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MICROBIOLOGY and PARASITOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
- advance course in biology dealing with small
living organisms or microbes
- UBIQUITOUS – virtually everywhere
✪ since viruses are ACELLULAR [not
composed of cells] they are often
referred to as “infectious agents” or
“infectious particles” rather than
microorganisms
 Microbiology Includes the Study of… 
BACTERIA – ḯ small bacteria and fungi produce
BACTERIOLOGY
FUNGI – - Microbes are used in genetic engineering
MYCOLOGY
VIRUSES – - Microbes cause either infection diseases or
VIROLOGY
ALGAE –
PHYCOLOGY
PROTOZOAN OR PROTOZOA’S –
PROTOZOOLOGY
 Reasons for Studying Microbiology 
- to get to know the indigenous micro flora
[beneficial bacteria]
▪ Lactobacilli – digestive tract
▪ Ecoli [non-pathogenic] – prevent other
pathogenic microorganisms to get into our
system
- develop awareness on the presence of
opportunistic pathogens or opportunists
- to know that photosynthetic algae and
bacteria [cyanobacteria] releases oxygen into
the atmosphere
 Importance of Microbes 
- Microbes are important as decomposers or
saprophytes since they aid in fertilization by
returning
inorganic nutrients into the soil
- Microbes are used in bioremediation to clean
up or decompose industrial wastes like oil spills
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- Microorganisms are involved in elemental
cycles [carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and
phosphorus]
- Microbes serve as food for smaller animals;
important part of the food chain
- Microbes aid in food digestion and some
produces beneficial substances or solutions
- Microbes are used in various industries such
as food, beverage, chemical and antibiotic
industries
It is known as BIOTECHNOLOGY [examples
are yogurt, yakult drink, wine and cheese]
antibiotics
- Microbes are used as cell models
intoxication
 Historical Background 
MICROBIOLOGY 🡪 microscopy, staining procedures, laboratory
procedures, culture techniques
 People who Contributed to the Discovery of
Microbiology 
A. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek
- 1st to see bacteria [bacterium] and
protozoa [field of lenses]
- lens maker and in one of his
production he saw microorganisms
B. Louis Pasteur
- Fermentation [eliminating bacteria] 🡪
Pasteurization
- discovered anaerobes
- discovered infectious agents causing
silkworm diseases
- contributed to the germ theory of
disease
- championed changes in hospital
practices to minimize the spread of by
pathogens
- developed vaccines to prevent chicken
cholera, anthrax and swine erysipelas [skin
disease]
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– produce own food

C. Robert Koch – photosynthesis: green pigment -
- discovered the germ theory of chlorophyll
disease [Koch’s postulates] 2. Gliding Bacteria
- Bacillus anthracis produces spores – flagella / cilia
capable of resisting adverse conditions 3. Sheathed Bacteria
- developed method of fixing, staining
– encloses organism : facultitively
and photographing bacteria
- developed methods of cultivating anaerobic
bacteria on solid media a. Escherichia rods
- discovered mycobacterium b. Salmonella
tuberculosis and vibrio cholerae c. Shigella
- worked on tuberculin which led to the d. Klebsiella
development of a skin test valuable in e. Proteus
diagnosing
4. Budding or Appendaged
tuberculosis
– guides through budding [maturing]
 Careers in Microbiology  5. Spirochetes
Microbiology : Microbiologist 6. Spiral and Curved
Bacteriology : Bacteriologist 7. Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and
Virology : Virologist Cocci
Phycology : Phycologist a. Pseudomonas
Mycology : Mycologist
b. Azotobacter
Protozoolgy : Protozoologist
Applied Microbiology [biotechnology, medical c. Rhizobium
and clinical microbiology] d. Halobacter
ḯ Medical Microbiology – the study of e. Brucella
pathogens, the disease they cause and the f. Bordetella
body’s g. Francisella
defenses
8. Gram-Negative Facultatively
against disease concerned with epidemiology
Anaerobic Rods
 Classification of Bacteria based on DR. a. Escherichia
BERGEY  b. Salmonella
- Morphology c. Shigella
- Staining reactions d. Vibrio
- Cultural characteristics e. Klebsiella
- Biochemical or Physiologic Behavior
f. Enterobacter
- Genetic analyses
- Animal inoculations g. Pasteurella
- Immunologic differences h. Serratia
i. Proteur
 BERGEY’S MANUAL of determining j. Yersinia
BACTERIOLOGY [19 categories]  k. Haemophilus
1. Phototrophic Bacteria
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9. Gram-Negative Anaerobic Bacteria - variations that represent

a. Bacteriodes physiologic adjustment to the
b. Fusobacterium environment
10. Gram-Negative Cocci and
☯ ATTENUATION
Coccobacilli [aerobes] - important form of adaptation and
a. Neisseria also important in immunology
b. Ecolli
11. Gram-Negative Anaerobic Cocci ☯ MUTATION
12. Gram-Negative Chemolithotrophic - sudden changes in the chemical
Bacteria constituent of bacteria due to error in
replication by the
a. Nitrobacter
DNA strand
b. Nitosomonas
13. Methane-Producing
14. Gram-Positive Cocci CHAPTER 2
a. Staphylococcus  CELL
b. Streptococcus - PROKARYOTIC [undefined nucleus;
primitive; structures vary; have several
c. Sarcina
functions]
15. Endospore Forming Rods and Cocci - EUKARYOTIC [organelles (little organs) in
a. Bacillus 🡪 Clostridium – plants and animals]
Sporosarcina [rod shaped
bacteria]  Distribution
- - widespread in the bodies of living organisms
[skin/alimentary tract]
produce spore
- food, water, air, soil
16. Gram-Positive - adopted to every conceivable habitat [several
a. Lactobacilli thousand species]
17. Actinomycetes and related - about 100 species are pathogenic to man
organisms - 1:30,000 ratio of disease-producer to
a. Coryneloacterium non-pathogenic bacteria
b. Actinomyces ḯ PATHOGENICY
- those that produce disease in man and
c. Breribacterium
lower animals
d. Mycobacterium - those that attack lower animals alone
e. Sterptomyces - those that attack only plants
18. Ricketisias - those that attack lower animals and
– ricketisms transferable to man
19. Microplasmas
– mycoplasmas
 Structural Components 
1. CELL WALL
☯ ADAPTATION – rigid; made up of peptidoglycan
[nurein/mucopeptide]

– made up of alternating amino
sugars
Gram + bacteria = peptidoglycan
layer in 3 dimensions
Gram – bacteria = peptidoglycan
layer forming 2 dimensional monolayer
Gram + cell walls = large
amounts of teichoic acids
Gram – cell walls = no teichoic
acids
2. PLASMA MEMBRANE
– made up of phospholipids and
proteins
– site of important enzyme systems
– assume function of mitochondria
aided by respiratory enzymes
– regulates passage of food or
materials and metabolic
by-products
– blocks entry of toxic substances
– catalyzes transport of substances
3. CAPSULE
– made up of complex
polysaccharides
a. slime layer – when the
mucilaginous envelope is indistinct
b. capsule – well-developed
mucilaginous envelope [protein/mucin]
– streptococcus pneumonia
clostridium petringens
– increases the virulence of
organisms
– gives the organisms its specific
immunologic nature
– Gram (+) positive 🡪 capsule
formers
4. METACHROMATIC GRANULES
– enzymatically active
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– reserves of inorganic phosphates
stored as polymerized
metaphosphate (volutin)
– may be arranged or located
irregularly in the bacterial cells
🡺 MYCOBACTERIUM
TUBERCULOSIS
5. NUCLEUS
– contains the genetic codes that is
pass from generation to the next
– governing force for the bacterial
cell in all its vital activist
6. MOTILITY [FLAGELLA]
– true motility
– seldom observed in cocci
– Bacilli spirilla – generally motile
– presence of hair like appendages
Types of Motility
- monotrichou – 1 flag
- peritrichous – several
● Salmonella typhi
- lophotrichous – few to many flag
● arranged in a tuft like
shape
● Proteus vulgaris
7. PILI [HAIRS]
– hair-like structures; surface
projection found in gram (-)
negative bacteria
– called fimbriae – made of a
polymerized protein molecules
called pili cell
in conjugation
8. ENDOSPORES
– protective mechanisms
– resistant to adverse condition

– common in bacilli except in gram
(+) positive cocci sporosarcina
– 150 species of spore formers
belonging to bacilli and
clostridium
– cause tetanus [clostridium tetani],
gas gangrene [perfringins],
botulism [botulinum] and anthrax
[bacillus anthracis]
– spore formation is affected by
temperature
Phases in Spore formers
a. vegetative phase – phase
where endospores are not
forming
b. sporulating phase – phase
where spores are forming
– spores are resistant to heat
chemicals and drying
 Bacterial Reproduction
- asexual process – simple transverse division
(binary fission)
- example: staphyloco -
staphylococ
 Steps
- replication of nuclear chromosome
- active membrane synthesis at the periphery
- transverse membrane moves into the
bacterium
- constriction of membrane along its
short axis
- formation of 2 daughter cells formed by
deepening constrictions
- separated cell elongates to full size and in
turn 2 dividers
- 20 – 30 minutes regeneration period
variation in microbes
- deviation from the parent form
in bacteria of the same species
- caused by external or internal
influences (inherent)
- type of culture medium
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- length of time grown artificially
-exposure to chemicals, radiation (x-rays)
- affects cell biologic properties colonial
characteristic and physiologic
- may be temporary or permanent
 Pathogenic 
Clostridium tetani - tetanus
Clostridium botulinum - food poisoning
Clostridium pertriogins - gas gangrene
 Biologic Attributes of Bacteria 
1. Sufficient food of the proper kind
2. Moisture – provider of body fluids
3. Temperature suitable for the species
4. Proper degree of alkalinity or acidity
- Best pH for bacteria – slightly alkaline
[8.0 or 8.5]
5. Oxygen requirements
6. Light availability
7. Control of by-products of bacterial
growth
✔ Nutritional
Requirements:
● Proteins – 50% of bacterial cell
● Fats
● Carbohydrates – determine
important traits of organism
● Nitrogen – 10%
● Carbon
● Growth Factors
● Mineral Salts [Calcium, P, Fe, Mg,
K, Na]
● Source of Energy
 Kinds of Organisms according to
where nourishment is obtained 
● Saprophytes – from non-living
organic matter
● Parasites – depend on living
matter for sustenance
● Facultative Saprophytes – usually
obtains nourishment from living
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matter but may obtain it from  Cold Retards or stops

dead organic matter bacterial growth thus employed in the process
● Facultative Parasites – usually of refrigeration
obtain nourishment from dead in order to prolong the
organic matter but may obtain it spoilage of food.
from living matter
● Heterotrophs / Organotrophs –  pH / Hydrogen Ion Concentration:
obtain their nourishment by - bacteria prefer a slightly alkaline
breaking down organic matter medium for growth
into simpler chemical substances
● Autotrophs / Lithotrophs – obtain ✔ Oxygen
nutrients by building the organic requirements
compounds in the protoplasm :
from simpler inorganic ● Aerobes – grow in the
substances presence of free atmospheric oxygen
● Anaerobes – obtain there
 Moisture: oxygen from oxygen-containing
- 75-80% of bacterial cell is water compounds
- needed to dissolve food materials in the ● Obligate aerobes – cannot
environment for them to be absorbed develop in the absence of free
oxygen
- DRYING – detrimental to bacterial growth ● Obligate anaerobes – cannot
develop in the absence or free
 Temperature: oxygen : intermediate
❖ Optimum – best temp for growth ● Facultative organisms –
❖ Minimum – lowest temp at which the adaptable either to the presence or
species will grow absence of atmospheric
❖ Maximum – highest temp; at which oxygen
growth is still more possible. ● Microaerophiles – organisms
that can grow even in lowered oxygen
- 20° C – lowest temp. of which they can content in the air :
multiply normal content
- 42 – 45° C – highest temp. where bacteria – 16% lower
can multiply [mesophiles] ● Caprophiles – need 3-10%
increase in oxygen content in the air
Thermophiles [heat-loving species] to initiate development
– grow at temp. above 45° C or even
higher
Psychrophiles / Cryophiles [cold-loving
species]
– grow at temp. just above the freezing
point [20° C or less] ✔ Light
requirements
:
Red/Yellow – little bactericidal effect
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Green – less killing action - Synergistic relationship

Violet between staphylococci and Influenza
Ultraviolet bacilli
Highly destructive to bacteria - Legumes and Nitrogen –
Blue fixing bacteria
- Nitrosumonas
 Some saprophytic species use - Nitrobacter
light autotrophic activity 2. Antagonism – presence of organisms
that inhibits other major metabolic
 BY-PRODUCTS OF BACTERIAL activities or it
GROWTH: produces toxic materials
- Bacterial metabolism – deplete food that will kill organism
supply & release products that
inhibit further
bacterial growth  Major Metabolic Activities 
Ex.: production of organic acids ° Enzymes - 2,000 to 3,000 enzymes
as in the pickling industry - under the control of the DNA
apparatus / controls activity of the cell
 ELECTRICITY & RADIANT ENERGY: ° Chemosynthesis – processing of energy is
Electricity – heat produced through chemical alteration of some
Electric light – inhibits bacterial growth Substances

UV light 🡪 roentgen rays – harmful to bacteria

 Chemicals: 1. Bacterial Digestion

- destroy - Hydrolases
- inhibits growth - Hydrolysis – addition to H20
- attract/repel -positive or negative 2. Absorption
chemo taxis - diffusion
- active transport – physiologic
 Osmotic Pressure: pumps
- most bacteria persist small changes in 3. Oxidation
osmotic pressure - preparing molecules for a
- killed / inhibited by high concentration of salt possible bonding
and sugar
- employed in food preservation *oxidases / dehydrogenases / coenzymes
- Osmophiles – prefer high salt content cytochrome system
classified as Halophiles (salt lovers) *transfer to electrons
- can tolerate high concentration
of salt Classes of Biologic Oxidation:
Aerobic – ultimate H2 acceptor is molecular
oxygen
 Bacterial Interrelations  Anaerobic – H2 acceptor is inorganic nitrate,
1. Symbiosis – bacteria growing well sulfate O2 carbonate
together; both parties are benefited
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Fermentation – H2 acceptor is an organic C. Coagulase – accelerate coagulation of

compound blood
- uses organic compounds as - exemplified by
both donor & electron acceptors staphylococci
- Coagulase Test – used to
Medically Related Activities: differentiate pathogenic from
A. Toxin Production – toxigenicity – toxicity non-pathogenic bacteria
– potency of toxins D. Bacterial Kinases – act on certain
components of blood to liquefy fibrin
Characteristics of exotoxins Ex: streptokinase / fibronolysin
- protein in nature E. Hyaluronidase – make tissues more
- antigenic produce antitoxin permeable to the bacteria elaborating it
- specific cause 1 disease / nothing else - produced by pneumococci
✪ Anatoxins / Toxoids – modified toxins and streptococci
that can still procedure immunity to the disease F. Bacteriocins – bacterial protein
✪ Endotoxins - complex G. Colicins – produced by the family
lipopolysaccharides enterobacteriaceae
- do not promote antitoxin - act on the bacterial
formation membrane
- non-specific  Other effects:
- can’t be converted into 1. Pigment production – important in
toxoids identification of organisms not
Ex: Salmonella typhi : related to disease
Neisseria meningitides production
🗹 Stapco aureus (gold)
 Harmful metabolic products  🗹 Pseudonas aeruginosa
1. Hemolysing – cause lysis / (blue-green)
break up / destruction of RBC 🗹 Halobacterium halobium (red)
🗹 Serratia marcescens (red)
 Types  2. Heat production – example: heating
a. Filterable of damp hay
b. Those that are demonstrated 3. Light production – biolumineneace :
about the bacterial colones on bacteria that live in water (salt) :
a culture medium containing light producers on
RBC. non-pathogenic
4. Odors – due to decomposition of
* Hemolysis are named after the material where bacteria is growing
bacteria that give rise to them
Ex: staphylolysin: steptolysin
CHAPTER 3
B. Leukocidins – destroy ☸ Role in Disease
polynorphonuclear neutrophilic ● INFECTION – microbes enter the
leukocytes human body or any plant or animal
- formed by pneumococci, multiply in the host and
streptococci and prophylococci produces a reaction
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● CONTAMINATION – mere presence of

infectious material or constitutes normal
flora of the  Portals of Entry 
body
● Infectious Diseases
1. Skin
♋ staphylococci or fungi
may be
COMMUNICABLE ♋
2. Respiratory Apparatus
pulmonary tuberculosis or
or
NONCOMMUNICA
BLE
♋ pneumonia or influenza
viruses of measles or smallpox
and German measles
[based on the
manner in which the causative agent ♋
3. Alimentary tract
dysentery bacilli or cholera
reaches the body]

● COMMUNICABLE – causative agent

directly or indirectly transmitted from
host to host
- example:
diphtheria, tuberculosis, A(H1N1)
● NONCOMMUNICABLE – agent
normally inhibits the body; produces the
disease only when
introduced
into the body
- example:
tetanus – not communicable but
infectious
● CONTAGIOUS – applied to diseases
that are easily spread from person to
person
✔ INFECTIOUS DISEASES MAY BE:
🡺 EXOGENOUS – causative agent
comes from outside and enters
the body thru one of the
portable of entry
🡺 ENDOGENOUS – caused by
organisms normally present in
the body
- occurs when
defensive power of host are weakened or
increased
♋ vibrios or amoebas of dysentery
most often contacted thru food
and drinks
♋
4. Genitourinary system
STD’s [gonorrhea or syphilis]
♋
5. Placenta
spirochete of syphilis or virus of
smallpox
 Factors Influencing Occupance of Infection

♋
1. portal of entry
organisms may fail to produce a
disease when introduced into the
body by some other route or
pathway
⌧ typhoid bacilli – to be
swallowed to cause
infection
- produces
inflammation only when
rubbed on the skin
⌧ streptococci
♋
2. virulence of the organisms
ability of the microbes to produce
the disease by overcoming the
♋ defensive powers of the host
microbes are most violent when
freshly discharged from an ailing
person

the organisms
virulence of
♋
3. number of microbes
crucial to infection
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4. defensive powers of the host 2. URINE – pyelonephritis, TB of

genitourinary tract and undulant fever
 How Microbes causes Disease  3. DISCHARGES FROM MOUTH, NOSE
° mechanical means - occlusion of vital AND RESPIRATORY PASSAGES –
organs or areas tuberculin, whooping cough, epidemic
° production of biochemical effects like meningitis [pneumonia], viruses of
toxin production measles [scarlet fever], small pox,
mumps, polio, influenza and epidemic
ELECTIVE LOCALIZATION encephalitis
- favored part of the body for infections 4. SALIVA – viruses of rabies
 dysentery bacilli – large bowel 5. BLOOD – protozoa of malaria, bacteria
 pneumococci – lungs of tularemia, ricketisias of typhoid fever,
 maningo cocci – leptomeninges virus of yellow
[brain] fever
 tissue affinity - toxins of tetanus – act
on central nervous system  Patterns of Infection 
- toxins of diphtheria – 1. INCUBATION PERIOD – infection is
affect heart and central nervous system received to the appearance of disease
- affected by the
LOCAL EFFECTS following factors:
- inflammation 🡪 body’s answer to a. nature of
injury; designed to halt the invasion and the agent
destroy the b. virulence
invaders of host
- pain, water restoration, reddening c. resistance
of host
GENERAL EFFECTS d.
- fever – tachycardia 🡪 increased pulse Resistance from the site of entrance to the
rate focus of action
- increased metabolic rate e. number of
infectious agents invading the body
Signs of Toxicity 2. PRODROMAL PERIOD – short interval
- ANEMIA – results from prolonged and severe that follows the period of incubation
infections - with
- INFECTIONS – LEUKOCYTOSIS – increased headache and malaise
white blood cells 3. INVASION PERIOD – disease reaching
- LEUKOPHENIA – decreased its full development and maximum
white blood cells intensity regions
and chills and
 Portals of Exit  fever
1. FECES – salmonella, vibrio cholera, - skin is pale and
amoeba, shigella, viruses of dry
poliomyelitis and type A - decreased heat
hepatitis loss

4. FASTIGIUM or ACME – disease at its
height or peak
5. DEFERVESCENCE OR DECLINE –
phase where manifestations of disease
subside
- formers in blood spreads to different
profuse sweating
- focus on a new form of
heat loss in exceeding heat production
6. SELF-LIMITING INFECTIONS
 Types of Infection 
A. LOCALIZED – microbes remain
confined to a particular part of the body
- example: boils,
abscesses
B. GENERALIZED – microorganisms and
their products are spread generally over
the body by the
blood or lymphatic’s
C. MIXED – caused by 2 or more
organisms [primary infection +
secondary infection]
D. FOCAL – confined to a restricted area
from which infectious material spreads
to other parts of
the body [infections of teeth,
sinuses, prostate glands]
E. INAPPARENT / SUBCLINICAL –
doesn’t cause any detectable
manifestations
F. LATENT – infection held in check by the
defensive forces of the body but
activated when body’s
resistance is reduced
G. INOCULATION INFECTION – infection
caused by accidental or surgical
penetration of the skin
or
mucous membranes
H. BACTERMIA – bacteria enters the blood
but do not multiply
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I. SEPTICEMIA – bacteria enters the
blood and multiply causing infection of
the blood [blood
poisoning]
J. PYEMIA – pyrogenic bacteria pus
parts of the body and
disease
K. TOXEMIA – toxins liberated by bacteria
enters the blood stream to cause
disease
- example: diphtheria
L. SAPREMIA – saprophytic bacteria may
grow in dead tissues and produce
poison which might
be absorbed by the body
⮚ Terminal – chronic wasting diseases
⮚ Sporadic – occurring occasionally in a
community
⮚ Endemic – constantly present in a
community
⮚ Epidemic – disease attacking a large
number of people in the community in a
short time
 SPREAD OF INFECTION 
▪ DIRECT CONTACT
- droplet infection, placental
transmission, bodily contacts
[STD’s, blood transfusions from person
to person in close association]
▪ INDIRECT CONTACT
- spread indirectly using conveyers like
milk, food, water, air, contaminated hands,
inanimate objects [formites], filth, insects
[mechanically or biologically (insect bites)]