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UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND
SOCIAL SCIENCE

MORAY HOUSE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Title 

VERTICAL DROP JUMPS DURING HALF-TIME TO

ENHANCE POST-ACTIVATION POTENTIATION IN A
HANDBALL MATCH.

MSc STRENGTH & CONDITIONING 

DISSERTATION
REDU11026

AUGUST 2016

        Matriculation Number: S1514957
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        Date: 2nd of August, 2016
        Wordcount:5612
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VERTICAL DROP JUMPS DURING HALF-TIME TO ENHANCE POST

ACTIVATION POTENTIATION IN A HANDBALL MATCH.

Wordcount: 5612
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ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to determine and compare the effects on repeated

shuttle sprint and jump ability (RSSJA) performance of handball players after

following, during half-time of a match, a protocol of vertical drop jump exercise

to induce post-activation potentiation (PAP) in lower limbs or fully rest. For this

purpose, 12 male amateur handball players were recruited (age 28.4±4.3

years; height 1.79±0.5 mts; weight 82.0±7.6 kg). All players of the Scottish

League, with at least three years of strength training experience, and without

any recent injury in their lower limbs (no significant injuries in the last year and

a half). Sprint time (SP) and countermovement jump height (CMJ) were tested

by RSSJA test in a randomized experimental crossover study. One way

repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni corrected post-hoc analysis

showed significant differences on SP and CMJ means for baseline versus

control and baseline versus experimental trial (SP mean differences=

-0.250+0.40sec; and -0.268+0.056sec., respectively; CMJ mean differences=

-0.28+0.83cm and 0.48+1.3cm., respectively). No significant differences were

found for SP mean and CMJ means between control and experimental trials

(SP mean differences = -0.019+0.42sec; CMJ mean differences= 0.76+0.8

cm.). Intermittent intensities exercise to emulate the efforts of the first half of a

handball match has become a confounding variable, hence the results of this

study are not conclusive, and more research is needed. Therefore, coaches
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and players are strongly recommended not to follow any kind of protocol to

enhance PAP, while they are in the half-time of a match.

KEY WORDS: countermovement jump, sprint ability, acute muscle power.

INTRODUCTION

Handball requires players to continuously perform actions such as throwing,

blocking, pushing, sprinting with persistent accelerations and decelerations,

change of directions and jumping (18, 22). All of these actions depend mainly

on the capacity to constantly generate explosive muscular contractions (10),

making it clear that muscle power is a main factor in performance of handball

players (28).

Traditionally, to improve muscular power during the competitive season,

resistance training programs have been implemented (20). However,

nowadays post-activation potentiation (PAP), an active field of research

related to muscle power response, is calling the attention of coaches who are

using the PAP phenomenon as a strategy to improve performance on team

sports. They are inducing it during the warm-up and/or half-times of matches

(27), especially due to the evidence of performance loss in the initial minutes

of second half (21, 24).

PAP can be defined as the occurrence by which acute muscle power output is

improved as an effect of it contractile history (19). Two main potential

mechanisms may explain the PAP effect. One is the increased

phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chains (MRLC) (36). This, induces

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a change into the conformation of myosin heads (free and blocked), impairing

their off-state organization, permitting more heads to move towards actin,

cutting off the distance between filaments, resulting in a major chance of

interaction between actin and myosin due to the calcium released from the

sarcoplasmic reticulum. Since dephosphorylation rate is lower than that of

phosphorylation, MRLC phosphorylation prevails and this state enhances

force production in twitches and sub-maximal contractions in fast-twitch

muscle following conditioning contractions (8, 36). The second mechanism

that may explain PAP, is the neural contribution after a condition activity (CA),

which produces a reflex potentiation that leads to an enhancement in the

muscle response to an afferent neural volley (16). However, it has been

reported PAP effects without this neural contribution (13), whereby this

mechanism remains unclear.

The time taken to generate PAP effect seems to be affected by the type of

CA, and the ability to resist fatigue. Stronger individuals elicit PAP after 5 to 7

minutes after the CA while the weaker counterpart achieve it after 8 to 9

minutes (31). Although neuromuscular fatigue is also a response of volitional

contraction history of the muscle, this mechanism and PAP can coexist (19).

The duration of PAP effect goes from 5 to 30 minutes, dependent on the

activity that the individual is performing after achieving PAP(15).

Evidence of PAP to improve performance in handball is limited to three

studies. The first, has verified the incidence of PAP and the effect of strength

training with and without vibratory platform on the repeated sprint ability (RSA)
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(23). The results of this study showed that a strength exercise (90% 1RM

deep squat) induces PAP effect on handball players. This can be seen in the

improved results of the RSA test, while the vibratory platform training was not

significant compared with strength training in order to improve performance in

the same test.

The second study assessed the acute effect of vertical (VDJ) and horizontal

(HDJ) drop-jump-based PAP protocols on neuromuscular abilities in tasks

such as sprinting, change of directions and countermovement jump (5). Both

PAP protocols (VDJ & HDJ) improved performance, although only in tasks

that biomechanically are similar to each jump protocol (VDJ & HDJ).

The third study analysed the changes on RSA performance after heavy load

exercise in handball players. The protocol consisted of performing three sets

of half squat exercise (1 set of 5 x 50% 1RM, 1 set of 3 x 70% 1RM and 5

sets of 1 x 90% 1 RM) in order to observe the PAP response and its effect on

RSA (22). Findings explain that heavy load exercise used prior to a match

with the intention to improve RSA performance can work, however, with a

small to moderate magnitude of change.

The evidence described above, theoretically suggests that inducing PAP can

be a very good plan to enhance a better performance on the RSSJA in

handball players. However, since all protocols were conducted in laboratory

conditions, emulating a pre-match situation (fully rested players with enough

time to perform the exercises at will), it is only possible to determine that PAP
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can be enhanced previous to a handball match. Nevertheless, there is no

certainty that exercises to enhance PAP effectively, are feasible to do during

the half-time, especially due to the availability of implements (barbells, bars,

vibratory platforms, etc.) that can be near the bench, and the level of fatigue

achieved during the first half.

Hence, it is the aim of this study to determine and compare the effects on

RSSJA performance of handball players after following during the half time of

a match, a protocol of vertical drop jump exercise (VDJ) to induce PAP in

lower limbs or fully rest. It has been hypothesised that if a protocol of VDJ to

enhance PAP in lower limb muscles is performed during half-time, then there

will be positive effects in the RSSJA performance of handball players

compared to the effects on RSSJA performance of the same handball players

when they just rest during that same period.

METHODS

Experimental Approach to the Problem

In order to avoid any order effects of the treatments, a randomized

experimental crossover study design was employed. Half of subjects, after the

familiarization session, were evaluated in control condition while the other half

were evaluated in the experimental condition (session two). After a period

enough to “wash out” the possible effects of conditions (>48 hours), the

treatments were crossed over (session three). As the data collected was
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related to performance after the half-time of handball game, subjects

performed 30 minutes of intermittent exercise, before being tested, in series

comprising high intensities, relatives to the 80-85% of VO2 max and low

intensities (recoveries) relatives to the 50-55% VO2 max. This was conducted

to emulate the development of fatigue during the first half of a handball match

(24), so the players would be in the most similar conditions as if they had just

played the first half of a match when the half-time period started. VDJ to

enhance PAP were selected, since it has been proved that they are effective

in tasks such as sprinting and jumping for handball players (5), and especially,

due to the minimum amount of implements needed to perform the exercise.

A duration of 15 minutes for half-time was employed in both trials after the

intermittent exercise to emulate the first half, at the beginning of each session.

Although the official duration of the half-time of a handball match is 10

minutes (7), often it takes five more minutes to start the second half (4, 27).

In this way, for the experimental trial, subjects had 5 minutes to rest after

performing the exercise to elicit PAP, and 8 minutes to recover after the VDJ.

Thus, they had more of a chance to produce a PAP response (17, 31).

The order in which the subjects were performed the trials was determined by

randomization, using the online randomization tool of Urbaniak and Plous

(34).

Subjects
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Based in a previous study (5), it has been assumed that a between-group

difference in mean sprint time performance of 0.08 + 0.03 sec., and a jump

performance of 1.7 + 0.3 cm. is meaningful. Using the on-line Harvard

University sample calculator (29), it has been determined that 12 subject were

enough to provide an a = 0.05 and a b= 0.10% . Therefore, 12 male amateur

handball players were recruited (28.4 ± 4.3 years; 1.79 ± 0.5 mts; 82.0 ± 7.6

kg). All players of the “Scottish Handball League”, with at least three years of

strength training experience, without any recent injury in their lower limbs (no

significant injuries in the last year and a half). All subjects train at least two

times per week and play one match per weekend. The eligibility criteria was

justified according the arguments of Seitz and Haff (31), who explain that

larger effects of PAP occur among athletes with experience in resistance

training. Written informed consent from all subjects was obtained, after they

received an oral and digital written explanation of the potential risk and

benefits of the experiment.

This study was approved by the Moray House School of Education Ethical

Approval Sub-Committee of the University of Edinburgh.

Procedures

All subjects attended three experimental sessions. All sessions started with a

standardized ten minutes warm-up, based in the study of Dello Iacono,

Martone and Padulo (5). The warm-up comprised four minutes of jogging, four

minutes of dynamic stretching exercises for each leg (four pendulous, four hip
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external rotation, four hip internal rotation, four quadriceps stretching, four

lateral lounges, four assisted knee to chest, and four gastrocnemius

stretching), followed by two sprints of 20 meters, and jumping drills composed

by 10 small vertical jumps (bouncing), four plyometric crosses, six high jumps

(as handball technique for air throwing) and six jumps to a higher platform

(30cm height) followed by three minutes of jogging and two minutes walking

as an active recovery.

All sessions were conducted in an indoor wooden floor sports hall, where

condition of ventilation, temperature and humidity were comfortable to perform

the experiment (No specific instruments to measure this conditions were

used. However, all subjects maintained their comfort levels accordingly).

Every subject reported data of height and body mass one day prior to the

familiarization sessions.

In the first session, subjects were familiarised with the study procedures.

Immediately after completing the warm-up protocol, all subjects were tested

one by one through the RSSJA test, in which the baseline of their shuttle

sprint and jump ability were determined. No practice of the test was performed

before, as it has been shown the absence of significant learning effects on

repeated sprint test and vertical jump tests (3, 11). Although, verbal and visual

explanation were given so subjects could understand how the test should be

performed. Once the test finished, the VDJ to induce PAP during the half-time

of a handball match, that should be performed in session two and three, was
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explained and demonstrated, but not practiced due to the risk of injury related

to fatigue(12).

The VDJ was composed by three sets of five repetitions of vertical alternate

one leg drop jumps with hands on hips and step off the platforms with the

supporting leg straight to avoid any initial upward propulsion or sinking landing

from the top of a platform of 30 cm height. The Resting period between sets of

VDJ was 10 seconds. Is important to highlight that the VDJ works as a

plyometric exercise that, from a point of view of the biomechanics, is

analogous to sprinting, change of directions and jumping as in handball (5,

33).

In the second and third sessions, subjects assigned to perform the

experimental trial, and those assigned to the control trial, after the warm-up,

performed 30 minutes of intermittent running exercise to emulate the efforts

that players perform during the first half of a handball match (24), in order to

start the half-time in similar conditions as in a handball match. This exercise

comprised 15 series of running and 15 series of active recovery in a 1:1-

minute work-to-rest ratio. Subjects were asked to run during the running

series as fast as they could, so that they achieve a level of effort of 15 in the

Borg scale (1), and jog during the active recovery series, that allowed them to

achieve a level of effort of 9 in the Borg scale. As it has been proved that in a

1:1minute work-to-rest ratio, achieving the described levels of the Borg scale

(fifteen and nine respectively), for a total work bout of ~ 30 minutes, an

82+5% of VO2 max is achieved during the highest efforts. While during
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recoveries, a 46+5%VO2max. is reached (30); values that in terms of intensity

and duration are similar during the first half of a handball match (24). Time of

duration of each series was controlled by the researcher using the online loop

countdown stopwatch (35), which emits a loud sound every 1 minute,

informing subjects when every minute was achieved. The 30 minutes of

intermittent intensities exercise, was performed by all subjects in a staggered

start (~4 minutes apart). This was done for two reasons: one, to test them

later one by one, and two, to prevent them from resting for more time that they

were supposed to.

Subjects assigned to the experimental trial, rested after the 30 minutes

intermittent running while sitting on a bench for five minutes, and then

immediately executing the VDJ. Subjects assigned to the control trial only

rested but for 15 minutes while sitting on a bench. Subjects that performed the

VDJ, once they had finished one by one, they rested for other eight minutes to

complete the entire 15 minutes of duration of the half-time, as the VDJ lasted

an average of three minutes. For both, subjects in the experimental trial and

control trial, once they had completed the time of resting, they were tested

immediately through the RSSJA test, to determine the subject’s ability to

perform shuttle sprints and multiple jumps, by analysing the data of sprint time

and jump height that the RSSJA test gives as an outcome.

In the third session, each subject was tested again. Those subjects who were

assigned to the experimental trial in the second session, in the third session
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they performed the experiment as part of the control trial and vice versa. All

procedures were the same as session two as described above.

All subject attended three sessions at the same time of the day and at the

same place. All sessions were separated by at least 48 hrs. Subjects

consumed water ad libitum during the warm-ups and the 30-minutes

intermittent exercise, but were not allowed to drink during the RSSJA test, as

this is a continuous maximal test that does not allowed any time to stop and

drink. In order to maintain consistency throughout the study, subjects were

instructed to abstain from any other exhaustive exercise than the

experimental sessions from at least 48 hours before the experiment until the

end of the whole experiment (one week), to sleep for at least six hours, to

avoid alcohol and any stimulating drink such caffeine, guarana, etc. for at

least 12 hours before each session and to keep the same diet regime

throughout the study. Subjects were encouraged to perform at their maximal

capacity during each test by giving them the same information to everyone out

laud, this information was: - “Run as fast as you can”- for sprints, and – “Jump

as high as you can”- for the countermovement jump.

Data of sprint time and jump height during the RSSJA test were collected by

using a jump mat (Probiotics inc. “Just-Jump & Jus Run”) and a time gate

(Brower Timing TC-System 2015). Data were later transcribed to a

spreadsheet in a data processor (Microsoft Excel® 2016).

RSSJA test
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Repeated shuttle sprint and jump ability of handball players were assessed

according to the protocol of Buchheit et al. (2). This comprises six maximal

series of two shuttle sprints of 12.5-m each, departing every 25 seconds,

followed by an active recovery between sets of sprints, in which subjects had

to decelerate, stand in the jump mat and perform a CMJ, and then keep

jogging, covering 36 meters of distance running at 2.1 m/s –1 (Figure 1). For

every CMJ, subjects kept their hands on their hips. The depth of the

countermovement jumps were self-selected, as it seems that any change in

CMJ depth does not influence jumping height (6). Subjects had to adopt the

ready position (centre of gravity up to the front foot, placed 5 cm before the

first timing gate) two seconds before starting each sets of sprints. Outcomes

of this test were sprint time in seconds and jump height in centimetres for

each set. Means of sprint time and jump height were later calculated through

the mean calculator formula in the Microsoft Excel® data processor.

*** Figure 1 about here ***

Statistical analysis

All descriptive data are presented as means and standard deviation (SD).

Reliability on the measurements of RSSJA test was determined by Interclass

Correlation Coefficient (ICC)(14). Outcomes of sprint time mean (SPmean) and

countermovement jump height mean (CMJmean) of each RSSJA test were

statistically analysed using One way repeated measures ANOVA with

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corrected Bonferroni post-hoc analysis. Effect size and reached statistical

power were calculated using G*Power 3.0.10 software (Universität

Düsseldorf, Germany). Distribution of dependant variables was tested by

using the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality. Mauchly's Test of Sphericity was

used to determine that the assumption of sphericity had not been violated. If

the assumption of sphericity was violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser

adjustment was applied. Effect size were reported as partial eta-square (  p )

2

for the main effects from ANOVA analysis. Cohen’s d was used to report effect

size of means differences between trials. An a level of 0.05 was consider a

priori to be statistically significant. Statistical analysis was performed using

IBM SPSS Statistics Software 22 edition 9.5.00. (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,

USA).

RESULTS.

Table 1 shows mean results for RSSJA test of each session, with great

reliability for both dependant variables (SP mean & CMJmean) according to the ICC

respectively.

Repeated measures ANOVA has determined a significant main effect in SP mean

(F(2,22) = 20.774, p<0.001,  p = 0.654), while not significant for CMJ mean
2

(F(1.3915.2,22) = 0.282, p = 0.678,  p = 0.025). For these results, Bonferroni

2

corrected post-hoc analysis revealed that, fully resting during the half-time of

a handball match, after performing 30 minutes of intermittent efforts, similar to

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have played the first half of a handball match, resulted in a statistically

significant higher SPmean compared to baseline session (mean difference =

0.250 + 0.04 sec; p < 0.001; d=1.05). Also statistically significant results were

shown for performing VDJ during the half-time compared to baseline (mean

difference = 0,268 + 0.56 sec; p = 0.002; d = 1.4). In contrast, however, there

were no significant differences for CMJ mean, of the baseline session compared

to control trial and experimental trial respectively, Bonferroni post-hoc analysis

has revealed that the baseline session showed a higher value in CMJ mean than

experimental trial, but lower than control trial. (mean difference = 0.48 + 1.3

cm; p = 1; d = 0.10 and mean difference = -0.28 cm; p = 1: d = 0.05;

respectively).

Between control and experimental trials, although Bonferroni post hoc

analysis has showed no significant differences for SP mean and CMJmean, it is

important to highlight that the control trial value for sprint time was lower than

the experimental trial (mean difference = -0.019 + 042sec.; p = 1.000; d =

0.09), while the value for jump height in control trial versus experimental trial,

was higher (mean difference = 0.76 + 0.84 cm; p = 1.000; d = 0.20).

***Table 1 about here***

These data suggest that subjects did not obtained significant advantages of

the treatment to improve repeated shuttle sprint ability performance (VDJ),

and that fatigue elicited due to the 30 minutes of intermittent efforts emulating
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the first half of a handball match, did not affect jump ability while it did with

sprint ability.

DISCUSSION

The present research is the first to study the possible effects of PAP during

the half-time of a handball match, and it benefits on the RSSJA.

As expected for the results of the control trial compared to the baseline, this

research has shown that repeated shuttle sprint ability performance of

amateur handball players who have performed efforts equivalent to have

played the first half of a handball game, decreases when starting the second

half. This results are in agreement with the study of Póvoas, Ascensão,

Magalhães, Seabra, Krustrup, Soares and Rebelo (24). They describe the

development of fatigue and the physiological demands during elite male

handball matches, in which the outcomes demonstrated a reduction in

number of intense actions and a decrease of speed in high intensity running

from the first to the second half.

To the contrary, even though not significant, jump performance from the

control trial in this study has improved compared to the baseline, when

previous evidence has described, for elite handball players, a typical decrease

in jump performance of 5.2% and a decrease of jumping actions during the

second half. (24, 32).

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García-Pinillos, Soto-Hermoso and Latorre-Román (9), have reported a PAP

effect that improved the performance of countermovement jumps after

following an extended interval training for endurance athletes, where the

protocol was similar to the one that the present study has used to simulate the

efforts that handball players perform during the first half of a handball match.

This suggest that the increases of the CMJ mean from the control trial compared

to the baseline could have been given due to a stimulating role of the

intermittent exercise that may improve the performance of countermovement

jumps during the RSSJA test.

For the experimental trial compared to baseline, results of SP mean suggest that

the treatment does not accomplish the typical effects that previous evidence

has reported on sprint performance after a protocol of vertical drop jumps to

enhance PAP(5, 33). The most reasonable explanation for the lack of

improvements for SPmean of the experimental trial compared to baseline, is that

the level of fatigue reached after the intermittent exercise protocol of this

experiment, did not allowed to enhance the expected potentiation effect of the

VDJ on the sprints. Although plyometric exercises CA to enhance PAP has

been reported to be effective (28), the effect that this can generate to improve

sprint seems to be moderate (31). In addition, as PAP effect can be only

achieved if potentiation dominates fatigue (25), the moderate PAP effect that

the VDJ could have for sprint performance, seems not to have been enough

to overcome fatigue elicited from the 30 minutes of intermittent efforts that

subjects had to perform after the half time situation.

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According to the results for CMJmean of the experimental trial compared to

baseline, these did not present significant difference, suggesting that a PAP

effect may have been enhanced, which probably helped to maintain the

performance of the countermovement jump despite the fatigued caused for

the 30 minutes of intermittent efforts. However, as there is evidence of PAP

effects for CMJ after following an extended interval training (9), it is hard to

determine if the maintenance of the CMJ height of the experimental trial is

due to VDJ or to the intermittent exercise of this experiment.

Regarding the aim of this study, the comparison of results between control

trial and experimental trial, has shown that players when rested during the

half-time, were able to sprint faster and jump higher, than after performing

VDJ during the half-time. However, these results had only slight differences,

and were not statistically significant. Nevertheless, what seems more relevant

from this experiment, is that the level of effort achieved during the intermittent

exercise for the control and experimental trails seems to be higher than as a

typical first half of a handball game demands, which could have had a

negative effect on the shuttle sprint performance in both trials, but not for jump

performance. These results may have been given by some possible factors

including limited energy supply and metabolic by product accumulation (10),

that are responsible to reduce the sprint performance of the control trial and

limiting the possible effects to enhance PAP after VDJ in the experimental trial

for the sprint as well. However, this may not have necessarily affected directly

the knee extensor muscles, which have been reported as determinant to

affect vertical jumps (26). At the same time intermittent exercise of this nature
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has been reported as facilitator of PAP effect for countermovement jump (9).

Therefore, the intermittent exercise, which is supposed to emulate the efforts

of the first half of a handball match, has become a confounding variable. The

results of this study to determine the effects on RSSJA of VDJ to enhance

PAP in lower limb muscles, performed during the half-time of a handball

match compared to rest during the half-time, is not conclusive, and more

research should be performed.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Although performance improvements due to enhancement of post-activation

potentiation on handball players during the warm-up previous to a match have

been reported. This research did not show conclusive evidence that the same

phenomenon of benefits can be reached during the half-time of a match to

avoid performance loss during the first minutes of the second half or to

perform better than the first half.

Furthermore, even though there is evidence of performance improvement due

to enhancement PAP during the half time of other team sports (27). As much

these evidence can be attractive, there is no reported evidence that these

strategies can be effective for handball due to the nature of the efforts during

a handball match.

Therefore, coaches and players are strongly recommended not to follow

protocols to enhance PAP, while they are in the half-time of a match, after
 22

having played the first half. It seems better to rest during that period of time.

Players that did not played the first half, may use some PAP strategies to

warm-ups because they are fully rested.

Additionally, it is highly recommended for coaches and player to look for

strategies to improve performance during the half-time not related to physical

demands, as they can be also beneficial.

In terms of research, to solve the problem that allows to give clarity of the

effects of vertical drop jumps to enhance post activation potentiation during

the half-time, it is proposed to design a study were the protocols to enhance

the level of fatigue and efforts of a first half of a handball match can be better

emulated and controlled, imitating not only the level of efforts, but also the

patterns of movements that a handball player performs when playing. For

example: change of directions, multiple accelerations and deceleration,

jumping and throwing, blocking, among others.

REFERENCES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank coaches and players who enthusiastically

participated and helped to carry out this study. The author also thanks to Dr.

Shaun Phillips for supervising and advising the whole research process. The
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author has no professional relationships with companies or manufacturers

who will benefit from the results of the present study. The results of this study

do not constitute endorsement of the product by the authors or the National

Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).

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FIGURES

Figure 1. Schematic of the shuttle sprint- and jump ability test

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TABLES

Table 1. Mean ( + SD) variables performance across trial sessions

Baseline Control Experimental ICC 95% CI
Sprint Time (sec) 5.42 + 0.21 5.67 + 0.26 5.69 + 0.17 0.889 0.707 0.965

Jump Height (cm) 41.87 + 6.49 42.16 + 4.78 41.39 + 2.16 0.888 0.704 0.965

ICC = interclass correlation coefficient; 95%CI = confidence interval

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