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Classification of Matter
Properties of Matter
Examples:
- Specific volume (reverse of density) is a physical, intensive property.
- Given a piece of cake; mass, temperature, and volume are its physical properties while dietary calories is its chemical property.
Changes in Matter
Physical Change
Chemical Change – it is difficult to reverse (irreversible)
N2 + H2 NH3
Atoms
Balmer Series/Lines
Balmer Series/Lines – (for visible only) designation of one of a set of 6 different named series describing the spectral line emissions
of the hydrogen atom
Balmer constant – a constant known for the fundamental number of hydrogen; Johann Balmer (1885)
Example:
n = 3 to n = 2 H-α
n = 4 to n = 2 H-β
In reality, when these lines are zoomed in they are double-lined called “fine-structure splitting” which is a function of atomic number (Z) and
fine structure constant (α).
Balmer Formula:
( ) ( )
Where:
is the wavelength
B is a constant with the value of 3.6450682×10-7 m or 364.50682 nm
n is equal to 2
m is an integer such that m > n
Johannes Rydberg – generalized Balmer lines result to include all of the wavelength of the hydrogen spectrum
Rydberg Formula:
̅ ( ) ( )
Where:
is the wavelength
̅ is the series limit [cm-1]
RH is a constant with the value of 1.097373157×105 cm-1
m is an integer such that n > m
Work Function
Work Function (Φ) is the energy needed to release the electron from any surface.
Formula:
Atoms
Protium : 1H
1
Deuterium : 1H
2
Tritium : 1H
3
Note: D2O (heavy water) is heavier than normal water (H2O) because D2 is heavier than H2
Electron Configuration
- Aufbau Building Up Principle
Methods:
1. Spectroscopic notation (long way)
2. Noble gas core notation (short way)
3. Orbital box notation
Example:
[Xe]6s2 : 2A group: 6th period: 2<6 (less than) therefore metal!
Shielding Effect
- describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell.
- Other electron does not feel the full effect of the proton because of the shielding effect.
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom, given by the formula
Zeff = Z – σ
Where:
Z = no. of p+ in the nucleus
screening constant, σ = average number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron in question
1. Simple Method
18Ar: 1s22s22p63s23p6
(2nd shell) (3rd shell) interest!
2. Slater’s Rule
a. Write the electron configuration then group the level
b. Calculate σ
i. 0.35 all other electron in the same group
ii. If e- of interest is s or p: 0.85 next inner
If e- of interest is d or f: 1.00 next inner
iii. 1.00 next next inner and farther group
Additional Examples
Calculate the Zeff in the following:
a. N(7) for 2p e-
7N: 1s 2s 2p take out 1 e-
2 2 3
b. 3p e- in Si(14)
14Si: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p take out 1 e-
2 2 6 2 2
c. one of 6s e- in W(74)
74W: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 6s take out 1 e-
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 2 6 4 2
Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli) – no 2 e- in an atom can have an identical set of quantum numbers
Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity (Friedrich Hund) – the most stable arrangement of an e- in a sub-shell is attained when the number of e-
with same spin is maximized
Summary:
- By Werner Heisenberg
- We can know position or momentum accurately but not both simultaneously
Where:
= uncertainty in position
= uncertainty in momentum
= reduced planck’s constant = h/2π
( )
Periodic Table
Ionization Energy – energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom X(g) X(g)+ + e-
Electron Affinity – energy always associated with the addition of electron X(g) + e- X(g)-
Electronegativity – ability of an atom to “attract” electrons toward itself
Technetium (43Tc) – first artificially prepared element by bombardment reaction (prepared in Darmstadt, Germany)
Darmstadtium (110Ds) – named after the town (Darmstadt, Germany) in which it was discovered
Roentgenium (111Rg) – prepared in Darmstadt, Germany, named after Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (X-ray)
Copernicium (112Cn) - prepared in Darmstadt, Germany, named after the polish astronomer Copernicus
Ionic Size
Na Na+ Cl Cl-
Chemical Bonds
Ionic
Covalent
(transfer of e-)
(sharing of e-)
(ions)
Polar Non-polar
complete transfer of e-
(unequal sharing of e-) (equal sharing of e-)
full ionic charges partial ionic charges
no charges
Na+ Cl- Hδ+ Clδ-
M + NM 2 different NM 2 identical NM
Bond Properties
Bond Energy – amount of energy involved in the formation and breaking of a bond
Bond Length – distance between nuclei in a bond
NOTE:
NaCl easily dissociates (dissolution) in water but covalent compounds don't, this implies that covalent bond is stronger than ionic
bond but during hot weather, waxes easily melts but NaCl don’t, this implies that covalent bond is weaker than ionic bond.
Generally, covalent bond is stronger than ionic bond because covalent bond is sharing of e -, not all is given, one will not carry on
without the other and vice versa, e- are not completely transferred (or taken away). *also applies in romantic relationships*
Stoichiometry
Limiting reactants (LR) – maximum conversion (100%); “limits” the formation of products
Sample Problem:
Suppose 8.0 g of CH4 is allowed to burn in the presence of 6.00 g of O2. How much in grams of excess reactant remains after the
reaction is complete?
Stoich Actual
>
( )
( )
2 > 0.375 therefore O2 is the LR! (But if, say 2 < 2.5 then O2 comes in excess and is an ER)
Assume O2 as LR:
( )( )
Since O2 produced less moles of the product than CH4 then O2 is the LR! (LR: “limits” the formation of products)
( )( )( )
Chemical Equations
1. Synthesis: A + B C
2. Decomposition: AB A + B
a. M 2O M + O 2
b. M2CO3 (metal carbonate) M2O + CO2
c. MNO3 (metal nitrate) MNO2 (metal nitrite) + O2
d. MHCO3 (metal bicarbonate) M2CO3 + H2O + CO2
3. Single Replacement: AB + C CB + A
Note: If C is a metal (or NM or ion) then the one that should be replaced is also a metal (or NM or ion). C is the one attacking the
AB.
4. Double Displacement: AB + CD AD + BC
Nomenclature
Cu2+ Cu+
Copper (II) Copper (I)
Latin: Cupric Cuprous
NO3- NO2-
nitrate nitrite
B Si C Sb As P N H Te Se S I Br Cl O F
IIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
F3N is incorrect!
NF3 is correct!
ClO- : hypochlorite
ClO2- : chlorite
ClO3- : chlorate
ClO4- : perchlorate
Hydrates
- e.g. Na2CO37H2O (sodium carbonate heptahydrate)
Concentrations of Solution
Where:
Example
What is the f of the salt given (net charge of an ion) in the chemical equation: Au2(Cr2O7)3 2Au3+ + 3Cr2O72-
a. 2
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6
Given Basis
Molarity, M 1 L solution
molality,m 1 kg solvent
% w/w 100 g solution
ρsolution 1 mL solution
Example Problem 1: A solution of toluene in benzene has a molal concentration of 1.50. Find the molarity and the mole fraction of
toluene if the volumes are additive. Density of toluene is 0.867 g/cm3 and density of benzene is 0.876 g/cm3.
*( )( )( ) ( ) +
( )
Example Problem 2: What is the volume % concentration of ethanol in a solution that is 24% by mass ethanol (ρ = 0.798 g/mL) in an
aqueous solution with density 0.963 g/mL?
Basis:
( )
( )
Solutions
Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) : ∆Tb = Tb, solution – Tb, solvent = kbm
Freezing Point Depression (FPD) : ∆Tf = Tf, solvent – Tf, solution = kfm
Vapor Pressure Lowering: ∆P = Posolvent – Psolution = xsolute Posolvent
Where:
o Π = osmotic pressure
o M = Molarity
o R = universal gas constant
o T = absolute temperature
P<Π : osmosis
P=Π : osmosis stops!
P>Π : reverse osmosis
Van’t hoff factor
i = 1 (non-electrolye)
i > 1 (electrolye)
degree of ionization, ∝
Dalton’s Law: PT = PA + PB
( )
( )
Example Problem 1: A vessel containing 39.5 cm3 of the gas at 25oC and 106 kPa was inverted and placed in cold ethanol. As the gas
contacted, ethanol was forced into the vessel to maintain the same pressure of helium. If this required 18.8 cm 3 of ethanol, what was
the final temperature of the helium?
( )
( )
Example Problem 2: Helium is collected over water at 25 oC and 1.00 atm total pressure. What volume of gas must be collected to
obtain 0.375 g of helium? At 25oC, vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr.
( )( )( )( )
* ( )+
Example Problem 3: A 10-L vessel containing 8.00 g oxygen is connected by means of a valve to a 5-L vessel containing 7.00 g of
nitrogen. When the valve was opened and the gases are allowed to mix, what will be the total pressure of the gas in the mixture at
25oC assuming the temperature was kept constant?
[ ( ) ( )] * + [( ) ]
( )
( ) [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
( ) ( )
Gases
( ) ( ) ↔ ( )
[ ] ( )
[ ] [ ] ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ↔ ( ) ( )
[ ] [ ]
[ ][ ]
At Equilibrium:
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
[ ][ ]
[ ] [ ]
( )( )
( ) ( )
Using ideal gas law:
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
- When a system in chemical equilibrium is disturbed by a change of temperature, pressure, or a concentration, the
system shifts in equlibrium composition in a way that tends to counteract this change of variable.
1. Change in Concentration
- decreasing concentration of product: favors forward reaction
- increasing concentration of reactant: favors forward reaction
Lewis Structure
Note:
- 2e- fewer than an octet suggests a double (=) bond
- 4e- fewer suggests a triple (≡) bond or 2 double (=) bonds
- C, N, O and S atoms often form multiple bonds
Say in PO43-…
If (-) add to the total number of valence electrons
If (+) subtract to the total number of valence electrons
Formal Charge
Formal Charge, FC = no. of valence electrons – no. of non-bonding electrons – ½ of the bonding electrons
FC = 7 – 6 - ½(2) = 0
Note:
By adding all the formal charges, you can get the overall charge of the molecule
Polarity of Molecules
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory – states that atoms are kept as far as possible preventing repulsion
Five Basic Shapes
Linear
Bent/Angular/
Trigonal Planar V-Shaped
Bent/Angular/
Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal V-Shaped
Sawhorse/Seesaw/
Linear
Trigonal Bipyramidal Distorted Tetrahedral T-Shaped
Linear
Octahedral Square Pyramidal Square Planar T-Shaped
Forces Between Atoms
Intramolecular Forces – forces which keeps molecule together, i.e. bonds (chemical bonding)
Intermolecular Forces – attractive force between molecules. Responsible for keeping matter in solid or liquid phase.
Note:
London forces increase with increasing molecular weight. The higher the molecular weight, the stronger (tie-breaker for two
compounds that have same london forces).
Example:
BF3 – london forces
Isopropyl alcohol – hydrogen bonding
HI – dipole-dipole forces
Kr – london forces
LiCl – ionic bonding
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
- is the study of the chemical and physical properties of elements as influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic
nucleus
- changes in the no. of p+ and no (nuclear change)
Otto Hann – is a German chemist and Nobel laureate that founded the nuclear chemistry
– “father of nuclear chemistry”
– “the founder of the atomic age”
The Nuclide
Radioactivity
Radioactive decay- the process in which a nucleus spontaneously disintegrates, giving off radiation.
Nuclear Fission – heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei and energy is released
Nuclear Fusion - two or more atomic nuclei collide at very high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus
Nuclear Equation
- a symbolic representation of a nuclear reaction
Note:
Balancing nuclear equations makes use of the concept of conservation of mass number and proton number
Positron emission -1 0
A given nuclide < A stable nuclide
Electron capture -1 0
Note:
( )
Nuclear Stability
Nuclear force is a strong force of attraction between nucleons that acts only at very short distances (about few femtometers).
Neutron serves as nuclear binders of protons.
Nuclear Bombardment Reaction
- a nuclear reaction in which a nucleus is bombarded, or struck by another nucleus or by a nuclear particle
- nuclear bombardment reaction is done in particle accelerators
Example:
Transmutation:
Binding Energy
- it is the amount of energy released during a nuclear transformation
- it is a measure of the energy used to bind the nucleus in a parent nuclide
Where:
o = mass defect
o c = speed of light
Mass defect (of a nucleus) is the mass difference between the total mass of an atom’s particle and the atom’s total mass (atomic mass)
Conclusion:
The total energy of the bound system (nucleus) is less than the combined energy of the separated nucleons (p + and no)
Particle Accelerators
- Any of several mechanics that increase the speed and energy of atomic particles and direct them at a nuclei or other
particles to cause high-energy collisions producing other particles
1. Linac
2. Betatron – causes electrons to become larger in mass but have relatively low energy
3. Synchrotron
4. Cyclotron – a type of particle accelerator consisting of 2 hollow, semi-circular metal electrodes called “dees” in which
charged particles are accelerated by stages to higher and higher kinetic energies
Radiation
2. Equivalent Dose
- is an amount that takes the damaging properties of different types of radiation into account
- is dimensionally a quantity of energy per unit of mass, and is measured in sieverts or rems (roentgen equivalent in man
(or mammal))
3. Effective Dose
- is used to assess the potential for long-term effects that might occur many years later
- the unit for effective dose is the sievert (Sv), or the rem, the same as for equivalent dose. One sievert equals one
joule/kilogram (J/kg)
Somatic Damage
a. prompt (occur sooner or later)
b. delayed (occurs years after the radiation is
Genetic Damage
- exposed to radiation but nothing happened to you
- affect your genes
Somatic effects appear in the exposed person. Somatic effects may be divided into two classes based on the rate at which the dose
was received.
Prompt somatic effects are those that occur soon after an acute dose (typically 10 rad or greater to the whole body in a short period
of time). One example of a prompt effect is the temporary hair loss which occurs about three weeks after a dose of 400 rad to the
scalp. New hair is expected to grow within two months after the dose, although the color and texture may be different.
Delayed somatic effects are those that may occur years after radiation doses are received. Among the delayed effects thus far
observed have been an increased potential for the development of cancer and cataracts. Since some forms of cancer are among the
most probable delayed effects, the established dose limits were formulated with this risk in mind. These limits are set such that the
calculated risk of cancer in radiation workers is an increase of a very small fraction of the normal cancer risk. (More on risk in a
moment)
Genetic, or heritable effects appear in the future generations of the exposed person as a result of radiation damage to the
reproductive cells. Genetic effects are abnormalities that may occur in the future generations of exposed individuals. They have been
extensively studied in plants and animals, but risks for genetic effects in humans are seen to be considerably smaller than the risks
for somatic effects. Therefore, the limits used to protect the exposed person from harm are equally effective to protect future
generations from harm.