for example when you download programs and music
from a server).
Uploading:- This is obtaining of files from a workstation to a server (for
instance when you attach documents and upload them to a server, a good
example being when you upload photos to Facebook).
Examples of FTP programs are:-
 FTP in Unix
 FTP in Linux or
 FTP in Windows
File Transfer Protocol Process

File transfer protocol process

3. Terminal Emulation (TELNET)
It allows a workstation to access the server for an application program. This
enables you to control the server and communicate with other servers on the
network. The workstation appears as a down terminal that is directly attached to
the server. The user feels like he/she is using the server
directly. TELNET enables PCs and workstations to function as dumb terminals
in sessions with hosts on inter-networks.
4. Groupware
These applications are used to automate the administration functions of a
modern office for instance video conferencing and chatting. They facilitate the
work of groups and improve on their productivity; they can be used to
communicate, co-operate, coordinate, solve problems, compete, negotiate
among others.
(i) Video Conferencing
This is the process of conducting a conference between two or more participants
at different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data.
For example, a point-to-point (two-person) video conferencing system works
much like a video telephone.
Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his
or her computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are
carried over the network and delivered to the others speakers, and whatever
images appear in front of the video camera appear in a window on the other
participant’s monitor.
(ii) Chatting
It is a real-time communication between two users via computer. Once a chat
has been initiated, either user can enter text by typing on the keyboard and the
entered text will appear on the other user’s monitor. The two must be online for
a chat to be initiated. Most networks, cybers and online services offer a chat
feature which enables computer users to chat as they go on with their work.
(B) Stand Alone Applications
These are applications that run on stand alone computers (computers not
connected to any other). In order to extend their activity, they are rebuild to run
on network environments e.g. word processors, spreadsheets, database
management systems, presentations graphics, project management etc. They
function even when the computer is offline.
12. Define OSI Model? Explain the functions and protocols and services of
each.
A. 8th ans
13. Explain the following:- a)LAN b)MAN c)WAN d)ARPANET
A. 10th ans
+
d) ARPANET:
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were stand-
alone devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to
communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DOD) was interested in finding a way
to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967,
at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented
its ideas for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), a
small network of connected computers.
14. Describe TCP/IP Model? Explain the functions and protocols and services
of each layer? Compare it with OSI Model.
A. TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the
network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set
of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These
protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or
the internet. These protocols offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless

internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done
by transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of
the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to
a remote machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a
route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination without
error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less
protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-
shot request-reply kind of service.

some similarities between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model.

 Both are layered architecture.

 Layers provide similar functionalities.
 Both are protocol stack.
 Both are reference models.

15. Distinguish the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.

A. Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model

Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and
TCP/IP Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol
/ Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

independent standard, acting as a protocols around which the Internet has
communication gateway between the developed. It is a communication
network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of
hosts over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer
guarantees the delivery of packets. does not guarantees delivery of packets.
Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection 5. Transport Layer is both Connection

Oriented. Oriented and Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

Oriented and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way

which the networks are built. implementation of the OSI model.
Generally it is used as a guidance
tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model

provides both connection oriented provides connectionless service.
and connectionless service.
9. OSI model has a problem of fitting 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any
the protocols into the model. protocol

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not
model and are easily replaced as the easy.
technology changes.

11. OSI model defines services, 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and
interfaces and protocols very clearly protocols are not clearly separated. It is
and makes clear distinction between also protocol dependent.
them. It is protocol independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model

16. Calculate the maximum bit rate? Consider a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels.

A. BitRate = 2 × bandwidth × log2 L

bit rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 x 2 here L = 2

= 6000 x 0.30102 x 2
= 3612.24 bits/s
17. Explain Shannon Capacity with example
A. In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity,
to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth × log2 (1 + SNR)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-
tonoise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second. Note
that in the Shannon formula there is no indication of the signal level, which
means that no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate
higher than the capacity of the channel.
18. Explain Nyquist Bit Rate with example.
A. Bit Rate For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate BitRate = 2 × bandwidth × log2 L In this formula,
bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used
to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second. According to the
formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can have any bit
rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels. Although the idea is
theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number
of signal levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a
signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the
level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish
between 64 different levels.
19. Define Bit Rate and explain factors effects the bit rate.
A. the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time.
The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second unit (symbol: "bit/s")
There are three factors that affect the maximum data rate and maximum
communication distance of a medium.
They are: · the communication bandwidth of the medium; · interference; and ·
the transmission impairments.
The bandwidth of a medium determines the signal frequencies that can be
carried in the medium. A wide bandwidth, or broadband, usually allows
communication at a higher data rate. Interference is the distortion on the signal
in transmission due to unwanted signals from outside sources. Interference is
usually more severe in a wireless medium than a guided medium. Transmission
impairments, however, are usually due to the medium itself. They include
attenuation, distortion during signal propagation, and noises.