Algorithmic Solving PDF

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Invariants 5
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3 Crossing a River 21

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3 " $
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3

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& $

4 Games 41
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5 Knights and Knaves 63

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6 Induction 85
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7 The Towers of Hanoi 107

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8 The Torch Problem 117

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9 Knight’s Circuit 133

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Solutions to Exercises 149
Bibliography 170

Chapter 1
Introduction
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1.1 Algorithms

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Chapter 2
Invariants
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2.1.1 The Solution

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2.1.2 The Mathematical Solution

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Assignments " '

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p , c := p+1 , c+1 .

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p , c := p+1 , c+1
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A word of warning

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Æ(() !

$ becomes %
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p−c = (p+1) − (c+1) ,
4 . p c " p−c .

p , c := p+1 , c+1 " . . 5& ' E
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4 4 m n 4

m , n := m+3 , n−1
- m + 3×n &
m + 3×n = (m+3) + 3×(n−1) .

4 m & 3
&
n & 1 . m + 3×n
, ' E
ls := rs
E[ls := rs]
' & .
E ls & ' . ' rs =

'
J
(p−c)[p , c := p+1 , c+1] = (p+1) − (c+1)
(m + 3×n)[m , n := m+3 , n−1] = (m+3) + 3×(n−1)
(m+n+p)[m , n , p := 3×n , m+3 , n−1] = (3×n) + (m+3) + (n−1)
" .

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E .
ls := rs . . . E
E[ls := rs] = E .

Induction " A .

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4
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p = s 4 s
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Exercise 2.1

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2.2 Empty Boxes

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2.3 The Tumbler Problem

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true false 8 true . u G< 4 . H false .
u G A H 6 4 even.u . 5&
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(even.u)[u := u+2] = even.(u+2) = even.u .
" even.u .

u := u+2
(even.u)[u := u−2] = even.(u−2) = even.u .
" even.u .

u := u−2
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l , b , w := l+1 , b+1 , w+3 .
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b − 3×d − l ,

(b − 3×d − l)[d , b , w := d+1 , b+3 , w+1]

= { A . }
(b+3) − 3×(d+1) − l
= {
}
b − 3×d − l

(b − 3×d − l)[l , b , w := l+1 , b+1 , w+3]

= { A . }
(b+1) − 3×d − (l+1)
= {
}
b − 3×d − l .

& .

w − 3×l − d .
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⇒ { .

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b=w
⇒ { b − 3×d − l = 0
w − 3×l − d = 0 }
(b = w) ∧ (3×d + l = 3×l + d)

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$
⇒ {
}
(b = w) ∧ (l = d)
⇒ { b − 3×d − l = 0
w − 3×l − d = 0 }
b = w = 4×d = 4×l
⇒ {
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b+w = 8×d
⇒ { b+w
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2.5 Additional Exercises

Exercise 2.2 , . . D "
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Chapter 3
Crossing a River
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4 . & 4.

3.1 Problems
Goat, Cabbage and Wolf
.
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G 4 4 H 4. .
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=4 .
2
The Jealous Couples

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Adults and Children

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3 . " & 4
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46 49 52
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3.2 Brute Force

3.2.1 Goat, Cabbage and Wolf
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3.3.1 What’s The Problem?

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3.3.3 Denoting States and Transitions

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.

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& &

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1C,1W || 1C,1H G 4. 4
.

4 . H
3H |3W| & &
4
8

5
4 3C || 4 || 3C 4

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& . / /

F 4 H '
. 8. p q S 5 .
{ p }
S
{ q }
& . 5 . S .

p
4 q . '

{ 2C,1H || 1W }
3H |2W| 1W
{ 3H || 3W }
& 4 4
. 4 4 4 4
. 4 4
>. 4 4& & . 8 &

.4

$
3.3.4 Problem Decomposition

; 4 ' & .

"
5 . S0 .&
{ 3C || } S0 { || 3C } .
> &
' 4 .

" ./ &
&
" . & 4 .
4

" & &

S0 5 S1 S2 S3

{ 3C || } S1 { 3H || 3W } ,
{ 3H || 3W } S2 { 3W || 3H } ,
{ 3W || 3H } S3 { || 3C } .
" 5 S1 .

4 4
. " 5 S2
. S1 4 . 4
+& 5 S3 . S2 4 &
S1 .4 & S2 .4 & S3 4 4 &
S1 ; S2 ; S3 4 D . .
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. H A G& H
"

4 4 ' &
&
&
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& &
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. . S1 8. 4

. S3 . 4 .
.
. 4 S1
S3 & .

- 4
. S1 S2

4
. & G8
& . . &H
= 4

{ 3C || }
1C,2H |2W|
; { 1C,2H || 2W }
1C,2H |1W| 1W
; { 2C,1H || 1W }
3H |2W| 1W
{ 3H || 3W } .
"
{ 3C || } 1C,2H |2W| ; 1C,2H |1W| 1W ; 3H |2W| 1W { 3H || 3W } .
5 S3 . S1 J
{ 3W || 3H }
1W |2W| 3H
; { 1W || 2C,1H }
1W |1W| 1C,2H
; { 2W || 1C,2H }
|2W| 1C,2H
{ || 3C } .
- 4 . 4 . S2 -

&

? . S2 . A
. " 5
. S2 .4 S1 .4 &
S3 " . S2

4 .
5 8.

&

& .4 .
J
{ 3H || 3W }
T1
; 1C |1C| 1C
; T2
{ 3W || 3H } .

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//. I 4
& " 4

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5 . T1 T2

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.
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.
.

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4
+& T1 8 . D 4 J
{ 3H || 3W }
3H |1W| 2W
; { 1C,2H || 2W }
1C |2H| 2W
{ 1C || 2C } .
&
& . T2 4 J
{ 2C || 1C }
2W |2H| 1C
; { 2W || 1C,2H }
2W |1W| 3H
{ 3W || 3H } .
+& & 4

D/

J
{ 3C || }
1C,2H |2W| ; 1C,2H |1W| 1W ; 3H |2W| 1W
; { 3H || 3W }
3H |1W| 2W ; 1C |2H| 2W
; { 1C || 2C }
1C |1C| 1C
; { 2C || 1C }
2W |2H| 1C ; 2W |1W| 3H

(
; { 3W || 3H }
1W |2W| 3H ; 1W |1W| 1C,2H ; |2W| 1C,2H
{ || 3C } .
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4 "

&
& "

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3.3.5 A Review
4 4
D/

& .& 4

F /.
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& 4 .

. 4 &
/
5 4 A K

L

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4 5 .
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& . &

& 4 &

. &

#

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+ .
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&
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. 3
4

Exercise 3.2 (Four-couple Problem) ;.& &
& 4 .

& /
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3

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Exercise 3.3 4 .

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4 .
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=J
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2
3.4 Rule of Sequential Composition

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.
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H

A & 4
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p
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q
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p q .

pSq
.

.& & p . ' .

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4
.& & q + '

r
d .
M &
N 4
N = 0 ,

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G & 0 4H
M = N×d + r ∧ 0 ≤ r < N .
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S A .

{ N = 0 } S { M = N×d + r ∧ 0 ≤ r < N } .

.
& 5I
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S3
S1 ; S2 ; S3
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. S1 S2 S3
5

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4

p q
r &
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A
pS r1

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r . S1 . S2
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4

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3C || || 3C "

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A

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p q .
.
p |5,10| q
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{ p,5,10 || q } p |5,10| q { p || q,5,10 }

{ p || q,5,10 } S2 { || 1,2,5,10 } .
- &

Exercise 3.4 (The Torch Problem)

. . .

A
t1
t2
t3
.
t4

t1 ≤ t2 ≤ t3 ≤ t4 +
. .

B
&

&
.4 4 &
& & .4 4 J

!
(a) "
1
1
3
3

(b) "
1
4
4
5

=J 8 A G4 t1 t2 t3 t4 1 2 5
10 &H
& 4 4
=4 1 4& & & .

& . B 4

. 4
.
8

& 4 .4 G? GH
G H 4 & H
(a) =4
&

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2 G8 H =4
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2
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2 - . . 4 &
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Games
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4.1 Matchstick Games

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4 8. m
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4.2 Winning Strategies

8 4 .
4 5 . 4 & - 4

4

4
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4.2.1 Assumptions
-

.

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.
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1 2 3
4 - $ 1 4%

4

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4.2.2 Labelling Positions

" A 4

+ ( .

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
+ (J # ,

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& 4 .

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4

+
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4

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+

4 +
n 4 n 2
n−1 n−2 " .
4
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2 4

4

= 4 4
4 & 4 A
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. & . & 4 A
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4 .

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4

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+ ( J 6 - &
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I 4 &
4
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4.2.3 Formulating Requirements

"
& 4 4 & K
L
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4 ' & = 6 n

.

" . 4 & ' & .4

J
{ n
. 3 n = 0 }
if 1 ≤ n → n := n−1 2 2 ≤ n → n := n−2 fi
; { n
. 3 }
n := n − (n mod 3)
{ n
. 3 }
" A
.

" A
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4 .

4
.

. 3 /<
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& K if / fi L - /
C
& K 2 L &
C

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.
b → S 4 b / '
S

' &
4 true

' & 8. true & .

8. . true '
8 4& if / fi

&

/

& 4 . 1 ≤ n I
n := n−1 KL
&
&
4
C
&

n := n−2 C KL & 2 ≤ n .
& .
n = 0
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K n

. 3 L "
A .
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4
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n mod 3
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8
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4 n
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&
4 n
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n mod 3
4 n
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8 4 & & &

& losing & " G 4
H
.& & losing " 4

.& losing + 4 .& 4& .
4
I

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; { 4 }
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4 & 4 4&
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4 4 M 2 4 4 D
3 & 2 8. & 1
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H "
M 0 1 2 G '
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Exercise 4.1 (31st December Game) "4 & &

"
4 & 4
3
0&
% . ' F . & 4

+ 4 & 4 & 4
. 4 & &
=J &
. . *) & G ** .
&H 4
& . & 8

&

4 & & .& & 3

H G%&H &
. '
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& &
G+ '
A & &
+ &
0& H
H G=H & & &

. '

4.3 Subtraction-Set Games

.

.
GAH .

I

m
4 m
.

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&
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4 D '
.

I .
1 M
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{1..M} #
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+ & 4 4&
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4 4
J

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8 4 {1 , 3 , 4}

&
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K 0 L
4

K 1 L
4 D

4 0 4 / &/ 4 .&
4 4
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4
4 .
.

" " ( 4 4 < .

6 " 4
4 4 4
4 G-H G6H 8 4

4 4
.

.
+ '
2
&
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2 1 I 3 4 4 .

0 ?
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+ '

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3 4 4
C
3

0
1

2 8 Æ D

4 .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
"& 6 - 6 - - - -
# 1 3 4 3 4
" (J - G-H 6 G6H . {1 , 3 , 4}

) )
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
"& 6 - 6 - - - -
# 1 3 4 3 4
" ( J - G-H 6 G6H . {1 , 3 , 4}
4 ' J (

( ( 4 . 4
. > 4& 4
. -
& . . {1 , 3 , 4} 4
4
&

r & .
.
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1

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3
. r 3 5
4
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4&
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4 G . 4 4
H "
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4 &

A

6 M " .

M
+ k W.k true . k 4 false
4 - k M W.k
&
& 5
W.(k−1) W.(k−2) . . . W.(k−M) 5 s.k ?4 & 2M
F 5 . . M 5 5 s.(M+1)
s.(M+2) s.(M+3) . . .
&
4
2M
" .
j k 4 M ≤ j < k < M+2M 4
s.j = s.k 8
.4 W.j = W.k 5 W .
k 4
+ '
& -/6 4 .
20 4 8 .

,& 4
& . 4/ 4 2M+M
"
4 & 4

. k . . k
s.k 8. R . &
k W.k 5 W.(k mod R)
Exercise 4.2 .

8
2 5 6

&
G" {2 , 5 , 6} H

&
+& ) )
(a) + n 0 ≤ n < 22

4 . n
4

(b) 8.& 4 .& &
. . . n
4 . n

4
@.& & 4 4 .1
4

Exercise 4.3 + ( 4 . 8

D " 4 &

.
.4 " 5 1 A 5 25 I 4 A
A
. .
. . 4 . I . .
.
.
21 22 23 24 25
20 19 18 17 16
11 12 13 14 15
10 9 8 7 6
1 2 3 4 5
+ (J 6 &

. .4

) )
(a) 6

G"
5 "
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(b) 8.& 4 ;
.
4 &
4 4 .
4

(c)
. A 4 4& %'
4 &
4.4 Sums of Games

8 4 4 ' .

4 &
F&
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A I

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4
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4 4 .

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+ (( '
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L .
4
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.
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L .
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F . '& . K:L K'L
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A (( I 5& /
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4 =4 .
A (( 15 F

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M N k
J K L h i j
F G H I f g
D E c d e
A B C a b
+ ((J
,
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11 I
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15×11 F
+
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4 & .
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-
A
F
G . .
H
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4 .

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4 & .
3 .

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4.4.1 Symmetry
A Simple Sum Game
- 4 &

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4
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4
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4 &

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4 m n
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4 8
5
.

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m = n = 0 " & m = n
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4 m = n
G
1 ≤ m 1 ≤ n H &
4 4 m = n 5&
4
.

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.
4 & m = n
+
& . 4 & ' & .4 /
5 .

{ m = n ∧ (m = 0 ∨ n = 0) }
if 1 ≤ m → m
2 1 ≤ n → n
fi
; { m = n }
if m < n → n := n − (n−m)
2 n < m → m := m − (m−n)
fi
{ m=n }
" /
4 m 1 ≤ m
n 1 ≤ n
& .

"
. m n
m = n .
.

& % ) ))
" & m = n . 4 &

%5& m < n n < m 8 m < n 4 . 1 ≤ n−m ≤ n
n−m

.
4 n
n−(n−m)

A m .
n := n−(n−m) &
m = n 4 " n < m &

" .4 5 .

/
D . & . 4 & ? 4 4

4 " '/

& .
I losing &
& 5
{ m = n }
{ m<n ∨ n<m }
if m < n → { 1 ≤ n−m ≤ n } n := n − (n−m) { m = n }
2 n < m → { 1 ≤ m−n ≤ m } m := m − (m−n) { m = n }
fi
{ m=n }
4.4.2 Keep It Symmetrical!

"
(( '
.
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& 4& . . &
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4
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4

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&

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+ ()J 16 / &
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D.& & 42
4.4.3 More Simple Sums

6

((

.

K

.
G4 K A' H
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4
8. . m
n
.
4 4
m−n
4 K < m−n 5& & m = n

+ '
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4

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4

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4

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m

m mod (M+1)
4 4
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&
m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) .
G M
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.

.
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H
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&
& & .4

{ m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) ∧ (m = 0 ∨ n = 0) }

if 1 ≤ m → m &
M
2 1 ≤ n → n &
N
fi
; { m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) }
if m mod (M+1) < n mod (N+1) → n := n − (n mod (N+1) − m mod (M+1))
2 n mod (N+1) < m mod (M+1) → m := m − (m mod (M+1) − n mod (N+1))
fi
{ m mod (M+1) = n mod (N+1) }
G?J 4 . . 4

H
4.4.4 The MEX Function

" . A K&
L K

5L
&

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G l,r H 4 l .
r

F D

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l := l G.
l H .
GH
r := r G.

r H

" A 4 . L R & . /
& 4& G l,r H '& 4 L.l = R.r
" 5 J 4 . .&2 8 4 4
4 .& . L R 2
" & . 4 & 4 A
+ G l,r H .

'& 4 l
. .
r .

L
R 5
& 4
.
C G l,r H .&
L.l = R.r C 4 C /
G l,r H .& L.l = R.r C "
{ L.l = R.r ∧ (l ∨ r ) }

if l → l
2 r → r
fi
{ L.l = R.r } .
" & 4 & .

4 C G l,r H .&/
L.l = R.r C C G l,r H .& L.l = R.r C
"
{ L.l = R.r }
& 4 &
{ L.l = R.r } .
- .& A 5

. 4 A L R .
4 .
5 J
+ l r .

L.l = 0 = R.r
+ & l
.
l l .
L.l = L.l

& . & r
.
r r

R.r = R.r
? .
. .
. 0 .1 5 & " .
.
5
8. L.l R.r F

& % ) )$
L.l < R.r R.r < L.l " 4 A . & 4
& &

4 L.l < R.r

.
4 R.r < L.l G 4H
{ L.l = R.r }
if L.l < R.r → r
2 R.r < L.l → l
fi
{ L.l = R.r } .
+ 4 4 5 J
+ &
m R.r
.
r r
R.r = m
& . &
n L.l

.
l l L.l = n
" 5

A . 4 A . L R
/ K
'L . " A . . .4
6 p
G " mex . p mexG.p
A

n
"

G .
p q .&
mexG.q = n
+ &
m n

G .
p q .& mexG.q = m
K#'L . K

'L . .
.
'

. p

' .

'

. q 4

.
p
4.4.5 Using the MEX Function

-
A (( .
'
+
(* 4
'
. .

" & &
I 5& & 4&

'
& /. . " &
& "
'
0 5&
'

4 &
'

G . p q .
p q H "

* )
1 1 3
2 0 0 1 2 0
0 0 0 2 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
+ (*J #' ?

"
'
.

'
.

& A

'

. + ( 4 & " . A

'
4
'
8
4
'
2 .

4
'
0 1
?4 4 &
6 K>L "
4
'
. K>L F .

'

. KL " G 3 2 H 4 &

KL 4

'
K>L "

. 4
'

F .
2 " A & & .
'

5 &
.
? . . .
4
15 . .
11 .

'
. 8 . 4

& % ) *
0 1 4 5
+ (J

'
"
'
2
26 F D

G . 4H
. 15 11
165 "

F # 4 < .

Exercise 4.4 H /

4 .

.
4
2 5 6

&

'
.
&
H
4
. 4
8 .
1 2

&
8
2 5 6

&

8

& & .

&

" 4 4
. F

& .
J
.
.
.

6. ,
,
KL 4

2
2
) ) 2
* $ 2
( 2
" (J +

K2L
+ 4 4 + 4/

4
.
: m 4 K:L . K6L G.
K.
LH KL G.
H m
.
/

* )
4.5 Summary
"
4
4/

" &
.

#
- 4
4 A .
A
.
/.
4 4
/. & .

" &
. K
L . 4
'
A 4& '

. 4
A & .
. K&
&L
4 .
4 4
A . K
'L
.
" .
' . & F

4 K
L . 4

/.
,
& 4/' . #
4 4 &
8 &
&

/
> .
.4
& . &
.

4 . .4
&
. ' '
. K
/

'&LI & .

&
. 4
Æ

4 & 4
#'
4 & ,& K?
L

'

K/,&L
. /
?
4/4

.
-
& Æ& 4 4 ?

.

4

'
G-
4

'
.
. 4
H

" 4/
K- -&L M ,! N &
4& ,&
.
&
" 3

G' (H .
M3-N

Chapter 5
Knights and Knaves
" . A . 1
& & " 4 & . K L 4 4&
KL 4 4& 6 << .
.

& 4 4 4

&
"

& & C
n
2n F &

C &
& 4& .
8

<< & ' .

4 4
5.1 Logic Puzzles

= & . // <<
8
B .
4 " J K"

8
L "

(a)
4 2
(b)
4 2
&
4 . B .
4
- &
4 2
" & K
&L
- .
. 2

*

*( , ,
( C & K 4 L - 5
&
4 2
) 3 5 4 &

4
* - 5 &

4 2
- 5 &

4
&
G H2
! B 4

4
.
B
& &P 5 & .
- 5 &
2
$
. 4
1 . . +

&P 5 4 4 & . .
. 4 4 4
5.2 Calculational Logic

5.2.1 Propositions
" 4 4 ' 4

- . '
4
' m2−n2
4
. (m+n)×(m−n) & .
. m n - & m2−n2 (m+n)×(m−n) " 4
m2−n2 = (m+n)×(m−n) .
" . . 64 &&

5 4 ' " & K
L &
4
4 & KL &
& . . & ' -
"4 '

. '
< J
n+0 = n ,

n−n = 0 ,

-
*)
. 4 4 . n - & & K.
n L " 4 .
4

& +
'
K& . L
5&J
(m+n)+p = m+(n+p) ,
4 . m n p

G H 4 ' 4 /
K L C true false %'
. ' K
&L G4 true false 4 4 KL .H
n = 0 G4 true false . n H n < n+1 G4
true .
n H / ' $
4

"
'

/
4 . '

m < n < p 4 4 /
%
. m < n
n<p
6 4 4 .
I
.

6 .

C KL KL K.L

" .
'
. 4

G. . . . . . . H %5&

. C . A & ,. -
6 <
4 .
*(* * 4 4 A & .
C
5& . ' - & 5& .
& . 4 & & 4
. 4
5.2.2 Knights and Knaves

%5& . <<
4& 4& 8. .

K L true false

&
K
.L . A K L

S. "
. 4
"
A=S .

** , ,
+ '
. & K .L
A=L ,
4 L .

K .L 8
4 .
.
; . & K8
L 4
A=A .
" 1 & 9

1 A
4 4
' 4
&
8. &P 5 Q 5
. A = Q " 4 K&L . 4
& & 4 & > 4 4
KL + '
5 K & L 4 4 K&L
A = A 5 K 2L 4 K&L . &

& G A = B H 4 KL " 1 K&L KL
.& . A = B
5 . 5& &
. << .

A '

. 4 4
1 A = B . 1 B = A
5& &
I . 4 4 4&

?

& & . F . A
B
" . 5& . '
. 4
5.2.3 Boolean Equality

%5& C &
. C
. +
& " x = x 4 G &H . x

" x = y
y = x " " . x = y y = z
x = z +& . x = y f & . f.x = f.y G4 A'
. H " " "
'
%5& & - & E'& &
&
& 4 . %5& . 8
. 4 true false - 4 & .

-
*
. 4 . & &
& + '

J . x y z
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z

x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z .
" & &
J . x y
x+y = y+x

x×y = y×x .
&
& . 5& 4 . D

&
& . 5&
4 4 & . 5&2 8 5&
2
" 4 5 1
&
. & . &
.
. 4

.
" ' (p = q) = r D 1
4
p q r
5 " ' 5&
. - p q r

p = q 4 r . 5& " (p = q) = r
.

& p = (q = r) 8

4 .
5& 8 4
4 5& .
C & " . p q r
G)H [Associativity] ((p = q) = r) = (p = (q = r)) .
B & & . (p = q) = r .
p = (q = r)
B . 4
(p = q) = r true . 4
. p q r true 8. 4 .
false (p = q) = r false
" & . 5& & 4. & .

& . ' - 4 '
I
& '

.4
" E'& . 5& ' &
(p = p) = true .

*! , ,
" . p 4 & G

H .
p 4 & & . 5& J
p = (p = true) .
"

&
.& ' &
K true L .

' . .
p = true -
4
5.2.4 Hidden Treasures

- 4 .
6 A
) - 4 .
& K8
5 L2 6 A . K
L G . K L " 1

A = G 4
A = (A = G)

true
= { 1
}
A = (A = G)
= { 5& . }
(A = A) = G
= { (A = A) = true
. 5 . 5 }
true = G
= { 5& &
}
G = true
= { G = (G = true) }
G .
-

4

4 . & 4

4 . & .4 . . B 4 .

-
*$
5 & 4 K&L . . . .4 KL
. . .4
4 4
6 Q 5 "
4 4 5 4 A = Q 6 L K
. & .4 . .L " 5
L

5 " 4 5 L = (A = Q)
L = (A = Q)
= { 5& }
(L = A) = Q .
5 Q L = A " 5 K8
. Q . & .4 . .1 5 . Q&
1 L
? & & . 4 L 8

& 4
4 4
& 4 8 . 5
4

P . 5 P = A 8 .

' P 5
&
A
5.2.5 Equals for Equals

%5& .
& 6 <1 J . 4 '/
5 ' . = 4

'
. . 6 <1
. & K

&L +
5 4

4
"

4 A B C G&
H - Q 4 5
" 4 4 C & & ) ( Q = (A = C)
1
A = B 4 4 C = (A = B) 5 . 5
Q = (A = (A = B)) A = (A = B)
A B 5
K 2L =
. Q 4
4
Q
= { . .
5 }

, ,
A=C
= { .
1
C = (A = B)
. 5 . 5 }
A = (A = B)
= { & . 5& }
(A = A) = B
= { (A = A) = true }
true = B
= { (true = B) = B }
B .
5.3 Equivalence and Continued Equalities

. & & A' " A

8. & ⊕ G (x⊕y)⊕z = x⊕(y⊕z) .

x y z H 4 4 x⊕y⊕z 4 . .
& " '

.
. #
&
' I 4
&
.& x⊕y y⊕z 4

8. &
G x⊕y = y⊕x . x

y H .

' 4
.& u⊕w . & . ' u
w
8A' . . & - 4 . '
0 ≤ m ≤ n
=
%
J
0 ≤ m m ≤ n
8 4& .

G m 4 4H #
/
& 4 . 0 ≤ n " &
& . /
8. 4 m n
m < n m ≤ n 4 4 0 ≤ m < n 4
& . 0 < n =
.

' 4 .
.
.
8 . 5& . 4
3 4
/

$ + %
$ × %
)

!'
!'
5& ' . .
x=y=z
5& . . x y z 2 > 4 K&L
(x = y) = z ,
5&
x = (y = z) ,
D
4& 4 4 x+y+z 2 " 4 .&

G. '
true = false = false false A
true H "

D 4 . .
8 4 & . x = y = z & 4&
x = y y = z I 4
. 5 . ' &
5& &
4 & . ' D
G. &H & C. C 4
5 &
F
"
4 F &

5& .
C &
K = L 4 & . 5&

&
K ≡ L 4 & ' &
4 4 p = q p ≡ q - p q '

'
p≡q≡r ,

4 ' & K ≡ L &

C (p ≡ q) ≡ r p ≡ (q ≡ r) 4

C 4 '
p=q=r

%
C p = q q = r C # &
" . .
p1 = p2 = . . . = pn
. p1 p2 . . . pn 5 4 "

.
.
p1 ≡ p2 ≡ . . . ≡ pn

, ,

& .& ' G & 4& 4

FH ' &

# 4
K ≡ L &
K5LI
.
4 4

& 4
. 4 5& " & &
5 A '
E'&
G) H [Reflexivity] true ≡ p ≡ p .
5.3.1 Examples of the Associativity of Equivalence

" . . '
F .
& . 5
Even and Odd Numbers " A '

.4 & .
even
G
'& 4
. 4H
m+n ≡ m ≡ n .
8 4 . 4 . 4

.

" . 4

m+n ≡ (m ≡ n ) ,

m+n '& 4 . m n

(m+n ≡ m ) ≡ n ,
.

n
m
& . m '& 4 n
4& .
. 5/
p ≡ q ≡ r '& 4
. p q r
& . F J
GG m+n H Gm H Gn HH

GG m+n H Gm H Gn HH
GG m+n H Gm H Gn HH
GG m+n H Gm H Gn HH

!'
!'
" & . '

. & " .

. 4 K m L K n L ;
& . 5 . K m+n L '

.
4 & .
' .
F . & F
Sign of Non-Zero Numbers " .

& 4

+ /<
x y x×y . .
x y 5 8. . x y F x×y

x y /< '
x×y ≡ x ≡ y .
0 .

&
. F
& 8 DA .

x×y ≡ (x ≡ y ) .
" C4 . x 4
& y '& 4 y C K. .L .

&
. 5&
5.3.2 On Natural Language

#&

4 5& . I
. 4
. 4 F

. . .

5& # 5& K. & .L 8
5& .
& A /
G ≤ H /
G ≥ H A K/
/L
"
' .
& 4
. .
KL KL KL &

. 5
GK8. 8 4

&
LH " 5& &
4 A

&
)) 4 & .

5 I 4
5& KL 4
?
5 " '

5 K
4 & 5

& 5
&L
&
& .
& 9

( , ,
" . . 5

G
& &
H 4 &

.
"
4 & + '

4& '

4J K5 L K L 5
G
4
4 . H E
4&

& . '
$J() J
&& 4 1 A & J9 B 4 4
& 4 4 4
F 4 $() J 8
. 4 .
& . .

4
.

4 4& 4& "
.

.
"

KL
F

5.4 Negation
.4 //
" 4
? & K 5 8
L - &

2
"
/ J . KL ? &
G
. 4 '&
H

& &
K ¬ L 4 A'
8.
p ' K ¬p L K p L
; .

S 4 4 A ≡ S 4
.
J
A ≡ B ≡ ¬A .
G- 4 .

K = L K ≡ L ' &H "

.& '
8
& & .

. + & p 4 ¬p J
G)H [Negation] ¬p ≡ p ≡ false .

¬p = (p ≡ false) ,

. )
. A . 4&J
(¬p ≡ p) = false
4& .
.& ' 8 &
&
. 5
4
5 &
4 4 &J
p = (¬p ≡ false) .
//

4 J
A ≡ B ≡ ¬A .
"
A ¬B .4J
A ≡ B ≡ ¬A
= {
}
¬A ≡ A ≡ B
= { 4 G)H 4 p := A }
false ≡ B
= { 4 G)H 4 p := B }
¬B .
? 4 G)H 4

F 4&
" 4 G)H D 4 &
& & . 5

4& .
.& 5 4

P . '
4 4
.&
¬p ≡ p ≡ q ≡ ¬p ≡ r ≡ ¬q .
- &

. K p L K q L
" 4
¬p ≡ ¬p ≡ p ≡ q ≡ ¬q ≡ r .
?4 4 G) H G)H

. . K p L K q L

G & H 8 '
4
true ≡ p ≡ false ≡ r .

* , ,
+& 4 G) H G)H " .

A

¬p ≡ r .
0 .

4
A .

' 4 4

&
" '
p + (−p) + q + (−p) + r + q + (−q) + r + p

A
q + 2r
& . p q r . −p

. p F &
" 4 4 G) H G)H A 4&
4 5I 4 4 4 4

'
. 4 4 4
. ¬false = true J
¬false
= { 4 ¬p ≡ p ≡ false 4 p := false }
false ≡ false
= { 4 true ≡ p ≡ p 4 p := false }
true .
5.5 Contraposition
4 4 & . 4

G)(H [Contraposition] p ≡ q ≡ ¬p ≡ ¬q .
"
. . .
(p ≡ q) = (¬p ≡ ¬q)
- .
& /
G
H
. .
.
8. 4 n
. l
0

$
%

(

K . . L .
&

J
n , l := n+1 , ¬l .
8 4
. & "
.
even.n ≡ l

"
(even.n ≡ l)[n , l := n+1 , ¬l]
= { . }
even.(n+1) ≡ ¬l
= { even.(n+1) ≡ ¬(even.n) }
¬(even.n) ≡ ¬l
= { }
even.n ≡ l .
- & . <

4 even.n ≡ l & true 8 4 .
5
.
'
.4 5
5

4& & 5 4 4 G A )H =4
& &
& 90◦ . .
8
2 8. 42 8. 4 & 2
+ )J # &

" 4

&
/ ' E & 4
4 5 4 . 5
<

G + ) H
& 5 "
5

.
/ 5
/ 4 5

! , ,
?4 col . 5

G&
true . false . 4 H dir

. G& true . / false . /4H "

& &
J
col , dir := ¬col , ¬dir
" . .

col ≡ dir .
. ' 4

5
4
&

4& 5
" . col ≡ dir

& &

8 4 .
90◦
5 ≡ . /
4 . 4 4 5 . /
90◦
+ ) J 8 4
&

Exercise 5.5 (Knight’s Move) 8

. 1
4
4 . 4 .
4 8×8 . 5

/ 0 $
4

.

/. . /
/ 4& & 5
'&
=J =4
&

2 #

. F

.
. 5 4 I .&
4 4

5.6 Handshake Problems

6 . .
/
"
'
.
J &

1
.

& 4 4

4 4
. "
I
& 8 K &
L
. & 4 C0 0 &C 0
4 0 . G8 & /
. &
. . 4
H 8 K&
L

. & 4 C0 0 &C 0 4
0 5 0 4 0 +& K/E'L

/ 4

- 5 4 G H 4

.
6 ' 5 . . /
4
.

n " & 4
n
=4 /E'& & 4
-
& 4 4 0 n−1
" n
0 n−1 " . K4

.
L K&
.
L
8
0

n−1

" &
& . /

4 K L S 4 x y .
8 4& xSy K x 4 y L D
x 4 y " &
& . K L .

x y
xSy ≡ ySx .

! , ,
" . . x y
¬(xSy) ≡ ¬(ySx) .
8 4 x 1 4 y 5 y 1 4 x ?4
a 4 b 4 &
" a 4 b ¬(aSb) b
4 a bSa 5 . 5 4 ¬(aSb)
aSb 4 .
"
& 4
.
4 4

.

? .& 4 &
& /E'& . /

- 4

F

F + '
. 4 K L &

.
. K 4 L 4 &
&

G 4 4
H =4 . K L & K L &
6 K L K L &
/E'
Exercise 5.6 =

81
Æ
.

J K L &

K1 L

. G 4.H &

= 4. >
K L & 4
&
& ./
. 4 &
=4
&
1
2
5.7 Inequivalence
8 //

. )(

K F .

&.L "
.
B = A
¬(B = A) " .
& K 5 8
L
.4 4 ? 4 4 .
K = L K ≡ L
' &
/
1 2 "

2

1 '
!
¬(B ≡ A)
= { 4 ¬p ≡ p ≡ false 4 p := (B ≡ A) }
B ≡ A ≡ false
= { 4 ¬p ≡ p ≡ false 4 p := A }
B ≡ ¬A .
- . p q
G)H [Inequivalence] ¬(p ≡ q) ≡ p ≡ ¬q .
? 4 & . 5 & ?

4 & . 5
& . 4

. . " A &J
¬(p ≡ q) = (p ≡ ¬q) ,

. 4 &J
(¬(p ≡ q) ≡ p) = ¬q .
" ¬(p ≡ q) & 4 p ≡ q " "

G
H 85 J
(p ≡ q) ≡ r
= { A . K ≡ L 4 }
¬(¬(p ≡ q) ≡ r)
= { G)H 4 p,q := ¬(p ≡ q) , r }
¬(p ≡ q) ≡ ¬r
= { G)(H 4 p,q := p ≡ q , r }
p ≡ q ≡ r
= { G)(H 4 p,q := p , q ≡ r }
¬p ≡ ¬(q ≡ r)
= { G)H 4 p,q := p , q ≡ r }
¬(p ≡ ¬(q ≡ r))
= { A . K ≡ L 4 }
p ≡ (q ≡ r) .

! , ,
4 4
"
p ≡ q ≡ r 4 . .
/
& ? & 4 4 p ≡ q ≡ r p ≡ q ≡ r
5
A 4 '
4 4 5 4 5J
(p ≡ q) ≡ r
= { ' A . p ≡ q }
¬(p ≡ q) ≡ r
= { ¬(p ≡ q) ≡ p ≡ ¬q }
p ≡ ¬q ≡ r
= { &
& . 5 4 G)H

.
¬(p ≡ q) ≡ ¬q ≡ p
4 p,q := q,r }
p ≡ ¬(q ≡ r)
= { A . q ≡ r }
p ≡ (q ≡ r) .
Exercise 5.8
.& .4 G?

4 & ' P
1
& FH
(a) false ≡ false ≡ false
(b) true ≡ true ≡ true ≡ true
(c) false ≡ true ≡ false ≡ true
(d) p ≡ p ≡ ¬p ≡ p ≡ ¬p
(e) p ≡ q ≡ q ≡ p
(f) p ≡ q ≡ r ≡ p
(g) p ≡ p ≡ ¬p ≡ p ≡ ¬p
(h) p ≡ p ≡ ¬p ≡ p ≡ ¬p ≡ ¬p

p = q = r

!"

2 & ( !
Exercise 5.9 ¬true = false
Exercise 5.10 (Double Negation) .
¬¬p = p .
Exercise 5.11 (Encryption) " . 5
(p ≡ (q ≡ r)) ≡ ((p ≡ q) ≡ r) ,
& " & b . & a
& .
. b
a ≡ b " &
c
"
& a

a ≡ c 4 . b & & 4& b
& . & a
Exercise 5.12 > . & 4
- 5 &
4 F
&2
5.8 Summary
8 4
<< 5 C
5& . C
.
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KL KL

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MN M,$N

Chapter 6
Induction
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.

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4
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+
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4
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.

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.
5
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4
C 0 1 2 3 -
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4
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= 4
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4 + 4

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&

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KLH
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n
. < n+1

. < n "

& 4
. < 0 - 4 4

. < 1 I 4 &
. < 1 .
4

. < 0 " 4 4 4
. <
2 I 4 &
. < 2 .
4

. < 1 - 4

. < 3
. < 4
6.1 Example Problems

.4
& 8 A <

. 8
'& &
n
Warning #

0

0

!)

!* /

.
. 8 & B
-

Cutting the Plane

. 4 . '
4& .
.
A * 8 4&

. 4
4 4 D
G
4 . &
F H
+ *J -
Triominoes
5 . . < 2n×2n 4 n

" 5 " > 5
.
6/
.
5 + * 4 . 8×8 4 5
>

4
5 4 G/H

G+ * 4 H
?J " n = 0 &
Trapeziums
5 4 . 2n .

n

.
5 "
5
/ <

.
5 A *(
*

0 1 2

/ !" !
+ * J "

+ *J "

A *
4
4 G/H
<
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? 8 n = 0 &
( Towers of Hanoi
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.
<<
!! & +
S

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#
" << 4

4 A' > A .

. 41 , '& . .
F < . < G A **H "

4
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1 4

4 &
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+ *(J &

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9

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.
J

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A * 8
4&
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4 4 D

G 4 . &

F H
+

.
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4 4 4
4 <
C K L . C 4 4 4
4 n+1 4 n &

4

4 n C C
+ & 4 . 4 & 4 D

$ /

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4

. G . D H
+ 4

. 4
. F 4
4 D
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4 & A
4 5 4 . & "
F . . . 4

. & . > .

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.&
+ *J 4
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4
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4 ' H A +& 4 K.L
4 K L A "
A
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K.&L 5
A
Exercise 6.1 & &

- & 5 2 =4

'
4
"

4 . 8
. 4 . . . . 2
-

. /
=4
& F 2

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6.3 Triominoes
'
.

*
.

5 . . < 2n×2n 4 n

" 5 " >
5 .
6/

. 5 4

5 4 G/H

"
. K<L . .

n -
& n.
" 4 n 5 0 " < 20×20 1×1 "
'& 5 " 5 &
5 8 0
59 "
4
?4 4 . < 2n+1×2n+1 -

& . < 2n×2n 4
. A
& 5 - 4 4 ' &
. < 2n+1×2n+1 . 4 5
. < 2n+1×2n+1 4 . < 2n×2n
&
& 4 <
. 6
. >
5 & " 5 4 . . / -
&

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H
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5
/.
4
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/
/. / 4

? . 5 & - &
&
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D . 4 A *$
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5 .
/
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>
.
2n+1×2n+1 4

Exercise 6.2 <

*

/ - # $
+ *$J "

8 " . /
" 5 4 A /
4
D . " &
. / 4

6.4 Looking For Patterns

8 * * 4 4
.
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LI
KL
&

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. .
4 & 4 . .
. .

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. & .
.

. 4 8

64 .
& . & 4 4 &
& 4 4 8 '

4 4 & I & & &

& . . 8

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4 4 &
8 4 .
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%

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4
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4 1 2 4 5 7 8
4 "

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D
.
D =4
4 .& D &

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&

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&
.
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0 K<L
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. 3n + 1 3n + 2
4

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& A
4
. 1 2
4 &

?4 . 4
. 3n

. 3n + 1 3n + 2
4 - 4
. 3(n+1)
. 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2
4
3(n+1)
" & 4

1
2
3(n+1) − 1 3(n+1) − 2 "
. 4 3n + 2 3n + 1
& &
4 = 4 3(n+1)

?4 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2
& 1

A 2
&
4 3(n+1)
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= 4 3(n+1) + 1 3(n+1) + 2 4

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A
D '& 4
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6.5 The Need For Proof

- & D & A 8 &
' .
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#& D
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. . 4 .
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n

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D
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. . " 5 4
&
2
+ * 4 4 n 1 2 3 4
+ *J
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. & 1 2 4 8 "

. . & n 2n−1 8 D &
n = 5 G- 4 AH 8

. 16 4 25−1 =4 . n = 6
. 31 9
G A *H ? n = 6 A 4 4
5

= 4 & n = 0 D
4 & C 1
& 20−1 /

9 " & 5
4&

5
n F .
0
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.
.

n 5 0 9
6.6 From Verification to Construction

8

' . 4 .
@A

D 4 C

. &

$* /

+ *J " n = 6 "

. 31 26−1

4 .
A . 1 D
4 A
.

8

A /
.

.

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.

.

.

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4 4
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.
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k 4 . A n

4/4 .

.
.
1 n :
1
1+2+ ... +n = n(n+1) .
2
"4 ' .

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1
12 + 22 + . . . + n2 = n(n+1)(2n + 1)
6

1 2
13 + 23 + . . . + n3 = n (n+1)2 .
4
4 '
. . .

'
4 . AJ 5 4 . 4
4 4 . 4 & 49 . '

& 4
.
.
. 4 4 .
A n

14 + 24 + . . . + n4 = ? .

// # 34

$
=4 4 & 2 @A .

4 & 4 . 5
& 4 4 2 & 4
4

& k27 2

&
9
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8 .
.
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6
4

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3
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n .
m+1 G"
. A n
5 . . n
.
A n 5 . . n
. A n 5
. . n H " A
G./.H m 0 J
10 + 20 + . . . + n0 = n .
& .

.
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A. &
n

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. 1 + 2 + . . . + n G
4
& 4
4& . .
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4 "

H
- D 5 .
&
n &
a + bn + cn2 Æ a b c = 4

+ & S.n
1+2+ ... +n .
- P.n
S.n = a + bn + cn2 .
"
P.0
= { A . P }

$! /

S.0 = a + b×0 + c×02

= { S.0 = 0 G
.
& .

<H
}
0=a .
. 4 a Æ . n0

0 ?4 4 b c " 4
& 0 ≤ n
P.n "
P.(n+1)
= { A . P a = 0 }
S.(n+1) = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2
= { . . &
S.(n+1) = S.n + n + 1 }
S.n + n + 1 = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2
= {
J P.n a = 0
" S.n = bn + cn2 }
bn + cn2 + n + 1 = b(n+1) + c(n+1)2
= {
}
cn2 + (b+1)n + 1 = cn2 + (b + 2c)n + b + c
⇐ {
Æ . 4 . n }
c = c ∧ b+1 = b + 2c ∧ 1 = b + c
= {
}
1 1
2
=c ∧ 2
=b .
+
D
. A n
5 n 4

1 1
1+2+ ... +n = n + n2 .
2 2
%' .

'
1m + 2m + . . . + nm &
. . &
m "

J
&
n 4
m+1 ; .

4 . S.0 0
S.(n+1) S.n + (n+1)m G4 S.n 1m + 2m + . . . + nm H

/1 #+ 5
$$
&
.
5 Æ +& &
.
5
) J 8 .
1 + 2 + . . . + n 4&
.

& 4 4 5
1 T 2 T T n

& 4
n T n−1 T T 1
" 4 4 J
n+1 T n+1 T T n+1
+
. n . n+1 4

1
2
n(n+1) =4
.
1m + 2m + . . . + nm
. m 1 *
Exercise 6.3 ; 5 D

.
.
10 + 20 + . . . + n0 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 .
Exercise 6.4

4 .
.
4 m
n

& .4
'
G. '
m
1 n & m 2 n 3 H .
.

4 4 4 4 4
&

"& .&
4&
4 8
.
6.7 Fake-Coin Detection

"
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K31 9 L -

/

4

. .
< -

K.L KL
KL
4 4 K.L F 4
KL "
4 .
&
A . .
?
.

I 4 1 & 4 4

& K
&L " >.
.
& .&

. > .
.

. KL

K L
6.7.1 Problem Formulation

- 4 .
4 4 C 4
C 3

J
& . &
&
&
& "
4 n

3n F
" 4
.
?4 4 m . 4
.
" 1 + 2m F 4
. J K 1 L & I 4 K 2 L 4&
. K m L
& . G &
H "
4 n

.
4

.
m 4 1 + 2m = 3n # & .

m . (3n−1)/2
.
. 4 n

-
4 4
& -
D (3n−1)/2 . 4
.
.& . G 4
H
n

+ n 5 0 D & I .
4 + n 5 1 4 4
"

G (31−1)/2 = 1 H 4 4 4
. .
4 2 > D
4
-
.& D &
4
4 " 4 (3n−1)/2
4 4 4 '
. 4
5

/1 #+ 5

4 "

4 .& . . '

n

6.7.2 Problem Solution

> .
.
.
.

n
The Basis - <

4
& /

. (30−1)/2 " n 5 0
Induction Step ?4 4 n < +
& c.n (3n−1)/2 & 4
&
.
. ' .
c.n
n
-
4 4 A . . '
c.(n+1)
n+1

A
8

. .

" 4 &
.

. 4
5
> 5 .
.
4
. . . "
4
& A .
.

4 & c.n
.
" c.n
'

.
4 .
. 4 n

8 4
& C F
4 c.(n+1) c.n ?4
c.(n+1) = (3n+1−1)/2 = 3×((3n−1)/2) + 1 = 3 × c.n + 1 .

c.(n+1) − c.n = 2 × c.n + 1 = 3n .
"
I
& . 4 4
G
4 4
c.(n+1) 4 4

H -
A
c.n + 1 . 4
" '
4 . A

"

. 4 4 & 8.

/

.

c.n . "

4 . .
4 & 1 8 49 8.
4 .

.
4 . 4 3n .
4 4 4 & 3n c.n -
& &
.
"

8.
4 4
&
K & L 4
. & K & L 4

. .
4

4&
The Marked Coin Problem 8 4&

4 4 F
" 4

. . 4
K &
L K & &L %'& . .

4
4
n
.

3n

& 8. n 5 0 4
.
" 0 G n H

.
+ 4 .
4
4 3n+1
8 A

.

. 8 &
&
5&J 3n

. 3n . 3n

"
4 F 4& 4
4

-
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l1 & . l2 &

& h1 & &
. h2 & &
" 4 & .

4 5
.
. 5
" l1+h1 l2+h2
5 +
&
& 5 3n
?4 .
. 4
. & & &

4
4 l1 &

/1 #+ 5

. h2 & & .
G & & & 5 HI h1+l2
. & . h1 & &
. l2 & &
l1+h2 .
& & 4 5
.

5 3n 4
.
"

5
h1+l2 = l1+h2 = 3n " 4 l1+h1 = l2+h2 4
. l1 = l2 h1 = h2 -

5
. .

" 5

& 4

. .

. 3n
4& 4 4

" 4&

4& .
4 I & &
4 .
4

The Complete Solution "

/

/
" . A .

. 3n+1
& 3n 4&
5
. & .
.

. .4 '
8. 4
.
8. .

& . & &
4 & & . &

8.

& & & .
4 & & &
.
"
/
4
. (3n+1−1)/2
.4
3 . < (3n−1)/2 (3n−1)/2 + 1 (3n−1)/2
A . 4
3

.
.4J

( /

8. &

/
G&H
8. . #

. 4 ' . K & &L
# K & L &

/
3n

8. #

. 4 ' . K & L
# K & &L &

/
3n

- 4

.
?

&

& U J & &
&

.
.
"
. . F
Exercise 6.5 &

. D D

4 4 ' . " D 4 F
4 8 D B 5

4 5 D + & 4 .
4 & m
2×m
.&
5 D 4
. D 3m G=J .
3m+1 D 3 . 3m DH
& .& 4 5 D
D2
Exercise 6.6 , n D 4 1 ≤ n . F 4 .

. & 4 . D 4
4
H =4
&
A D2
H 4 & n
4
4 D 2n − 3

2 ≤ n
H 4 D 4 4 A B C D A < B
C < D 4 4 A . . 4 4

; 4 4 A . 4 D
4
G 5 & G HH

/2 & ( )
H 2m D 4 1 ≤ m 4 & m

A D 3m − 2
G=J
. GHH
6.8 Summary
8 .

/ " .

.
. & K<L
. K<L .
(a) . K<L 0
(b)
. . K<L n . & n

. K<L n+1
;

. "
&

4 4 D .

" &
4

& .
&

A

6.9 Bibliographic Notes

" ./

. 4 & % -
3D M3D$ 3D$N

* /

Chapter 7
The Towers of Hanoi
" "4 . =

"

&

' .
A
. KL
/ &
" "4 . =
<< 5 Æ 4
&

/ & 8 &
4& .
A =4 &
. 8 4&

. 5 J &
. 5
+
4 4 .
> .

4 4 I "4 . =

I . .& .
4 Æ
. . .

7.1 Specification and Solution

7.1.1 The End of the World!
" "4 . =

.
<<
!! & +
S

% 6 &
#
" << 4

4 A' > A .

. 41 , '&/. . F <
. < G A H "

4 .
& .

&
"
1 4
4 &

! 1 6 % 0

.
A .
& &
4 4
9

+ J "4 . =
7.1.2 Iterative Solution

" & & "4 . =
&

& ' " .
4

. #
. &
4 4

-

.
' 4 -
&

.
0 4 > & 0

& 1 -

.4
> & & A &

"
.

"
.
. 8.
.

& 4 > 4
& 4

1
& $
> & &

C D

&
8 &
. '&

"

4 .
/

& 4 // /

"& '

&. & 4 / << " &

/

&
.
. /

8. & & 4 A

4 3 4
& & '

C 5 / 6 /
7.1.3 WHY?

4 /
4 8. & &
C
4 8
9C 4& # 4
4
. 4 4 .

A . .

" 4 4 9 8 4 A
.
" &
. 4 4 4

.

7.2 Inductive Solution

&
. &
6 4

/

M .
A A 6
G6 4

H
. & -
. 0

+ 4
4
n
.

4 4
n+1 .

= 4 9 " & . 4& &
4 J
# n .

. 4 ' /
. & n 4
4 &
.

1 6 % 0
#
.
"

n .

> 4 ' . &
n 4 4 &

.

"
4
A & "
4& &

A .
4

G
&H 4
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&
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4 A G" &
& &

. H "
4 4
.
"
. &

& .

" .& 4

4 & & 4
4
4 .
. "4 . =

4
n .
' d
4 d 4 4 " .

. 4
A .
"

&
?4 4 - .
/
& 8 Æ
&
A
& "
A

'& M
- &

n . M−n 8.
. M−n

n
5

&
.

& - &
" & 4
n
.
d .
&
G 4 &
.
.H
8 n 0 5 .

& 5 8 .
n+1 4
4
.
n
.

. 4 -
4 4
n+1 .

d 4 d 4 4 +
4

.
1 4 4

1

1
&
, . ' & . 4

- &
n
d
¬d & .
4 . &

. G. & & &
.
H

n
¬d " n+1

d. G"
& n+1 .
=4
n
n+1
4 n+1
H +& 4 &

n
¬d "
n+1
n+1
4
.

d
" .4

"
A Hn.d 5 . k , d 4 n
. k

d d 3
.
1 4
1
3 true 4

false /4

" k , d

k .
d "

5 [ ]
& 5 [x] 5
4 '&
x " .
.

5 Hn.d 4
n
/ &/ .

d .4 .
.

H0.d = [ ]
Hn+1.d = Hn . ¬d ; [n+1 , d] ; Hn . ¬d
?

H . 5 . Hn+1.d
. 4 4

& 4.
/ 5 .
" .
.
I
KL

.
" 4& "4 .
=
. & . n C 4
& .//
4 . H
+ '
4
4
H2.cw G- cw aw
4 4
true false
&H
H2.cw
= { 5 n,d := 1,cw }

1 6 % 0
H1.aw ; [2,cw] ; H1.aw

= { 5 n,d := 0,aw }
H0.cw ; [1,aw] ; H0.cw ; [2,cw] ; H0.cw ; [1,aw] ; H0.cw
= { 5 }
[ ] ; [1,aw] ; [ ] ; [2,cw] ; [ ] ; [1,aw] ; [ ]
= { . 5 }
[1,aw , 2,cw , 1,aw] .
' &

H3.aw
4& 8. & & 4
5&
. F
"
' . 5 . n = 3 16
. n = 4 32 " &

9 "

" & G &H '

& "

.

. 5 .
& ' "

& .

&
9
Exercise 7.1 "

. &

. 5 H64.cw 6 Tn.d . 5 Hn.d 3
A . T .
A . H GB A
Tn.d . d H ; A To T1 T2 =
4 .
D ' Tn
. . n
& D & n
Exercise 7.2 ; .

.
. F
"4 . =

; 4 4 /
4
. n 4
4
; 4

.

1 &
7.3 The Iterative Solution

8 4

J A
& G
.

& 4 & 4H

4

8
4 4 4 .

Cyclic Movement of the Disks
8 4 4
4& & 8 . 4

- 4 & 4
.

.
" & . k , d 5 Hn+1.d
even.k ≡ d G 4& 4& .H "
/
5 . . )) - .
.
Hn+1.d
K n+1 L & K n L K d L &
K ¬d L even.(n+1) ≡ ¬(even.n) . even.(n+1) ≡ d

- even.k ≡ d . G. k , d 5 Hn+1.d H
4 . n d 6 N D "
.
k , d 4
even.k ≡ d ≡ even.N ≡ D .
" .
4
.

d . k A&
. 5

. 4 /

& 4 /

& 4 @/ . 5

.
4 /
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/
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G4 /
H & D .
N
D . N
Exercise 7.3 '

4 &

.

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4
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4 4 4 4 4 =4 & .
4

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( 1 6 % 0

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3

2
Alternate Disks
- 4

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4

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4
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4 - 4 alt.ks . 5 ks 4
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& 4 4 & diskn.d
& A
. . Hn.d
6 5 4& & diskn.d "
.
A . H 4 J
disk0.d = [ ]
diskn+1.d = diskn . ¬d ; [n+1] ; diskn . ¬d .
> alt.(diskn.d) " . & n "
n = 0 &
& 5
+
& . 5 4 .
. 5 ks
k
alt.(ks ; [k] ; ks) ⇐ alt.ks ∧ ((ks = [ ]) ≡ (k = 1)) .
" . J
alt.(diskn+1.d)
= { A }
alt . (diskn . ¬d ; [n+1] ; diskn . ¬d)
⇐ { & . 5 }

1 & ( )
alt.(diskn . ¬d) ∧ ((diskn . ¬d = [ ]) ≡ (n+1 = 1))

= { & A D
.4 & . diskn . }
true .
Exercise 7.4 " ' . &
>
. 8
.

& . '1 A

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4
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4 I & / 9
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4
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4 & 4
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2 & 4 &
G=J "

4 4

B & 4

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1
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even.n ≡ d ≡ even.k ≡ d
. d

& k 4
n d H
Exercise 7.5 (Coloured Disks) 4
" .
I F
& F&
3
4
4 B
&
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7.4 Summary
8 4 4 "4 .
=
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. M+N

Chapter 8
The Torch Problem
8 4

.

' ( " &
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A&
4 .4
N 4 8 &

4 & & 4

" 4
2 &

"
.
1 N. i
t.i
I 4 4 &
.
4

4 N

+
& 4
t.i < t.j 4 i < j G"
4

8.
t.i = t.j .
i j 4 i < j 4
4& (t.i , i) 4 i ' &

K
L 4
4
&H
8.1 Lower and Upper Bounds

" .4 5 & Æ &
/
A
4 5
81
4
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K L K4 L

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8
. 4

. 1
2
5
10
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8 4
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8
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4 17

4 4
4

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4 4 # . 4 . 4
4 A ' 4 .

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& ' 5 4 19

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8.2 Outline Strategy

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4
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L

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4 A & & 4
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A &
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4 A & & 4
&

4
&
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{1∗a , 2∗b , 0∗c}
. a b c 4 a b 4 c

+ & 4 4 {1∗a , 2∗b}

8
F .
5 % 4
4 4 4 ' 4 .

G {1∗a , 2∗b , 0∗c} . '
H A
" ' {1∗a , 2∗b , 0∗c} {2∗b , 1∗a , 0∗c}

& . . '
{1,3}
4 1 3 8. 4 4 .4
4 A' 4 K + L G. .4H K − L G. H
+{1,3} .4
& 1 3 −{2}

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5 a
5 b 5 b

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5 .
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+
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- &

4 4 -

2 &'

8.3 Regular Sequences

KL 5 5 4 .4 4
- 4&
5 . .4

Lemma 8.1 %& 5

& &
. 5 4
Proof 5 - 4 J
A .4 A 4
8. A 4 & p &

8.& .4
& p 4
p
.
# .
& 5 .
u +{p,q} v −{p,r} w
4 q r u v w 5 p 4 v
G? .4
& p 4

A 4H 5 &
u +{q} v −{r} w
" 5

. 4
5 G" 5
4
& 4 .4 "
. p 4 &

. p
& p &
.
.4 "
. & x
y t.p ↑ x + t.p ↑ y ≥ x+y H "
.
4 .4
. /

?4 A .4 " 4 J
& A 5 & A
8. A 5

& G-

N 2 H " 4

&

. /
8. A .4 & A
p 4 q 4
& .

2

.4 G" & .

p 1
.4 A H " 5 .
u −{q} +{p} v
q s p q. "
4 J .4
8. .4
q p 4 p 4 q

q 1 p 1 " .
u +{q,r} w −{q} +{p} v
G4 w p q H
u +{p,r} w v .
" 5 #

G .
& x t.q ↑ x + t.q + t.p > t.p ↑ x H
. /
8.
& & G" 4

p s .4 A 5H "

p 4 p 4 q
q 1 p 1
" .
u −{p} w −{q} +{p} v
G4 w p q H
u −{q} w v .
" 5 #

G
t.p + t.q + t.p > t.q H
. /
- 4 4 .
5 /
I .
F . &

4 .

4 5
5

/
2
8.4 Sequencing Forward Trips

6
! A +

. .4

5 N−1
. N−2 "
& 5
.4 .4 &

2 &'
#6

. &

& 4 " . A 2×(N−2) N−2 2 I
. 2×(N−2) + 1 &

& 5
. & . .4 5 4I
4
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4
&

.4 =

.

.
4
.

+ '
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3∗{1,2} , 1∗{1,6} , 1∗{3,5} , 1∗{3,4} , 1∗{7,8}
G" &
I 3∗{1,2}

1 2
3 .4 1∗{1,6}

1 6
.4
? . 4 .4
5H "
. .
1
4 .4 3 I
&
2
3 .4 2 4 3
2 .4
1 "
G 4 5 6 7 8 H
1
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J
3 × (t.1↑t.2) + 1 × (t.1↑t.6) + 1 × (t.3↑t.5) + 1 × (t.3↑t.4) + 1 × (t.7↑t.8)

+ 3 × t.1 + 2 × t.2 + 1 × t.3
G"

& .4

& H ?
. .4 7 G

. H
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5 5
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4

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8. 4 & I .
.
4 & # I A& .

4 &
?4 4 Vnomad Vhard Vfirm Vsoft

.

.
. A

. .
& F "
. F
Vhard + Vfirm + Vsoft .
"
. 5
. .4
&

.

.4
. 2
. .4
&

A
1
.
2 × Vsoft + Vfirm − Vnomad .

. .4

. "
Vhard + Vfirm + Vsoft = 2 × Vsoft + Vfirm − Vnomad + 1 .
%5&
Vhard + Vnomad = Vsoft + 1 .
-
.4 A
Definition 8.2 (Regular Bag) N 2 . .

{i | 1 ≤ i ≤ N} N . .4 J
%
. F < 4 G8.
& F 4 H
∀i : 1 ≤ i ≤ N : ∃T : T ∈F : i∈T
G8.
& &
. F H
8. Vhard.F Vsoft.F Vnomad.F &

.
F 4
. F

.
F
G!H Vhard.F + Vnomad.F = Vsoft.F + 1 .
2
+
& 4 4 .4

2 &'
#6 )
Lemma 8.4 , 5 . N 4 N
2 . .4 F .
5 & .

. N #
& 5
. .
F 6 VFT
& . T F. "

G!)H ΣT : T ∈F : ⇑i : i∈T : t.i × VFT + Σi :: t.i × rF.i
4
G!*H rF.i = ΣT : T ∈F ∧ i∈T : VFT − 1 .
G rF.i
.
i H
2
8
5 . G!H J
G!H Vnomad.F = 0 ⇒ Vhard.F = 1 ∧ Vfirm.F = 0 = Vsoft.F .
8. Vnomad.F <

& A . A
& G!H Vhard.F 1
G!!H Vnomad.F = 1 ≡ Vhard.F = 0 = Vsoft.F .
8. &

4
" Vsoft.F
< 8 .4 .
G!H Vhard.F 5 < "

.
G!H
G!$H N > 2 ∧ Vhard.F ≥ 1 ⇒ Vsoft.F ≥ 1 .
8. N G
. H 2
Vnomad.F 1 8 .4 .
G!H Vsoft.F 1
?4 4 4 4 5 .
F
Lemma 8.10 , N G 2 H N 5 .
.
F N "
& 5
& G!)H
Proof " . & < . F

- " 4 F . '&
G4
& H " 5 D
" & 8 Vnomad.F = 1 8 &
F A
" .
{n,s} 4 n
s
" 5
& &
. F &

* 2

&

n 4 . .4
. 4 A {n,s} .
s
" Vhard.F /< F
8
& G!$H Vsoft.F 1 8 .4 & A . soft Vnomad.F
2 & . F {n,m} 4 n m

5 4 4 {n,m} .4 &
. n & . m
& . . F & 1 G"

. .
F H - 4 F 4
.
& . n m & 1

.
& 2 & 5 F 4

2
Optimisation Problem 6
!( ! A

4
.
8 . 5 .
.
4 A A !

& G!)H 8
4 4
8
.

& 4

& G!)H " 4
.
" .
A
4 F 1 .

F 1 , F T F 4 ⇑i : i∈T : t.i × VFT
T F G

K F L
. .

'H + i 4 . t.i × rF.i i
G i 1
H
8.5 Choosing Settlers and Nomads

" 4
-
4
. # A& 4

2
1 4&
.
N 2 I & 2
&

Lemma 8.11 %&

& . 4
4

Proof N F . (p, q)
. 4 F p q
p . q

2 & .
& (p, q) q p &4
F - N #
& &
t.q − t.p
" .4
. p q . "
.4
. & q G t.p < t.q H
" .4
. & p &

t.q − t.p " A & 4 " A 4
p {p,q} 8 4 p q F

0 8 p {p,r} 4
r = q 8 Æ
t.p ↑ t.r + (t.q − t.p)

= { & .

'
}
t.q ↑ (t.r + (t.q − t.p))
≥ { t.p ≤ t.q
& .
' }
t.q ↑ t.r .
+&
. .4
" F
" .

. &
" & . .&
F

2
Corollary 8.12 %& N

& N F 4
.4 J
8 & A
F
1
%& . F {1,2} G?J
& .
&
0 H
"
& . {1,2} F j .
j 4 1 ≤ j ≤ N÷2
{k: 0 ≤ k < j−1: {N − 2×k , N − 2×k − 1}} G?
&
4 j 5 1 H
Proof F N

+
!
4
&

4
A
F 4
i 4 i 1
i . & 1 " F .4

! 2

i 4 =4

G & t.i − t.1 H -
N 4
F
G .
!( . 5 .

H
>. < . F "
.
&
i &
i
F "
.

&
. 1

& G!H 8. i
.

& G!H
& G A
.H .

=4 i
&
"

.

& &
8. i
. 4
F. " A
F

. F
A
8 & G!H

?4 . F F .
{1,2}

4 & {1,2} 4 &

F

-
& 4 .
G!H .
&
. {1,2} F j .
j 4 j 2 j−1 -
. A
4 4 1
&
A

I .4
1 &
F .
G!H "
1 2
. GA
H F
8
4 4 j 2 .

{k: 0 ≤ k < j−1: {N − 2×k , N − 2×k − 1}} .
G"
& . 1 4 4
H

. . j 4 j 4 "
3 N 2×(j−1) .

.

N − 2×(j−2)
. A
& &

&
. 4 4
A . 4

"
&
.
2

2/ $
8.6 The Algorithm

- 4

Lemma 8.13 F

.&
& ! " . j
& . {1,2} F
& F
G!(H HF.j + FF.j + j × t.2 + (N−j−1) × t.1 + (j−1) × t.2 ,
4
HF.j = Σi : 0 ≤ i < j−1 : t.(N−2i)
FF.j = Σi : 3 ≤ i ≤ N − 2×(j−1) : t.i .
G" A

.4
4

H
Proof " 4 8. . . j 1
8

Σi : 2 ≤ i ≤ N : t.i + (N−2) × t.1 .

HF.1 + FF.1 + 1 × t.2 + (N−1−1) × t.1 + (1−1) × t.2

= { A . HF FF
}
0 + Σi : 3 ≤ i ≤ N : t.i + t.2 + (N−2) × t.1
= {
}
Σi : 2 ≤ i ≤ N : t.i + (N−2) × t.1 .
8. . . j 5

. .
2 8 HF.j .4
. F FF.j
.4
. A
F j × t.2 .4
. j .
+& 1 1
(N−j−1) × t.1 2 1

(j−1) × t.2 G 2
. j .4 1
.
j + (N − 2×(j−1) − 3 + 1) .4 ?
. j−1 N−j−1 N−2
4 4 4 '
. H
2
+ j 4 j 2 A OT .j

&
N 4
& . {1,2} j " OT .j & G!(H
?4 4

2

HF.(j+1) − HF.j = t.(N−2j+2) ,

FF.(j+1) − FF.j = −(t.(N−2j+2) + t.(N−2j+1)) .
5
OT .(j+1) − OT .j = −t.(N−2j+1) + 2 × t.2 − t.1 .
?
OT .(j+1) − OT .j ≤ OT .(k+1) − OT .k
= { }
−t.(N−2j+1) + 2 × t.2 − t.1 ≤ −t.(N−2k+1) + 2 × t.2 − t.1
= {
}
t.(N−2k+1) ≤ t.(N−2j+1)
= { t }
j ≤ k .
" OT .(j+1) − OT .j

j
5

. OT .j
& . 4 F .
.

"
4&
& 5
N 4 j 1.
2 × t.2 ≤ t.1 + t.(N−2j+1) .
8. true
. {1,2} I .4 & . 1
{N−2j+2 , N−2j+1} . 2 8. .

N−2j+2 N−2j+1 A
8

& 1 I 4 4 1

-
N
. & &

. j " .4
{ 2≤N }
i,j := 1 , N÷2 ;
{ Invariant:
1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ N÷2
∧ ∀k : 1 ≤ k < i : OT .(k+1) ≤ OT .k

21

∧ ∀k : j ≤ k < N÷2 : OT .(k+1) ≥ OT .k }

do i < j → m := (i+j)÷2 ;
if 2 × t.2 ≤ t.1 + t.(N−2m+1) → i := m
2 2 × t.2 ≥ t.1 + t.(N−2m+1) → j := m
fi
od
{ 1 ≤ j ≤ N÷2
∧ ∀k : 1 ≤ k < j : OT .(k+1) ≤ OT .k
∧ ∀k : j ≤ k < N÷2 : OT .(k+1) ≥ OT .k } .
>
j
& . {1,2}
OT .j
5

" j−1
. & ! /
A
.
! A 4 &

"
N−2j+2 N−2j+1 A

8.7 Conclusion
8 4

. /
&
. &
"

. 4

D
4
"
. .
. .4 @
.
4

. .

. .4 4 5

#& . 4
5 KL
C .4
& 4
&
I KL G 4
H 4
K
L G 4
H . 6

4

. K L G
& 4 H

. 4 .
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4

& & & .
. .4 I . 4 5 .
& & Æ
%
&
A
G
H K L
. 5

2

C

K L G
.
& & H 4&
4& 4 .

K L

8
/%
KE
LI
/

K
L "
&/
/
4 & .

MN 8
.

& 2

I &
& M N

. K
L " F/
A % . K
L 4 D
. 4 "
F
!I &

5 . =

& .

/
.

1 & G& =
& K
. . .
& & 2t2 − t1
. ti 1L . 2t2 − t1
C
1 2 5 10

'
9H

& 4

- & .

#& K L .

. + '

. G8. N = 4 & . 3

1 1 4 4 4
8 4 5
"
3 9 H " . K&L .
4& 4 .
.4 K.L G
. & . H 1 .
.

. K
L .
4

Chapter 9
Knight’s Circuit
"
& B & & /

4 F

"
A 7 1

. " A 5 .
4 7 5 .
5 '& 5 4
"
.
I &
&
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. 7 .4 /
C /
=4 64 5 I

64
. 5 +
.
5 . D 2
.
. 16 5
. 8
G A $HI .

5 4 6

"

. .4 6
. &
4
4 & 5/
.

& 5 '&

" 7 1
.
.
4 .
" 5 &

7 1

& A &
G4 5
<& & 5 H "
. 4 4
'
9.1 Straight-Move Circuits

+ 7 1 Æ
' .

( 8 ,9

+ $J 7 1 #
61

& 4
. /
& 4 .
& 4
-
.
4 & 2
" A 4 4
.
& 5 & 5 8
1 4& . & 4 < C
.
& 5
5 &
5 ' I 5 D
& 61 .
.

"

5 <& & G"

7
'
H -

8
. D 4
2
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& B

& A
/
& & A
&
&
.

I

8×8 &

& 5 & . 4

/
. 2 " &
5 '&
5
K L

2
8
.
& 4
.4 '
8 & .4
Exercise 9.1
(a) - 4

.

.

. 52 ; & 4 4

. . G=J

8 &+:
)

.
5 F 5 > 4
4 .
4H
(b) + 4 . m

/
.
. < 2m×1 2 G 2m×1
. 5I
. 5
2m H
(c) 4
/
. 2×n .
GH . n G 2×n 4 4 4 n 5H
2
" . ' $ /
& .
< 2m×n .
m n " 2m
n G m n
/<

' . 5H /

4&
4 < 2×n . n "
4 4 & /
. 2m×n . m
n & m 2×n .

"
4 . < 2m × n
4 m 1 . 4 m
1 2m × n 4 . < 2p × n 2q × n &
4 p q
m p+q 5 m -
&
& /
. -
D
4
" &
5 " 4
.
. 5 & /

8

<
?4
2m × n
2p × n 2q × n 4 .
G"
4 A

. 4
.
. H "
/. . 2p × n
&
/. . 2q × n /
.
4 + $ 4
& " 4 <

/. .
<
4 4

.
. 4 " . G>.
. . .
H
?4
.
.
<
.

/. /. &
4
& A $ "

* 8 ,9

2p
2m
2q
+ $ J
/
+ 4

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.
n
2p
2m
2q
+ $J

4 4
+ $( 4 4& . 6 × 8 %./
.& .
/
.
2 × 8 "

& <
&

4 A $(
Exercise 9.2
4
. 5

3×3 8 & /
. 5

5 G A $)H 8 /

. 5 . 5 =4 /

. . . 5 C 5 D 5 .
'

/. 5C
%' 4 4 /

. 5 . <

8 & '
+ $(J /

. 6 × 8
+ $)J /

G 4 H . 3 × 3
.
5
9.2 Supersquares
6 4 7 1/
" & '
4 4 4
" 4&
8 × 8
4 × 4 & 2 × 2 5 K/
5L 4 A $*
8. 7 1
A 4 &J +

K L 4 5I 7 1

. .
5 5 &
4 <& . ,

4 5I
.

! 8 ,9

+ $*J 4 × 4 . 5
7 .
5 .
5 8 A $ . 5 &
I . 7 4

0110 1 0 0
1 0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1 0
1
0
1 0
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

5 Knights and Knaves 63

7 The Towers of Hanoi 107

8 The Torch Problem 117

9 Knight’s Circuit 133

Solutions to Exercises 149

        4&  4      

"       

     

   & 4   

1.2 Bibliographic Remarks

 C    . 

+ J  /  

( Black and White Balls

+ J #  

GH        4 

+ (J >/ O/ 6/ "/  8/

G H         4 "/

2.1 Chocolate Bars

        5 & < 

2.1.1 The Solution

-                    

2.1.2 The Mathematical Solution

 5& 4       

 "       A . 

Assignments "  '      

/  .   G    p , c H ?  

/  . ' G   

A word of warning   

  $    "

p−c = (p+1) − (c+1) ,

 4     . p  c  "      p−c    .  

-     m + 3×n   &    

m + 3×n = (m+3) + 3×(n−1) .

(p−c)[p , c := p+1 , c+1] = (p+1) − (c+1)

(m + 3×n)[m , n := m+3 , n−1] = (m+3) + 3×(n−1)

(m+n+p)[m , n , p := 3×n , m+3 , n−1] = (3×n) + (m+3) + (n−1)

"    . 

Induction "  A      .      

Exercise 2.1 

2.2 Empty Boxes

"  .4      

 8      e  f .   

 8.&     . e  f  8.&   A  . e 

 #     .    '   '   

( 8.&   .   

?        &     

2.3 The Tumbler Problem

+&  4 

"    . 4  .     

(even.u)[u := u+2] = even.(u+2) = even.u .

"   even.u    .   

(even.u)[u := u−2] = even.(u−2) = even.u .

"   even.u     .   

B   4          

        4 "/

. & .    

"  c mod 4   G c mod 4    

KÆ L  

 m×n    4 

"    4/   "  A    /  K

  m×n    4 

   =       

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