Ores and Metallurgy

ORES & METALLURGY
Commercially important ores of iron, copper, lead, magnesium, aluminium, tin and
silver. Carbon reduction process (iron and tin), Self reduction process (copper and
lead), Electrolytic reduction process (magnesium and aluminium), Cyanide process
(silver and gold).
Introduction
The earth’s crust is the main source of metals. The occurrence of metal in native or in
combined state in the earth’s crust along with a number of rocky and other impurities
depends upon the chemical nature of metals. Metals having less electropositive character
have less affinity for oxygen, moisture and occur in free or metallic or native state i.e., in
uncombined state e.g. Au, Pt , Ag etc. On the other hand metals with higher electropositive
character occurs in combined state i.e., as compounds.
The compound of a metal found in nature is called a mineral. A mineral may be a single
compound or a complex mixture. Those minerals from which metal can be economically
extracted are called ores. Thus all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores. For e.g.
copper occurs in nature in the form of several minerals like Cu 2O, Cu2S, CuFeS2, but
copper pyrites is considered as the most economical mineral for the extraction of the metal.
Hence copper pyrites is the chief ore of copper.
Ores may be divided into four groups:
i) Native Ores: These ores contain the metal in free state eg. Silver gold etc. These are
usually formed in the company of rock or alluvial impurities like clay, sand etc.
ii) Oxidised Ores: These ores consist of oxides or oxysalts (eg. carbonates, phosphates,
nitrates, sulphates, silicates etc.) of metal. The important oxide ores include, Fe 2O3,
Al2O3.2H2O etc. and important cabonate ores are limestone (CaCO 3), Calamine (ZnCO 3)
etc.
iii) Sulphurised Ores: These ores consist of sulfides of metals like iron, lead, mercury etc.
Examples are iron pyrites (FeS 2). galena (PbS), Cinnabar (HgS)
iv) Halide ores: Examples include horn silver (AgCl), fluorspar (CaF 2) etc.
Metallurgy
It is the process of extracting a metal from its ores. The following operations are carried out
for obtaining the metal in the pure form.
i) Crushing the ore
ii) Dressing or concentration of the ore.
iii) Working up of the concentrated ore
v) Purification or refining of the metal.
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Various Metallurgical Process

Crushing and Grinding: The big stones of ore are first crushed into small pieces in
gyratory crushers and then ground to powder form. The process of grinder crushed ore into
fine powder is known as pulverization.
Concentration / Dressing of Ore: Presence of earthy matter, sand limestone etc in the
ores are called gangue or matrix. The removal of these impurities from ores is known as
ore-dressing or ore-concentration. Process used to concentrate an ore is known as
beneficiation process. Concentration can be carried out in one of the following ways
depending on the nature of metal.
a) Hand-picking: The impurities which are distinguishable to naked eye can be easily
separated by hand-picking.
b) Levigation or Gravity separation: This method of concentrating the ore is based on

the difference in densities of the ore particles and impurities. Generally oxide and
carbonate ores are concentrated by this method.
c) Magnetic concentration: This method is adopted when either the ore or the impurities
are magnetic in nature. The two can be separated from each other by means of
magnetic separators. By this method chromite ( an ore of chromium) being magnetic
can be separated from the siliceous impurity. Similarly SnO 2( non magnetic) and (TiO2)
magnetic can be separated.
d) Froth Floatation Process: This process is mainly suitable for sulfide ores. The process
is based on the different wetting characteristics of the ore and gangue particles with
water and oil. The former is preferentially wetted by oil and the later by water. In certain
cases other chemical compounds are also added during the process. These reagent
act either as collectors, activators or depressants e.g. of collectors is ethyl xanthate,
that of activators is copper sulfate while that of depressant is sodium cyanide.
e) Electrostatic concentration: This method is based upon the fact that the particles
which are good conductors of electricity becomes electrically charged under the
influence of an electrostatic field and are thus repelled by the electrode carrying the like
charge. This is used to separate lead sulfide and zinc sulfide which are found together
in nature.
f) Chemical Method: This process is done in cases where the ore is required in a very
pure form Eg. in the concentration of bauxite containing ferric oxides, TiO 2 and silica as
impurities.
Calcination and Roasting

Calcination is a process in which the ore is heated, generally in absence of air to expel
water from a hydrated oxide carbondioxide from a carbonate at a temperature below their
melting points. For eg.
Al2O3.2H2O  Al2O3 + 2H2O

CaCO3  CaO + CO2
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Roasting is a term used to denote the process in which the ore (usually sulfide) alone or
mixed with other materials is heated usually in presence of air, at temperature below their
melting points
2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO +2SO2
CuS + 2O2  CuSO4
Calcination proceeds only with expulsion of some small molecules like water, CO 2, SO2 etc.
without any chemical change while during roasting definite chemical changes like
oxidation, chlorination takes place. Calcination and roasting are generally carried out in
reverberatory furnace. In this type of furnace the charge is placed on the hearth and
heated by the flames deflected from its concave roof.
Leaching
This involves treatment of the ore with suitable reagent (acids bases or other reagents)
which can selectively dissolve the ore but not the impurities. For eg. In the purification of
white bauxite ore NaOH is used as the reagent to dissolved Al2O3 leaving behind Fe2O3
(impurity)
Al2O3+2NaOH2NaAlO2+H2O
NaAlO2+2H2O Al(OH)3NaOH
2Al(OH)3 

Al2O3+3H2O
Pure alumina
Reduction to free metal

The calcined or roasted ore is then reduced to the metallic state in either of the following
ways.
a) Smelting: The oxides of less electropositive metals like Pb, Zn, Fe, Cu are reduced by
strongly heating them with coke or coal. Reduction of oxide with carbon at high
temperature is known as smelting. Blast furnace is used in reduction of iron oxides
while reverberatory furnace in used in the reduction of tin oxide.
b) Electrolytic Reduction: Highly electropositive metals like Na, K, Al are extracted by

electrolysis of their oxides, hydroxides or chlorides in fused state and the metal is
liberated at cathode Eg. aluminum is obtained by electrolysis of alumina mixed with
cryolite which acts as a electrolyte. Oxides of highly electropositive metals can’t be
reduced with carbon because such metals react with carbon to form carbide at high
temperature.
c) Reduction by Aluminum ( Alumino – Thermit process): Certain oxides like Fe2O3,

Cr2O3 are not satisfactory reduced by carbon. In such cases Al is used as a reducing
agent. An example is the extraction of Cr from Cr2O3.
Cr2O3 + 3Al  Al2O3 + 2Cr + heat
Fe2O3 + 2Al  Al2O3 + 2Fe+ heat
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Apart from this reduction can also take place by precipitation and air. The former is
known as hydrometallurgy and the latter is auto reduction.
All these processes give metals which are not totally pure. But in some cases we need
metals of nearly cent percent purity. That may be achieved in either of the following
ways depending on the metal.
a) Liquation process
b) Distillation process
c) Oxidation process (Bessemerisation, cupellation, poling)
d) Electro refining
e) Van Arkel process
f) Zone refining
Flux
The ores even after concentration contain some earthy matter called gangue which is
heated combine with this earthy matter to form an easily fusible material called as slag.
Such a substance is known as flux.
Gangue  Flux  Slag
Fluxes are of the following two types:
i) Acidic fluxes like silica, borax etc. These are used when the gangue is basic such as
lime or other metallic oxides like MnO, FeO, etc. The chemical reaction which takes
place in removing a basic gangue is follows:
CaO  SiO2  CaSiO3
Gangue Flux Slag
ii) basic fluxes like CaO, lime stone (CaCO 3), magnesite (MgCO3), haematite (Fe2O3) etc.
These fluxes are used when the gangue is acidic like silica, P 4O10 etc. For example
SiO 2  MgCO 3  MgSiO 3  CO 2 

Gangue Flux Slag
P4 O10  6CaO  2Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2

Slag
Different types of Furnaces

a) Blast Furnace: It is used for smelting iron, copper and lead ores. It has a tall structure
made of steel plates rivetted together lined inside with fire bricks. The furnace is
provided with an arrangement for blowing air near the base, a slag hole, a tapping hole
for removing the molten metal and an exist for waste gases near the top. The charge is
introduced at the top. The mouth of the furnace is closed by a special arrangement
through which the charge is introduced.
b) Reverberatory Furnace: It is used for calcination, roasting or for smelting. The charge
in the powdered form along with a flux is placed on the hearth of the furnace. The fuel
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is placed on grate and the flames are deflected from its low sloping roof. This furnace
is used in case of copper, tin lead, and wrought iron.
c) Muffle Furnace: A furnace in which the charge contianer is heated from all sides is
called muffle furnace. The burnt materials including the vapours of the metal are
allowed to escape through the same opening. The metal is obtained by condensing the
vapours. In Belgian process for extracting zinc, the retorts act as muffles and prolongs
help in completing the condensation.
d) Bessemer Converter: It is a pear-shaped furnace made of steel plates lined inside

with lime or magnesium oxide. It is fixed on pivots and can be tilted in any direction. It is
provided with pipes through which hot air can be blown for heating purposes.
Illustration 1: Explain the following processes as applied to metallurgy

i) Amalgamation
ii) Hydrometallurgy
iii) Solvent Extraction
Solution: i) Amalgamation: this process is used for the extractioin of noble

metals like gold and silver from the native ores. The finely crushed
ore is brought into contact with mercury which combines with the
metal forming its amalgam. The metal is then recovered by distilling
the amalgam.
ii) Hydrometallurgy or precipitation by a more electropositive

metal: Hydrometallurgy is the process of bringing the metal into
solution by the action of suitable chemical reagents (e..g., sodium
cyanide solution or chlorine in present of water etc.) followed by
recovery of the metal by the use of a proper precipitating agent which
is a more electropositive metal.
For example, poor ores of silver are suspended in a dilute solution of

sodium cyanide and air is blown through it when the silver present
goes into solution as the argentocyanide complex. From this solution
the metal is precipitated by adding zinc turnigs.
4Ag + 8NACN + O2 (air) 2H2O  4Na [Ag(CN)2] + 4NaOH

or AgCl + 2NaCN  Na[Ag(CN)2] + NaCl
2Na [Ag(CN)2] + Zn  Na2[Zn(CN)4] + 2Ag
iii) Solvent Extraction: Solvent extraction is the latest separation

technique and has become popular because of its elegance,
simplicity and speed. The method is based on preferential solubility
principles.
Solvent or liquid-liquid extraction is based on the principle that a

solute can distribute itslf in a certain ratio between two immiscible
solvents, one of which is usually water and the other an organic
solvent such as benzene, carbon tetrachloride or chloroform. In
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certain cases, the solute can be more or less completely transferred

into the organic phase. The technique can be used for purpose of
preparation, purification, enrichment, separation and analysis.
Illustration 2: Explain the following process as applied to metallurgy

i) Zone refining (Fractional crystallization)
ii) Electro-refining
iii) Van-Arkel Method
Solution: i) Zone refining (Fractional crystallization): This method is

employed for preparing extremely pure metals. This method is based
upon the principle that when a molten solution of the impure metal is
allowed to cool, the pure metal crystilises cut while the impurities
remain in the melt.
ii) Electro-refining: In this method, the impure metal is converted into a
block which forms the anode while cathode is a rod or plate of pure
metal. These electrodes are suspended in an electrolyte which is the
solution of a soluble salt of the metal usually a double salt of the
metal. When electric current is passed, metal ions from the
electrolyte are deposited at the cathode in the form of pure metal
while an equivalent amount of metal dissolves from the anode and
goes into the electrolyte solution as metal ion. The soluble impurities
present in the crude metal anode go into the solution while the
insoluble impurities settle down below the anode as anode mud.
iii) Van-Arkel Method: In this method, the metal is converted into it
volatile unstable compound such as iodide leaving behind the
impurities. The unstable compound thus formed is decomposed to
get the pure metal.
Ti(s) + 2F2(s) 540K  TiF4(g)
1700 K
 
Ti ( s )
+ 2F2(g)
Exercise 1: i) Which furnace is meant for roasting and calcination?

ii) If FeO is present in the ore as impurity then what type of flux is
added to remove it?
Extraction of Sodium
Ores of Sodium
Sodium chloride or common salt (NaCl)

Sodium Nitrate or Chile Salt peter (NaNO 3)
Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)
Two processes are in practice for extracting Na

1. Castner’s process
2. Down’s process
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Castner process
Principle : Fused caustic soda is electrolysed
Cathode : Steel
Anode : Nickel
Cathode reaction
OH– – e  OH
4OH  2H2O + O2
The water formed at cathode then dissociates as H 2O H+ + OH– and H+ then gets
discharged at cathode
H+ + e  H; 2H  H2;
at anode OH– – e–  OH;

1
2OH  H2O + O2
2
The bath temperature is kept higher than the melting point of Na (318) to dissolve Na in
NaOH. Metallic sodium is taken from the cathode chamber from time to time with spoon.
Advantages
1. Since the temperature is 327C, not much Na is vaporised
2. Valuable H2, O2 are produced
Disadvantages
1. Costly raw material caustic soda is used
2. 50% of the electrical energy is utilised for the production of Na and 50% wastage for
the hydrolysis of water.
Down’s Process
Principle
Raw materials used : Anhydrous CaCl2 (66.8%), NaCl (32.2%)

Temperature : 600C
Anode : Graphite
Cathode : Iron
NaCl  Na+ + Cl–
Cathode reaction : Na+ + e  Na (Reduction)
Anode reaction : Cl– – e  Cl (oxidation)
2Cl  Cl2
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The metal produced at cathode is collected form the surface of the molten electrolyte and
then collected kept under kerosene.
Comparison between Castner’s process and Down’s Process

Castner’s Process Down’s process
1. Mixture of NaCl (32%) and anhydrous
1. Molten NaOH is used
CaCl2 (66.8%) are used
2. Temperature maintained 320–330C 2. Temperature of the both 600C
3. Iron vessel lined inside in the acid
3. Iron vessel is the electrolyte cell
resistant refractory.
4. 50% electrical energy is utilised for the
4. Whole electrical energy is utilised.
preparation of Na.
Extraction of Potassium
Ores of Potassium
Sylvine KCl
Kainite KCl. MgSO4. 3H2O
Carnallite KCl.MgCl2. 6H2O
Felspar KAlSiO8
Saltpetre KNO3
Principle of Extraction of Potassium
Potassium can be extracted by reducing molten KCl in the metallic sodium at 850C.
Na(g) + KCl(l) NaCl + K(g)
K being more volatile distills off. Reactivities of K is similar to Na. Potassium thus obtained
is stored under kerosene.
Extraction of Calcium
Ores of Calcium
CaCO3 (Lime stone)
CaSO 4.2H2O (Gypsum or alabaster)
Ca3(PO4) (Phosphorite)
Ca(PO4)2.CaF2 (Fluorapatite)
CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2 (Lime feldspar)
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Extraction of Calcium
Flow chart diagram

dil. HCl
filtration NH4Cl + (NH4)2CO3
Lime Stone CaCl2 solution CaCO3
CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + CO2
Anhydrous CaCl2 Heat crystallisation

CaCl2.6H2O CaCl2 solution
+ Little CaO
Current HCl gas
Anhydrous CaCl2 Mixing of CaCl2 +

Anhydrous CaCl2
+ CaF2 CaF2
Cathode reaction
Pure calcium Cathode: Ca+2 + 2e  Ca
Anode: 2Cl– – 2e  Cl2
Illustration 3: Fluorspar is added to the anhydrous CaCl 2 in the extraction of metallic

calcium - Explain why?
Solution: This is because of the fact that, the melting point of CaCl 2 is 780C.
Consequently much electrical energy is consumed to fuse CaCl 2 at this
high temperature. As a result the cost of production of calcium is
increased. But if a little fluorsper is added to CaCl 2, the melting point of
CaCl2 is reduced from 780C to 664C. As a result the electrolysis of
CaCl2 can be carried out a relatively low temperature. Consequently the
consumption of electrical energy becomes much low and at the same
time the cost of production becomes low. Besides this, the addition of
CaF2 lowers the viscosity of the electrolyte and increases its electrical
conductivity.
Extraction of Magnesium
Ores of Magnesium
Magnesite : MgCO3
Dolomite : CaCO3.MgCO3
Kieserite : MgSO4.H2O
Kainite : K2SO4.MgSO4.3H2O
Carnalite : KCl. MgCl2.6H2O
Talc : 3MgO. 4SiO 2.H2O
Spinel : MgO. Al2O3
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Extraction of Magnesium:
Process : Electrolysis
Anode : Graphite rod
Cathode : Iron pot (rectangular)
Electrolyte : MgCl2 (molten,75%),NaCl (25%)
Dissociation Step : MgCl2 Mg+2 + 2Cl–
Cathode reaction : Mg2+ + 2e  Mg
Anode reaction : 2Cl– – 2e  Cl2
From sea water anhydrous MgCl2 is obtained by the following reactions
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2  Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl  MgCl2 + 2H2O
MgCl2.6H2O crystallises.
heated
MgCl2. 6H2O   MgCl2+6H2O
dry HCl
By thermal reduction Mg can be produced
CaC2 + MgCl2 CaCl2 + Mg + 2C

0
1500 C
 
Exercise 2: In extraction of Magnesium by electrolytic reduction process NaCl is added

to MgCl 2 – Explain why?
Extraction of Zinc
Ores of Zinc
Zincite (ZnO)
Franklinite (ZnO, Fe2O3)
Zinc Blende (ZnS)
Calamine (ZnCO3)
Willemite (ZnSiO3, ZnO)
Electric Calamine (ZnSiO3, ZnO, H2O)
Principle
1. Concentration of Zinc blende (ZnS) by froth floatation process with pine oil (foaming
agent), sodium xanthate (collectors) and little acid. The oil forms froth with air and at
first galena rises to surface and are removed. Next the ZnS particles are collected from
the top.
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2. Roasting: Temperature: 860 – 900C

2ZnS + 3O2  2ZnO + 2SO2
2ZnS + 2O2  ZnSO4
2ZnSO 4 


900 C
2ZnO + 2SO2 + O2
3. Smelting - Carbon reduction
a) Belgian process
Raw material: Powdered coke (1/5 th weight of roasted ZnO)
Temperature: 1300 – 1400C
Heating process is carried out and Zn(vapour) is formed and condenses Blue flame
from the prolong is observed till the end of the reaction (due to formation of CO).
ZnO + C  Zn + CO
Refining of Zn
Electrical refining is done by using impure Zn as the anode and ZnSO 4 electrolyte and pure
Zn as the cathode. The following electrolysis reaction will take place.
ZnSO 4 Zn+2 + SO4–2
Anode reaction: Zn – 2e  Zn+2

Cathode reaction: Zn+2 + 2e  Zn(s)
Extraction of Mercury
Ore of Mercury: Cinnabar (HgS)
Modern Process: Cinnabar is crushed to powder and the crushed ore is then
concentrated by forth flotation process. The concentrated ore is then charged in a shaft
furnace through a hopper with charcoal. Furnace is fired and the following reaction takes
place.
2HgS + 3O2  2HgO + 2SO2

HgO + C  Hg + CO
Extraction of Silver
Ores of Silver
Silver glance or Argentite (AgS)
Horn silver (AgCl)
Ruby Silver (3Ag2S, Sb2S3)
Silver Copper glance or stromeyerite (Ag 2S, Cu2S)
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Extraction of Silver
1. Concentration: Crushed powder is concentrated by froth floatation process.
2. The concentrated Ag2S is then treated with 0.5% solution of NaCN in presence of air.
Ag2S + 2NaCN 2AgCN  + Na2S
AgCN + NaCN Na[Ag(CN)2]
4Na2S + 5O2(air) + 2H2O 2Na2SO4 + 4NaOH + 2S
3. Precipitation of Silver
As, E Zn / Zn  2  E Ag / Ag  2
0 0
Hence Zn will replace Ag from the complex as follows
2Na[Ag(CN)2] + Zn  Na2[Zn(CN)4] + 2Ag
4. Electro-refining: Metallic silver thus obtained contains impurities like Zn, Cu, Au etc. It is
purified by electro-refining process. The electrolytic bath contains AgNO solution with
10% HNO3. Impure silver sheets are used as anode and thin sheets of pure silver are
used as cathode. As electric current is passed through the electrolyte , the anode
gradually dissolves and pure silver is deposited on the cathode. Impurities like Zn and
Cu go into the solution while gold settles down at the anode as anode mud.
Extraction of Tin
Ores of Tin
Cassiterite or tinstone (SnO 2)
Extraction
1. Concentration of ore: Crushed ore is washed by a stream of water and mainly FeWO 4
is present at this stage.
2. Roasting: S, As present in the one ore are volatalised away in the form of their oxides
in a revolving furnace. Iron and copper present in the ore are converted into their
oxides and sulphates.
3. Electromagnetic separation: From the hopper the dry ore is supplied and from the
belt the FeWO 4 is seperated by magnetic field. It contains 75%. SnO 2 (black tin)
4. Carbon reduction:
SnO2 + 2C  Sn + 2CO
Temperature 1200 – 1300C
Furnace: Reverberatory furnace.
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The molten tin is collected as it got 99% pure Sn. The upper layer of the slag contains
10-20% Sn. This is smelted with coke.
SnSiO 3 + CaO + C  Sn + CaSiO3 + CO

Slag
5. Refining: This is carried out by sweating process. Sn melts leaving behind Fe, CuO, N.
Tin thus obtained is 99.5% pure.
Recovery of Sn from Scrap
The scrap tin plates, free from dirts are reacted by Cl 2 to form SnCl4. SnCl4 being liquid is
voltalised away and is condensed.
SnCl4 + 2H2O  SnO 2 + 4HCl

SnO2 + 2C  Sn + 2CO
Extraction of Copper
Copper glance or Chalcocite: Cu2S
Chalcopyrites(copper pyrites): Cu2SFe2S3
Cuprite Cu2O
Malachite [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
Azurite [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
Extraction of Metallic Copper

1. Concentration of the ore by froth floatation process: Copper pyrites contains only
(2-3)% of copper. The rest of the ore contains iron or sulphide, silica, silicious materials,
sulphur, arsenic etc. as impurities. Froth flotation by Xanthate and pine oil. The froth is
collected and dried when concentrated ore is obtained which contains 25-30% of Cu.
2. Roasting
Cu2S.Fe2S3 + O2  Cu2S + 2FeS + SO 2

Cu2S.Fe2S3 + 4O2  Cu2S + 2FeO + 3SO 2
2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO2
Cu2O + FeS  Cu2S + FeO
3. Smelting of the roasted ore in blast furnace: material required
1. Roasted ore
2. Lime stone
3. Coke (used as fuel)
4. Silica (used as flux)
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5. Lime stone (used to remove excess silica)
Reactions occurring given as follows
2FeS + 3O2  2FeO + 2SO2
Cu2O + FeS  Cu2S + FeO
FeO + SiO2  FeSiO3 (removed as slag)
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3 (removal as slag)
4. Self reduction in Bessemer Converter
Reactions involved are,
2FeS + 3O2  2FeO + 2SO2
FeO + SiO2  FeSiO3 (slag)
2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO 2
Cu2S + 2O2  Cu2SO4
When 2/3 of the cuprous sulphide is oxiidsed, the balst is stopped. The produced Cu 2O
and Cu2SO4 are reduced by the rest of cuprous sulphide to produce metallic copper
with the evolution of SO2.
Cu2S + 2Cu2O  6Cu + SO2
Cu2SO4 + Cu2S  4Cu + 2SO2
As the molten copper cools, it gives off the dissolved of SO 2. The SO2 gas escaping in
the form of bubbles, leaves the surface of the metal with full of cavities which gives the
metal a blistered appearnace. This is why the metal thus obtained is by blister copper.
5. Refining
Electrorefining
Anode: Impure copper obtained above
Cathode: Pure copper
Electrolyte: 15% CuSO 4 solution + 5% H2SO4
When electric current is passed through the electrolyte, the anodes gradually dissolve
and pure copper is deposited on the cathodes which gradually grow in size. The
impurities like Fe, Zn, Ni etc., dissolved in the solution as sulphates while gold, silver,
platinum settle down below the anode as anode mud.
Reactions coming are as follows
CuSO 4 Cu+2 + SO4–2
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At anode: Cu – 2e  Cu+2
At cathode: Cu+2 + 2e  Cu
Exercise 3: Name the by products obtained during the extraction of copper from
copper pyrties.
Extraction of Iron
Ores of Iron
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Red haematite (Fe2O3)
Brown haematic Limonite or (Fe2O3.3H2O)
Spathic iron or sidenite (FeCO3)
Iron pyrites (FeS2), Copper pyrites (CuFeS 2)
Varieties of Iron
Pig or Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel
 most impure form  Purest form of iron It is in between pig

 2.5 – 5% carbon and other  0.2 – 0.5% carbon iron and wrought iron.
impurities like Mn, Si, S and  Its is ductile, soft and  0.1 to 1.5% carbon
P malleable.
 It is hard and Brittle and
hence cannot be ferged or
moulded by hammering
Extraction of Cast Iron
1. Dressing of the ores: The iron ores are first broken into small pieces 3-5 cm in size and
washed with water to remove clay & sand.
2. Roasting or Calcination
During roasting S, As, P are oxidised to the respective oxides.
S + O2  SO2
4As + 3O2  2As2O3
FeCO3 decomposes as,

FeCO3  FeO + CO2
Fe2O3.3H2O loses water
Fe2O3.3H2O  Fe2O3 + 3H2O
Fe3O4 is decomposed to ferrous oxide and ferric oxides.
SP-CH-O&M-16
Fe3O4  FeO + Fe2O3

Ferrous oxide reacts with silica to forms ferrous silicate at high temperature.
FeO + SiO2  FeSiO3
But the conversion of FeO into Fe 2O3 will prevent the formation of FeSiO 3. Due to
escape of gases and moisture entire mass of the ore becomes porous causing the
increase in the effective surface area.
3. Semlting in the Blast furnance
Blast furnace is a shaft furnace made of steel plate of 20-30 in with 4 – 4.6 diameter.
Bosh: The diameter of the furnace gradually increases from the top downwards.
Widest part of the furnace is called Bosh. At above 2 m. tuyeres are there through
which hot air blast is blown into the furnace.
Hearth: Below the bosh this region exists. (1) slag notch is at higher height and (2) tap
hole for metal passage at lower position from the bottom. At the top of the furnace the
hopper is there which is cup and cone arrangement. Through this charge is introduced
till the charge bed in the furnance is 4/5th the of the furnace. Hot air at 700 C is forced
into the furnace through the tuyeres. The thermal gradient inside exists from 1800C
(hearth) to 400C – 900C in the upper region. Near the bosh the temperature varies
from 1200C – 1300C chemical reactions which take place are.
1. At 1200C near the tuyeres,
C + O2  CO2; CO2 + C  2CO
2. Above bosh 600 – 900C, ferric oxide is partially reduced by CO as
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
3. CaCO3 CaO + CO2


900 C
 

2CO  CO2 +
1000 1300  C
    C
Fe2O3+ 3C  2Fe + 3CO
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3 (slag)
4. The reaction at 1500C, MnO2 is reduced to Mn.
MnO2 + 2C  Mn + 2CO
Ca3(PO4)2 + 3SiO3  3CaSiO3 + P2O5
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3
2P2O5 + 10C  P4 + 10CO
5. Collection of Cast Iron
Metal is cast into ingots or in the laddle for further refining like steel making.
SP-CH-O&M-17
There are two types of cast iron
a) White cast iron: This type of cast iron contains carbon mostly in the form of iron
carbide (Fe3C) and small amount of graphite.
b) Grey cast iron: This type of cast iron contains carbon mostly in the form of graphite
and small amount of iron carbide.
Wrought Iron
Minimum % of carbon, is 0.1 – 0.15% and other impurities like S, P, Mn, Si less than 0.3%.
Manufacturing Porcess
Cast iron takes in puddling furnance and metled by hot blast of air. The chemical reactions
which occur are
S + O2  SO2 ; 3S + 2Fe 2O3  4Fe + 3SO2
3Si + 2Fe2O3  4Fe + 3SiO2
Mn + Fe2O3  2Fe + 3MnO
MnO + SiO2  MnSiO3 (slag)
3C + Fe2O3  2Fe + 3CO
4P + 5O2  2P2O5; Fe2O3 + P2O5  2FePO 4 (slag)
The impurities are removed from iron, the melting point of the metal rises and it becomes a
semi solid mass. Metal taken out from the furnace in the form of balls with the help of the
rabbles. The balls are then beaten under hammer to separate out the slag. The product
thus formed is called wrought iron.
Steel
Manufacture from CI (Cast Iron)
Acid Bessemer Process
This process is carried out when percentage of P is very low. The lining of the furnace is
made of SiO2. The following reactions take place to lessen the impurities.
2Mn + O2  2MnO
Si + O2  SiO2
MnO + SiO2  MnSiO3
S + O2  SO2
4Fe + 3O2   2Fe2O3
hot air
Fe2O3 + 3C  2Fe + 3CO
SP-CH-O&M-18
2C + O2  2CO 
When the blue flame of CO drops out it complete oxidation of carbon.
All the reactions are exothermic. After the complete of the reaction calculated amount of
spiegeleisen (an alloy of Fe, Mn, C) is added to the molten mass. After that again air blast
is continued for two minutes to engage the thorough mixing of the speigel. The function of
speigcleisen is to supply requisite amount of carbon to iron to produce steel of desired
quality.
FeO + Mn  MnO + Fe
FeO + C  Fe + CO
Carbon and mangenese of the spiegel act as deoxidisers to remove any dissolved O 2 and
reduce any ferrous oxide which may be formed during the reactions. Manganese serves to
make the steel harder and to increase its tensile strength. The converter is then tilted and
molten steel cast into moulds, or taken in laddle for further processing.
Basic Bessemer Process
The lining of the converter is of basic materials like CaO, MgO etc. The converter is
charged with molten cast iron and some lime is added to it and hot blast of air under
pressure is continued. Mn, Si of CI is first oxidised. S from SO 2, C, P are then oxidised to
form CO and P2O5. The P2O5 thus formed combines with lime to form a basic slag
[Ca3(PO4)2.CaO] which is known as Thomas slag.
2Mn + O2  2MnO; MnO + SiO 2  MnSiO3 (slag)
Si + O2  SiO2
S + O2  SO2
2C + O2  2CO
4P + 5O2  2P2O5
4CaO + P2O5  [Ca3 (Thomas

PO 4 )2 .CaO]
slag
After the completion of the reactions the air blast is stopped and the converter is tilted and
the basic slag is removed. Spiegeleisen is added to the molten Fe when it is converted and
steel.
Open Hearth Process
Open hearth process is the modern process for the manufacture of the high grade steel.
i) The impurities present in the cast iron are mainly oxidised by the addition of haematite
ores and the rest are oxidised by O2 of air.
ii) The percentage of C, Si is lowered down by the addition of scrap Fe.
SP-CH-O&M-19
iii) Heat generated by burning the mixture of producer gas and air is used to preheat the
fuel gas and air.
This regenerative system causes an economic fuel consumption and maintains high
temperature (1800C) in the furnace.
Reactions taking place in the hearth:
Mn, Si, P, S and carbon are oxiidsed by haematite (Fe 2O3) to form their respective oxides.
The reactions occuring are as follows.
2Fe2O3 + 3Si  4Fe + 3SiO2
Fe2O3 + 3Mn  2Fe + 3MnO
2Fe2O3 + 3S  4Fe + 3SO2
Fe2O3 + 3C  2Fe + 3CO
5Fe2O3 + 6P  10 Fe + 3P2O5
MnO + SiO2  MnSiO3
3CaO + P2O5  Ca3(PO4)2
3MgO + P2O5  Mg3(PO4)2 (Slag mixture)
C, P are also oxidised by air to forms carbon monoxide and phosphorus pentoxide.
2C + O2  2CO
4P + 5O2  2P2O5
After the removal of impurities slag is separated, requisite amount of spiegeleisen is added
to the molten mass to obtain desired quality of steel by deoxidation and recarburisation.
While molten ferrosilicon or Al are also sometiems added for removal of any dissolved gas
in it.
Duplex process:
This is actually a combination of acid besemer process and open hearth process. Si, Mn,
S, C (partially) are oxidised and removed or slag or volatite oxides. This process is applied
in TISCO.
Varieties of Steel
Carbon steel can be divided into the following groups.
i) Low carbon (mild steel) 0.15 - 0.3%
ii) Medium carbon steel 0.3 - 0.6%
SP-CH-O&M-20
iii) High carbon steel 0.6 - 0.8%
iv) Tool steel 0.8 - 1.4%
Alloy Steels:
Very hard, tough, resistant For making shafts,
Nickel Steel (2 - 5%) Ni
to corrosion gears, etc.
(13 - 14%) Cr, 0.7% For making house hold
Chrome steel Resistant to corrosion
Ni, 0.3% C materials.
Manganese steel 9 - 14%Mn Very hard, resistant to ware For making helmets
Coefficient of expansion is
Inver 30 - 36% Ni 0.3% C Measuring instruments
very low
20% Ni, 12% Al, 5% For making strong
Alnico High magnetic property
Co magnets.
Vessels for keeping
Durairon 16% Si Resistant to acids
HCl, H2SO4 etc.
Extraction of Aluminium
Important ores of aluminium
1. Bauxite Al2O32H2O
2. Cryolite Na3AlF6
3. Feldspar K2OAl2O36SiO2 or KAlSi3O8
4. Mica K2O3Al2O36SiO22H2O
5. Corundum Al2O3
6. Alumstone or Alunite K2SO4Al2(SO4)34Al(OH)3
Aluminium is mainly extracted from bauxite ore.
Extraction
i) Purification of Bauxite
By Bayer’s process comercially it is being carried out (for red bauxite not for the white
bauxite).
Flow sheet of Bayer’s process for the preparation of pure Al2O3
SP-CH-O&M-21
Finely powdered bauxite

containing Fe2O3, TiO2.SiO2
as impurities
Calcination (FeO  Fe2O3)
Organic matters are removed
Calcined ore (Digested with 45%, NaOH with

at 150C under 80 lb pr. Filtered)
Residue Filtrate
(Fe2O3, TiO2) (NaAlO2 + Na2SiO3)
Freshly prepared Al(OH)3 Seeding agent filtered
Precipitate Filtrate
(Al(OH)3 (NaOH, Na2SiO3)
1000C
Al2O3 Pure
Alumina
Hall’s process
Crude bauxite at 1100C reacts with Na2CO3, little CaCO3 when CaSiO3, NaSiO2, NaFeO2
etc. form
Al2O3 + Na2CO3  2NaAlO2 + CO2
Fe2O3 + Na2CO3  2NaFeO2 + CO2
SiO2 + Na2CO3  Na2SiO3 + CO2
Then at 50 – 60C CO2is passed through NaAlO 2 solution and produces thereby Al(OH)3
2NaAlO2 + CO2 + 3H2O  2Al(OH)3 + Na2CO3

2Al(OH)3   Al2O3 + 3H2O

100 C

Serpeck’s Process
Bauxite containing high percentage of silica can be purified by Serpeck’s process. In this
process finely powdered bauxite is mixedf with coke and the mixture is heated to 1800 C in
a current of nitrogen. The AlN thus obtained is reacted with hot and dilute NaOH, produced
NaAlO2 and excess AlN is hydrolysed and Al(OH)3 is formed.
Al2O3 + 3C + N2  3AlN + 3CO
SiO2 + 2C  Si + 2CO
AlN +NaOH  NaAlO2 + NH2+
NaAlO2 + 2H2O  Al(OH)3 + NaOH
AlN + 3H2O  Al(OH)3 + NH3

2Al(OH)3    Al2O3  3H2O
1100 C
( cryolite )
Electrolytic reduction of Al2O3
SP-CH-O&M-22
Pure alumina melts at about 2000C and is a bad conductor of electricity. If fused cryolite
AlF3.3NaF and CaF2 (Fluorspar) is added the mixture melts at 900C and Al2O3 becomes a
good conductor of electricity. Metallic Al is liberated at the cathode
Electrolysis of molten mixture
Cathode : Carbon
Anode : Graphite rods
Electrolyte : 60 parts cryolite + 20 parts fluorspar + 20 parts pure Al2O3
Reactions
According to the 1st theory the following reaction occurs
Al2O3 2Al+3 + 3O–2
At cathode: 2Al+3 + 6e  2Al
At anode : 3O–2 – 6e 3O2
As cryolite has greater electrochemical stability it does not dissociate. It only increases the
dissociation of Al2O3
But the second theory states that, cryolite undergoes electrolytic dissociation first then Al +3
goes to the cathode, produced F2 at anode then reacts with Al2O3 produces AlF3.
AlF3.3NaF Al+3 + 3Na+ + 6F–

At cathode: Al+3 + 3e  Al
At anode : 6F– – 6e  3F2
Al2O3 + 6F2  4AlF3 + 3O2
Refining of aluminium
The aluminium metal obtained by the electrolysis of fused almina is about 99.5% pure. It
can be further refined by Hoope’s electrolytic process.
Lead
Ores of Lead
Galena PbS
Anglesite PbSO 4
Cerussite PbCO3
Lanarkite PbO, PbSO4
Crocoisite PbCrO4
Extraction of Lead
SP-CH-O&M-23
Galena is the commercially and economically viable ore. Steps can be shown by the
following flow chart diagram.
Concentrated by Roasting Smelting
Ore Concentrated PbO + PbSO4 Lead (Pb)
froth floation
ore
The reaction at the that furnace as a follows
PbO + C  Pb + CO
PbO + CO  Pb + CO2
PbS + 2PbO  3Pb + SO2
PbS + PbSO 4  2Pb + 2SO2
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3 (Slag)
Fe2O3 + CO  2FeO + CO2
FeO + SiO2  FeSiO3 (slag)
Pb also can be extracted by self reduction process.
PbS + 2PbO  3Pb + SO2
Purification
Lead thus obtained contains Cu, Sb, Sn, As, Ag, Au etc., which make lead hard. In
reverberatory furnance, in presence of air impurities are oxidised and form scum on the
surface of molten lead. The scum is skimmed off from time to time until lead becomes soft.
Exercise 4: Name two metals which can be obtained by self reduction process.
Some Other Important Compounds

1. MgCO3 Magnesite 2. MgCO3CaCO3 Dolomite
3. MgSO47H2O Epsomsalt 4. KClMgCl26H2O Carnallite
5. MgAl2O4 Spinal 6. H2MgSiO3 Talc
Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)
7. Asbestos 8. KAlSi 3O8 Feldspar
2
9. Cu(OH)2CuCO3 Malachite 10. Cu(OH)22CuCO3 Azurite
11. PbS Galena 12. Fe3O4 Magnetite
13. Fe2O33H2O Limonite 14. AgNO3 Lunar Caustic
15. ZnSO47H2O White Vitriol 16. SnCl25H2O Butter or Tin
17. CaO Quick lime 18. Na2SO410H2O Glauber’s salt
19. Pb3O4 Red lead 20. Pb(OH)22PbCO3 White lead
SP-CH-O&M-24
21. Na2CO3 Soda ash 22. NaOH Caustic Soda
23. KOH Caustic potash 24. Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime
25. CaSO42H2O Gypsum 26. (CaSO4)2H2O Plaster of Paris
27. FeSO47H2O Green Vitriol 28. Hg2Cl2 Calomel
Carrosive
29. HgCl2 30. PbSO4 Anglesite
Sublimute
31. PbO Litharge 32. ZnO Philosopher’s wool
33. HgS Cinnabar 34. BaSO4 Baryte or heavy spar
35. ZnS Zinc blende
Some important Alloy

Sl. No. Name Composition
1. Stainless Steel Fe, Cr, Ni
2. Invar Fe, Ni
3. Alnico Fe, Al, Ni, Co
4. Brass Cu, Zn
5. Bronze Cu, Zn, Sn
6. Gun Metal Cu, Sn
7. Bell Metal Cu, Sn
8. German Silver Cu, Zn, Ni
9. Solder, Pewter Pb, Sn
10. Babbit metal Sn, Sb, Cu
SP-CH-O&M-25
Answers to Exercises
Exercise 1: i) Reverberatory furnace
ii) Acidic flux, like silica
FeO + SiO2 = FeSiO3
Basic impurity acidic flux slag
Exercise 2: NaCl is added to lower down the melting point of MgCl 2 and to increase the
electrical conductivity of electrolyte.
Exercise 3: i) SO2
ii) Ferrous silicate FeSiO 3 (slag)
iii) Gold, Silver as anode mud.
Exercise 4: Cu, Pb
SP-CH-O&M-26
Solved Problems
Subjective
Problem 1: What is leaching?
Solution: The process of concentrating an ore by treating it with a chemical reagent

which selectively dissolves the metal but not the impurities is called leaching.
Al2O3  2H2O 2NaOH 


2NaAlO2  3H2O
Bauxite Sodium meta
alu min ate
Problem 2: What is aluminothermy?
Solution: The process of reduction of a metal oxide to the metal by using aluminium
powder as a reducing agent is called aluminothermy.
2Al + FeO3 


Al2O3 + 2Fe
Problem 3 : What is the main differences between cupellation and poling?
Solution: Both cupellation and poling are used for refining of metals, cupellation is
applied when impure metal contain impurities of other metals which forms
volatile oxides . For eg. traces of lead are removed from silver by heating
impure silver with a blast of air in a cupel (an oval shaped pan made up of
bone ash) which lead is oxidised to lead oxide (PbO) which being volatile
escapes leaving behind pure silver.
Poling is used for refining of such metals which contain impurities of its own
oxide. In this process, the molten impure metal is stored with green wooden
poles. At the high temperature of the molten metal, wood liberates methane
which reduces the oxide of the metal to free metal.
3Cu2O + CH4  6Cu + 2H2O + CO
Problem 4: What is difference between annealing and tempering?
Solution: When hard steel is heated to bright redness and then allowed to cool very
slowly, the hard steel is changed to soft one. This process is called anealing.
When hard and brittle steel is heated to a certain range of temperature

(200C – 300C) and then allowed to cool slowly, its brittleness disappears.
This process is called tempering and is employed to bring the steel in a
suitable state of hardness and elasticity.
Problem 5: Explain the term Nitriding?

Solution: It is a process of heating mild steel containing 1 percent aluminium in an
atmosphere of NH3 of 550 to 600C. Both iron and aluminium reacts with
SP-CH-O&M-27
nitrogen formed by the dissociation of NH 3 to form nitrides which produce a

compact and hard surface. Sometime pure N2 gas is diffused on the surface
layer. Such steels are used for cylinder bares.
Problem 6: Calcium cannot be extracted from CaO by carbon-reaction process - Explain

why?
Solution: Lime stone is abundantly found in nature. On calcination of limestone CaO

is produced. But it is not possible to extract metallic calcium by the carbon
reduction process from CaO. This is due to the fact that, Ca is strongly
electro-positive metal and oxygen is a strongly electro-negative non metal.
As a result, calcium has strong affinity for oxygen. So, it is not possible for
carbon to reduce CaO by taking away oxygen from it. Beside this, a mixture
of carbon and CaO on being strongly heated forms calcium carbide instead
of the metal.
CaO + 3C = CaC2 + CO
Problem 7: In moist air copper corrodes to produce a green layer on the surface. Explain.
Solution: In presence of moist air a thin film of green basic copper carbonate is
formed on its surface and hence copper corrodes
CuCO 3  Cu(OH) 2
2Cu + O2 + H2O + CO2  green
Problem 8: What is case hardening?
Solution: The process of hardening the surface of wrought iron by depositing a

surface layer of steel on it is called case-hardening. It is brought about by
heating wrought iron in contact with potassium ferrocyanide.
Problem 9: Aluminium is not extracted directly from bauxite, instead, bauxite is first
purified to produce pure alumina from which aluminium is extracted by
electrolytic reduction – Explain why?
Solution: Aluminium is not directly extracted from bauxite. This is because of the fact
that, bauxite is always associated with impurities like ferric oxide and silica. If
bauxite is used directly for the extraction of aluminium, the iron and silica
present in if would deposit at the cathode during its electrolytic reduction.
The aluminium thus obtained at the cathode, becomes contaminated with
iron and silica. As a result, the produced aluminium becomes brittle and is
readily attacked by air and water.
Problem 10: A sulfide ore (A) on roasting leaves a residue (B). (B) on heating with
chlorine gives (C), soluble in water, addition of excess potassium iodide to a
solution of (C) gives a solution (D). A brown precipitate (E)is formed when a
solution of ammonium sulfate is added to an alkaline solution of (D). Identify
(A) to (E).
SP-CH-O&M-28
Solution: roasting Cl excess of KI 

H g S     H g O  2  H g C l 2       K 2 H g I 4
(A ) (B ) (C ) (D )
a lk a lin e (N H 4)S O 4
H g O H g (N H 2) I
(B ro w n p p t)
(E )
Objective
Problem 1: To remove the acidic impurity, the flux that can be used is a
(A) SiO2 (B) CaO
(C) NaCl (D) CuO
Solution: To remove acidic impurity, the flux can be used should be basic
 (B)
Problem 2: Which element occurs in free state in nature

(A) Fe (B) Co
(C) Pt (D) Ni
Solution: Pt is a noble metal, other noble metals are Au, Ag

(C)
Problem 3: Hydrometallurgy is useful in the extraction of

(A) Sn (B) Au
(C) Hg (D) Ag
Solution: Extraction of silver and gold is done by hydrometallurgical process complex

salt formation method.
 (D)
Problem 4: The must abundant metal in the earth’s crust is
Solution: The abundance of elements in the earth’s crust must follow the order
O  Si  Al  Fe
 (C)
Problem 5: The incorrect statement is

(A) Calamine and siderite are carbonates
(B) Argentite and cuprites are oxides
(C) Zinc blende and iron-pyrite are sulphides
(D) Malachite and azurite are ores of Cu
Solution: Argentite is Ag2S

 (B)
Problem 6: An ore which does not contain oxygen is

(A) Bauxite (B) Haematite
SP-CH-O&M-29
(C) Chalcopyrites (D) Calamine
Solution: Chalcopyrites is a sulphide ore

 (C)
Problem 7: Which of the following metal is thrown as anode mud during electrolytic
refining of copper ?
(A) Zn (B) Fe
(C) Ag (D) Ni
Solution: In electrolytic refining of Cu, impurities of Fe, Ni and Zn pass into solution
and others like Au and Ag fall down, as anode mud.
(C)
Problem 8: In Serpek’s process, by product obtained in the purification of bauxite is

(A) Al2O3 (B) N2
(C) NH3 (D) None
Solution: Al2O3 + 3C + N2  2AlN + 3CO

AlN + 3H2O  Al(OH)3 + NH3
 (C)
Problem 9: In the electrorefining, the impure metal is made

(A) Cathode (B) Anode
(C) Both (D) None
Solution: Anode shows oxidation of the metal at impure electrode and thus metals
gets dissolved. At cathode pure metal gets deposited.
(B)
Problem 10: Which element is purified by zone refining?

(A)Ge (B) Ge and Si
(C) Si (D) None
Solution: (B)
SP-CH-O&M-30
Assignment
Subjective
LEVEL - I
Explain why?
1. Cryolite and fluospar are added to pure alumina before its elecrolytic reduction
2. Both Zn and Fe are extracted by carbon reduction process, but zinc is not extracted
in the blast furnace following a procedure similar to that of cast iron product.
3. Aluminimum metal cannot be extracted by the electrolysis of pure alumina alone
4. When an acidified solution of CuSO 4 is electrolysed, metallic copper is liberated of

the cathode, but when an acidified solution of aluminium salt is electrolysed,
metallic aluminium is not liberated at the cathode .
5. The boiling point of metallic zinc is 920°C yet the carbon reduction operation of zinc
oxide is carried out at 1300°C – 1400°C.
6. It is difficult to extract metallic copper from copper pyrites
7. Aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is not used instead of fused caustic soda in
the Castner’s process – Explain why
8. What is the function of sulphuric acid in electro refining of copper ?
9. Identify A, B, C and D in the following reactions
Bauxite + Charcoal + Chlorine heat A + CO
A + H2O B + HCl
B + H2SO4 C + H2O
C + NaOH D + H2O
10. What is thermit mixture?
SP-CH-O&M-31
LEVEL - II
Explain why?
1. Al can not be extracted by C-reduction
2. NaCl is added to MgCl2 in the extraction of Mg.
3. Al does not occur in free state in nature.
4. Metallic Al is frequently used as reducing agent for the extraction of metals such as
chromium & manganese from the respective oxides. why?
5. Metallic Al is not liberated at the cathode when an acidified solution of AlCl 3 is

electrolysed.
6. Molten AlCl3 is a poor conductor of electricity.
7. MgO is used for the lining of steel making furnace.
8. It Castner’s process a hallow Ni cylinder is used as anode but in Down’s process

graphite rod is used as anode.
9. Why is chalcocite roasted and not calcined during recovery of copper?
10. Cu is precipitated when Zn powder is added to CuSO 4 solution, but Zn is not

precipitated when Cu powder is added to ZnSO 4 solution.
SP-CH-O&M-32
LEVEL-III
1. Iron oxide is reduced to pig iron with carbon. The excess carbon is oxidised as a
part of the steel making process. Later still carbon is added to make steel. Explain
why middle step is necessary and why it is not combined with the first or the third
step?
2. What characteristics are desirable for a furnace lining? State under which
circumstances SiO2 would be preferred over CaO or MgO as a furnace lining.
3. Carbon monoxide is more effective reducing agent for metallic oxides than carbon
below a temperature about 980K, but above this temperature reverse is true. How
do you account for this?
4. Why do most of elements occurs as oxides or sulphides? In what form do tin and
lead occur and why?
5. Why are sulphides ores generally roasted to oxides before subjecting them to
reduction with carbon?
6. Describe the properties of an ore which is to be concentrated by (a) leaching with

alkali (b) leaching with acid (c) floatation (d) panning
7. What is the principal ore of aluminum? How is the ore purified, and how is the metal
extracted? What is the process called? What is the function of cryolite in the
process?
8. Write the name of principal ores of copper. Write various steps in preparation of
metallic copper from chalcopyrite. What is the use of silica? Write formula of slag
that is removed.
9. In steel manufacture, manganese metal is used as a scavenger to reduce traces of

iron oxide and iron sulphide. Suggest two reasons why manganese is effective for
this purpose?
10. Zinc but not copper is used for recovery of silver from the complex [Ag(CN) 2]-
SP-CH-O&M-33
SP-CH-O&M-34
Objective
LEVEL - I
1. Oil used as frother in froth fleatation process is

(A) Pine oil (B) Mustard oil
(C) Coconut oil (D) Olive oil
2. Calamine is an ore of
(A) Hg (B) Zn
(C) Cd (D) Ca
3. The metal obtained by self reduction process

(A) Cu (B) Fe
(C) Pb (D) All
4. Leaching is a process of
(A) Reduction (B) Concentration
(C) Refining (D) Oxidation
5. Alloy is an example of
(A) Gel (B) Aerosol
(C) Solid solution (D) Emulsion
6. The lightest metal is

(A) Li (B) Mg
(C) Ca (D) Na
7. Roasting is generally done in case of

(A) Oxide ores (B) Silicate ores
(C) Sulphide ores (D) Carbonate ores
8. Hydrometallurgy is useful in the extraction of

(A) Sn (B) Al
(C) Hg (D) Ag
9. Which is a acidic flux ?

(A) CuO (B) SiO2
(C) Al2O3 (D) Fe2O3
10. Purest form of iron is

(A) Cast iron (B) Hard steel
(C) Stainless steel (D) Wrought iron
SP-CH-O&M-35
LEVEL - II
1. Zinc blende is concentrated by

(A) Electromagnetic process (B) Calcination process
(C) Distillation (D) Froth floatation process
2. Which of the following dissolves in hot conc. solution of NaOH

(A) Zn (B) Fe
(C) Ag (D) Cu
3. An alloy that does not contain copper

(A) Bell metal (B) Brass
(C) Bronze (D) Solder
4. Stainless steel contains

(A) Fe + Cu + Cr (B) Fe + Cu + Ni
(C) Fe + Ni + Ca (D) Fe + Ni + Cr
5. In the alumina thermit process Al acts as

(A) an oxidising agent (B) a flux
(C) a reducing agent (D) a solder
6. The metallic lusture exhibited by Na is explained by

(A) the diffusion of Na+ ions (B) Oscillation of loos electrons
(C) excitation of free protons (D) existance of body centred cubic
lattice
7. Of the following the metals that can not be obtained by electrolysis of the aqueous
solution of their salts are
(A) Ag (B) Mg
(C) Cu (D) None of these
8. Duralumin is an alloy of
(A) Al and Mg (B) Mg and Ni
(C) Al, Mg, Mn and Cu (D) Al and Ni
9. Thomas slag is
(A) Calcium silicate
(B) Calcium phosphate
(C) Tricalcium phosphate and calcium silicate
(D) Calcium ammonium phosphate
10. Bessemer converter is used in the inarmfacture of

(A) Pig iron (B) Steel
(C) Wrought iron (D) Cast iron
SP-CH-O&M-36
Answers
LEVEL - I
1. A 2. B
3. D 4. B
5. C 6. A
7. C 8. D
9. B 10. D
LEVEL - II
1. D 2. A
3. D 4. D
5. C 6. B
7. B 8. D
9. C 10. B

Ores and Metallurgy

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Ores and Metallurgy

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ORES & METALLURGY

Ores may be divided into four groups:

i) Crushing the ore

ii) Dressing or concentration of the ore.

iii) Working up of the concentrated ore

v) Purification or refining of the metal.

Various Metallurgical Process

b) Levigation or Gravity separation: This method of concentrating the ore is based on

Calcination and Roasting

Al2O3.2H2O  Al2O3 + 2H2O

2ZnS + 3O2 2ZnO +2SO2

CuS + 2O2  CuSO4

Reduction to free metal

b) Electrolytic Reduction: Highly electropositive metals like Na, K, Al are extracted by

c) Reduction by Aluminum ( Alumino – Thermit process): Certain oxides like Fe2O3,

Fluxes are of the following two types:

SiO 2  MgCO 3  MgSiO 3  CO 2 

P4 O10  6CaO  2Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2

Different types of Furnaces

d) Bessemer Converter: It is a pear-shaped furnace made of steel plates lined inside

Illustration 1: Explain the following processes as applied to metallurgy

Solution: i) Amalgamation: this process is used for the extractioin of noble

ii) Hydrometallurgy or precipitation by a more electropositive

For example, poor ores of silver are suspended in a dilute solution of

4Ag + 8NACN + O2 (air) 2H2O  4Na [Ag(CN)2] + 4NaOH

iii) Solvent Extraction: Solvent extraction is the latest separation

Solvent or liquid-liquid extraction is based on the principle that a

certain cases, the solute can be more or less completely transferred

Illustration 2: Explain the following process as applied to metallurgy

Solution: i) Zone refining (Fractional crystallization): This method is

Exercise 1: i) Which furnace is meant for roasting and calcination?

Sodium chloride or common salt (NaCl)

Two processes are in practice for extracting Na

Principle : Fused caustic soda is electrolysed

4OH  2H2O + O2

at anode OH– – e–  OH;

1. Since the temperature is 327C, not much Na is vaporised

2. Valuable H2, O2 are produced

1. Costly raw material caustic soda is used

Raw materials used : Anhydrous CaCl2 (66.8%), NaCl (32.2%)

Comparison between Castner’s process and Down’s Process

Principle of Extraction of Potassium

Na(g) + KCl(l) NaCl + K(g)

CaCO3 (Lime stone)

CaSO 4.2H2O (Gypsum or alabaster)

CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2 (Lime feldspar)

Flow chart diagram

CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + CO2

Anhydrous CaCl2 Heat crystallisation

Current HCl gas

Anhydrous CaCl2 Mixing of CaCl2 +

Illustration 3: Fluorspar is added to the anhydrous CaCl 2 in the extraction of metallic

From sea water anhydrous MgCl2 is obtained by the following reactions

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2  Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2

Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl  MgCl2 + 2H2O

By thermal reduction Mg can be produced

CaC2 + MgCl2 CaCl2 + Mg + 2C

Exercise 2: In extraction of Magnesium by electrolytic reduction process NaCl is added

2. Roasting: Temperature: 860 – 900C

3. Smelting - Carbon reduction

ZnSO 4 Zn+2 + SO4–2

Anode reaction: Zn – 2e  Zn+2

2HgS + 3O2  2HgO + 2SO2

Silver glance or Argentite (AgS)