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Defini&on:
"a
finite
group
of
metal
atoms
that
are
held
together
mainly,
or
at
least
to
a
significant
extent,
by
bonds
directly
between
metal
atoms,
even
though
some
non-‐metal
atoms
may
also
be
in&mately
associated
with
the
cluster"
–
F.A.
Co)on
1
Two
extreme
types
of
metal
clusters:
•
Molecular
clusters
are
composed
of
3
or
more
metal
atoms
stabilized
by
small
molecules
acAng
as
ligands,
and
characterized
by
metal-‐metal
bonds,
either
localized
or
delocalized
over
the
metal
framework.
2
•"Naked
clusters"
-‐
have
no
ligands,
electronically
unsaturated,
naked
metal
parAcles
formed
in
atomic
beams;
are
extremely
reacAve
unless
stabilized
by
a
support
or
an
inert
matrix,
e.g.
[Pb5]2-‐.
In
this
part
of
the
course,
we
focus
on
transiAon
metal
clusters
with
2
or
more
M-‐M
bonds,
and,
parAcularly,
late
TM
clusters
with
CO
ligands.
3
Importance:
(a)
EvoluAon
of
properAes
as
cluster
size
increases
(e.g.
structure,
magneAc
behaviour,
ionizaAon
potenAal):
Transi&on
from
molecular
→
bulk
metal
domain.
•
metal-‐ligand
charge
transfer
interacAons
are
limited
to
the
metal
atoms
which
are
at
the
surface
of
the
metal
cluster;
inner-‐core
metal
atoms
behave
as
a
metal
parAcle.
•
properAes
of
a
solid
gradually
evolve
as
atoms
are
brought
together
to
form
increasingly
larger
units.
4
(b)
InterpretaAon
of
data
obtained
from
metal
surfaces
which
are
acAve
heterogeneous
catalysis
sites
(cluster-‐surface
analogy).
•
models
for
chemi-‐
and
physi-‐sorpAon
of
small
molecules
onto
metallic
surfaces
-‐
e.g.
fluxionality
of
the
coordinated
fragments,
mechanism
of
hydrogen
diffusion
inside
a
metallic
network,
the
distorAons
in
metal
close-‐packing
induced
by
intersAAal
heteroatoms,
etc.
5
6
•
chemical
reac&vity
of
coordinated
ligands
in
molecular
metal
clusters
has
been
used
for
studying
the
reacAon
mechanisms
at
the
metal
centres,
and
for
mimicking
elementary
processes
relevant
to
homogeneous
and
heterogeneous
catalysts.
7
c)
FascinaAng
structures
(!).
•
first
reports
of
organometallic
transiAon
metal
clusters:
Fe2(CO)9
(1905),
Fe3(CO)12
(1907)
and
Co2(CO)8
(1910)
•
computer
analysis
of
X-‐ray
crystallographic
data
→
novel
structural
features
8
•
variety
of
metal
frame
shapes,
bonding
modes
for
any
given
ligand
and
stereochemistry
observed
was
only
possible
in
the
presence
of
several
metal
atoms
•
solid
state
chemists
and
physicists
also
became
interested
–
clusters
as
par&culate
metals
enclosed
in
a
ligand
sphere.
9
•
1000s
of
examples
of
ligated
metal
clusters
have
been
reported.
Most
common
clusters
are
formed
by:
-‐ early
transiAon
metals
stabilized
by
halide
or
oxygen
atoms
(aggregates)
11
•
historically,
first
unsupported
M–M
bonds
were
found
in
the
analogous
complexes
Re2(CO)10
and
Mn2(CO)10
(1957).
Confirmed
the
existence
of
unsupported
M-‐M
bonds.
12
•
also
very
early
on,
the
structure
of
the
pentacoordinate
Fe5(μ5-‐C)(CO)15
(1962)
and
[Re2Cl8]2-‐
.
14
Electron
dona&ng
characteris&cs
of
common
π-‐donor
bridging
ligands
15
Examples:
[Nb6Cl12]2+,
[Ta6Cl12]2+
octahedral
M6,
edge-‐bridging
Cl
(1)
[Mo6Cl8]4+,
[W6Cl8]4+
octahedral
M6,
face-‐capping
Cl
(2)
[Re3Cl12]3-‐
triangular
Re3,
3
x
μ-‐Cl,
9
x
terminal
Cl
(3)
16
17
•
COs
frequency
as
a
ligand
for
stabilizing
low
oxidaAon
state
clusters
arises
because
of
its
flexibility
-‐
coordinaAon
as
terminal,
μ-‐
and
μ3-‐
are
all
common
and,
because
they
are
all
2e
donors
(unlike
Cl),
intramolecular
exchange
processes
frequently
have
very
low
acAvaAon
energies.
•
H-‐
is
not
a
π-‐acceptor
ligand,
but
there
are
many
carbonyl
clusters
that
also
have
H-‐
as
a
ligand,
so
these
clusters
are
usually
considered
together.
18
Ligand
bonding
modes
•
see
more
extensive
discussion
on
bonding
modes
of
CO,
hydrido
and
acetylenic
ligands
(later
in
course).
•
Cl
ligand
is
a
1
e
donor
when
terminal,
or
uses
a
lone
pair
to
become
a
3e
donor
when
edge-‐bridging,
or
a
5e
donor
using
an
addiAonal
lone
pair
when
face
bridging.
19
Bonding
modes
and
electron
count
for
some
common
ligands
20
(2)
CLUSTER
GEOMETRY
–
•
high
symmetry
-‐
usually
define
regular
polyhedra
as
triangle,
tetrahedra,
octahedra,
etc
•
metal
posiAons
usually
define
deltahedra,
i.e.
Triangular
faces;
other
arrangements,
e.g.
square-‐planar,
trigonal
prismaAc,
square
anAprisms
occur
to
lesser
extent
21
•
many
represent
fragments
of
close-‐packed
arrays
of
metal
atoms,
hcp
ccp
or
bcc
22
•
form
inters&&al
complexes
containing
hydrogen,
carbon,
nitrogen,
sulfur,
phosphorus,
and
arsenic,
as
well
as
other
metal
atoms
in
the
case
of
high-‐nuclearity
clusters,
in
the
intersAces
23
3
metal
atom
clusters
•
great
majority
are
triangular.
Structural
differences
require
only
small
changes
in
total
energies
of
molecules
e.g.
Fe3(μ-‐CO)2(CO)10
and
Ru3(CO)12.
25
•
bu)erflies
can
be
regarded
as
resulAng
from
a
bond
opening
on
the
tetrahedron
e.g.
CpWIr3(CO)8(F3CC≡CCF3)2
26
•
interplanar
angle
in
bu)erflies
can
be
near
180°,
as
in
[Re4(CO)16]
2-‐
•
Fe4(μ4-‐C)(μ-‐CO)(CO)12
contains
a
carbide
atom
in
the
middle
of
the
cluster,
approximately
colinear
with
the
wing-‐Ap
atoms,
providing
an
excellent
model
for
a
carbon
atom
on
a
metal
surface.
27
•
square-‐planar
geometries
-‐
for
carbonyl
clusters,
onen
contain
a
capping
ligand
e.g.
Fe4(μ4-‐NEt)(μ3-‐η2-‐ONEt)(μ-‐CO)3(CO)8
28
•
bond
rupture
in
a
bu)erfly
arrangement
leads
to
a
spiked
triangle
geometry,
as
in
Re4(μ-‐H)3H(CO)15
29
30
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32
33
34
35
36
37
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40
41
42
43
Examples
of
prepara&ons
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Ouch!
53
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.
.
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n+1
n+1
n+1
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Os6(CO)18
84
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EAN
PSPET
98
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