Propositional Logic

Course: Introduction to Mathematics

by Radhiatul Husna, Andalas University
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 Chapter 2. Propositional Logic

What is propositional logic?

Symbolization Keys

Atomic Assertions

Connectives

Connectives: 1.Negation

Connectives: 2.Conjunction

Connectives: 3.Disjunction

Connectives: 4.Implication

Connectives: 5.Bi-implication

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 What is propositional logic?

Propositional logic is a logical language used to
describe the logical relationship between two (or
more) assertions.

To translate English into propositional logic, we
need a symbolization key specifying what
assertion is represented by each letter.

Symbolization keys use capital letters.

A capital letter represents any assertion.

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 Symbolization Keys

Example 1: Deduction 1
* Hypotheses:
1. There is a book on the table.
2. If there is a book on the table, then Ann
reads the book.
* Conclusion: Ann reads the book.

Deduction 1 is a valid deduction in English.

Using symbolization key must preserve the
structure of the deduction making it valid.

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 Symbolization Keys

Suppose we use symbolization keys for Deduction 1 as follows:
* Hypotheses:
1. A: There is a book on the table.
2. B: If there is a book on the table, then Ann reads the book.
* Conclusion: C: Ann reads the book.

So we can write Deduction 1:
* Hypotheses:
A
B
* Conclusion: C

Question: Is Deduction 1 still valid?

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 Symbolization Keys

Deduction 1: A, B, ∴ C.

Note that the structure of the deduction has been completely lost in
this translation.

If we translate Deduction 1 as follows:
* Hypotheses:
A
If A then C
* Conclusion: C

Question: Is Deduction 1 still valid?

Note that we still use the English expression:”If...then...”

Next, replace all of the English expressions with mathematical
notation.

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 Atomic Assertions

Atomic assertions: assertions symbolized by a single
letter.

We can also use the same English letter to symbolize
different atomic assertions by adding a subscript.

Example 2:
 : The book is under the table.
 : Deduction always contain atomic assertions.

Note that the assertion can be used to build more
complex assertions, but it can’t be taken apart.

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 Connectives

Logical connectives: used to build complex assertions
from atomic components.

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 Connectives:1.Negation

Negation: not

Negation of A written as A: It is not the case that A.

Example 3: Consider these assertions
1. Mary is in Padang.
2. Mary is not in Padang.
3. Mary is somewhere other than Padang.

Let the symbolization key for Assertion 1 is A.

Assertion 2 related to Assertion 1 means “It is not true
that A” (not A).

So Assertion 2: A.

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 Connectives:1.Negation

Assertion 2: Mary is not in Padang.

Assertion 3: Mary is somewhere other than
Padang.

Assertion 3 is about whether or not Mary is in
Padang although it doesn’t contain the word
‘not’.

Assertion 3 is logically equivalent to Assertion 2.

Hence Assertion 3: A.

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 Connectives:1.Negation

Example 4: Consider these assertions
1. The widget can be replaced if it breaks.
2. The widget is irreplaceable.
3. The widget is not irreplaceable.

Let B: The widget is replaceable.

So Assertion 1: B

Then Assertion 2: B.

Assertion 3: It is not the case that B.

Hence Assertion 3:   B (a double negation) which is
logically equivalent to B.

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 Connectives:1.Negation

Example 5: Consider these assertions
1. Budi is short.
2. Budi is tall.

Let C: Budi is short.

So Assertion 1: C

How about Assertion 2: C ?

If Budi is tall, then he is not short.

However, Assertion 2 doesn’t mean that “It is not the case that Budi
is short” since it could be that he is not tall but he is not short either:
perhaps he is somewhere between the two (average height).

So we need a new letter to symbolize Assertion 2 such as D.

Assertion 2: D.

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 Connectives:1.Negation

For any assertion A, let T for True and F for False.

A truth table for negation:

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 Connectives:2.Conjunction

Conjunction: and (&).

A & B: can be read as one of the following
* Both A and B
* A, but B
* Although A, B.

Example 6: Consider these assertions
1. Adam is athletic.
2. Barbara is athletic.
3. Adam is athletic, and Barbara is also athletic.
4. Barbara is athletic and energetic.
5. Barbara and Adam are both athletic.
6. Although Barbara is energetic, she is not athletic.
7. Barbara is athletic, but Adam is more athletic than she is.

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 Connectives:2.Conjunction

Let A: Adam is athletic and B: Barbara is athletic.

So Assertion 1: A and Assertion 2: B.

Assertion 3: A and B written as A & B.

A and B are each called conjuncts.

Let E: Barbara is energetic.

So Assertion 4: B & E.

Then, Assertion 5: B & A.

Note that we don’t need to represent ‘also’ and ‘both’
in propositional logic.

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 Connectives:2.Conjunction

Assertion 6 can be paraphrased:
* Both Barbara is energetic and Barbara is not athletic.
* Both Barbara is energetic and it is not the case that
Barbara is athletic.

Hence, Assertion 6: E &  B.

Assertion 7 can be paraphrased:
* Both Barbara is athletic and Adam is more athletic than
Barbara.

Let M: Adam is more athletic than Barbara.

So Assertion 7: B & M.

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 Connectives:2.Conjunction

For any assertion A and B,
A and B is true if and only if both A and B are
true.

A truth table for conjunction:

Note that A & B is logically equivalent to B & A

(A & B is commutative).

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

Disjunction: Or ( V ).

A V B: Either A or B.

A and B are called disjuncts.

Example 7: Consider these assertions
1. Either Deni will play golf with me or he will watch
movies.
2. Either Deni or Eri will play golf with me.

The symbolization key:
D: Deni will play golf with me.
E: Eri will play golf with me.
F: Deni will watch movies

Hence, Assertion 1: D V F

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

Assertion 2 can be paraphrased:
Either Deni will play golf with me or Eri will play golf
with me.

So, Assertion 2: D V E.

An exclusive or: excludes the possibility that both
disjuncts are true.

Example 8:
Ann will pass or fail the exam.

An inclusive or: allow the possibility that both disjuncts
are true.

‘Or’ always means inclusive or.

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

For any assertion A and B,
The disjunction A V B is false if both disjuncts are
false and is true otherwise.

A truth table for disjunction:

Note that A V B is logically equivalent to B V A

(A V B is commutative).

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

Example 9: Consider these assertions
1. Either you will not have soup or you will not have salad.
2. You will have neither soup nor salad.
3. You get either soup or salad, but not both.

The symbolization key:
 : You get soup.
 : You get salad.

Assertion 1 can be paraphrased:
Either it is not the case that you get soup or it is not the case
that you get salad.

Hence, Assertion 1:   V   .

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

Assertion 2: You will have neither soup nor
salad.

Assertion 2 can be paraphrased:
It is not the case that either you get soup
or salad.

So Assertion 2:   V  .

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 Connectives:3.Disjunction

Assertion 3: You get either soup or salad, but not
both.

Assertion 3: an exclusive or.

Then let’s break the assertion into two parts:
1) You get soup or salad:  V  .
2) You don’t get both:   &  .

‘but’: translated as ‘and’.

So Assertion 3:  V  &   &  .

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 Connectives:4.Implication

Implication ( a conditional): Implies ( ⟹ ).

A ⟹ B : read as one of the following
* If A, then B.
* A implies B.
* A only if B.

A is called the antecedent (hypothesis) and B is called the
consequent (conclusion).

Example 10: Consider these assertions
1. If you cut the red wire, then the bomb will explode.
2. The bomb will explode if you cut the red wire.
3. The bomb will explode only if you cut the red wire.

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 Connectives:4.Implication

The symbolization key:
R: You will cut the red wire.
B: The bomb will explode.

Hence, Assertion 1: R ⟹ B.

We can rephrase Assertion 1 as R implies B.

Assertion 2 can be paraphrased:
If you cut the red wire, then the bomb will explode.

So Assertion 2: R ⟹ B which is logically equivalent to Assertion 1.

Notice that In Assertion 1, it doesn’t say that your cutting the red
wire is the only way that the bomb could explode. Someone else
might cut the red wire or the bomb might be on a timer .

So R ⟹ B doesn’t say anything about what to expect if R is false.

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 Connectives:4.Implication

Assertion 3: The bomb will explode only if you
cut the red wire.

Assertion 3 means that the only conditions under
which the bomb will explode involve your
having cut the red wire; i.e., If the bomb
explodes, then you must have cut the red wire.

Hence, Assertion 3: B ⟹ R.

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 Connectives:4.Implication

For any assertion A and B,
The implication A ⟹ B is true unless A is true and B is
false.

A truth table for implication:

Note that A ⟹ B is not logically equivalent to B ⟹ A

(A ⟹ B is not commutative).

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 Connectives:4.Implication

The following assertions are logically equivalent:
1) If you cut the red wire, then the bomb will explode.
2) You cutting the red wire implies that the bomb will
explode.
3) Whenever you cut the red wire, the bomb will
explode.
4) The bomb will explode whenever you cut the red
wire.
5) The bomb exploding is a necessary consequence of
you cutting the red wire.

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 Connectives:4.Implication

The following assertions are logically equivalent:
6) You cutting the red wire is sufficient to ensure that
the bomb will explode.
7) You cutting the red wire guarantees that the bomb
will explode.
8) You cutting the red wire is a stronger condition than
the bomb exploding.
9) The bomb exploding is a weaker condition than you
cutting the red wire.

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 Connectives:4.Implication

The following assertions are logically equivalent:
10)You cut the red wire only if the bomb will
explode.
11) If the bomb doesn’t explode, you must not
have cut the red wire.
12)Either you will not cut the red wire or the
bomb will explode.

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 Connectives:5.Bi-implication

Biimplication (a biconditional): Iff (⟺ ).

A ⟺ B: A if and only if B.

Example 11: Consider these assertions
1. The figure on the board is a triangle only if it
has exactly three sides.
2. The figure on the board is a triangle if it has
exactly three sides.
3. The figure on the board is a triangle if and
only if it has exactly three sides.

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 Connectives:5.Bi-implication

The symbolization key:
T: The figure is a triangle.
S: The figure has exactly three sides.

Assertion 1: T ⟹ S.

Assertion 2 can be paraphrased:
If the figure has exactly three sides, then it is a triangle.

Hence, Assertion 2: S ⟹ T.

Assertion 3: T ⟺ S.

Assertion 3 says two things: that “T is true if S is true” and that
“T is true only if S is true”.

Note that S ⟺ T is equivalent to (S ⟹ T) &(T ⟹ S).

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 Connectives:5.Bi-implication

For any assertion A and B,
The bi-implication A ⟺ B is true if and only if A and B
have the same truth value.

A truth table for bi-implication:

Note that A ⟺ B is logically equivalent to B ⟺ A

(A ⟺ B is commutative).

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