European Transactions on Electrical Power

Analysis of a Static Model for DC Microgrids Based on Droop

and MPPT Control

Journal: International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

Manuscript ID ITEES-18-0641
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Wiley - Manuscript type: Research Article

Date Submitted by the Author: 16-Jul-2018

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Complete List of Authors: GOMES, ADJEFERSON; Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz,

Departamento de Ciências Exatas e Tecnologicas; UNIVERSIDADE
ESTADUAL DE SANTA CRUZ
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Campos, Arceu; Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Engenharia Elétrica

Lopes, Luiz; Concordia University, Departament of Electrical Engineering
Morais, Aniel; Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Engenharia Elétrica
Tofoli, Fernando; Universidade Federal de Sao Joao del-Rei, Departamento
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de Engenharia Elétrica
Silva, Fábio; Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Engenharia Elétrica

Dc microgrids, droop and MPPT control, nonlinear analysis, off-grid mode,

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Keywords:
static model
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John Wiley & Sons

Page 1 of 10 European Transactions on Electrical Power

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2
3 Analysis of a Static Model for DC Microgrids
4
5
6
Based on Droop and MPPT Control
7
A. C. Gomes1, A. S. C. Campos1, L. A. C. Lopes2, A. S. Morais1, F. L. Tofoli3, and F. V. R. Silva1
8 1
Federal University of Uberlândia, Faculty of Electrical Engineering
9 2
Concordia University, Department of Electrical Engineering
10 3
Federal University of São João del-Rei, Department of Electrical Engineering
11 e-mail: acgomes@uesc.br, arceu.campos@yahoo.com.br, luiz.lopes@concordia.ca, fabiovince@ufu.br, aniel@ufu.br
12
13
14 Abstract— Dc microgrids are feasible and effective sources due to the intermittent environmental conditions
15 solutions for integrating renewable energy resources to the has great influence on the power quality in dc
16 power system. However, stability depends on the control microgrids. In order to regulate the dc-link voltage and
17 strategy adopted for each operation mode. When operating improve system reliability, ESSs such as batteries and/or
18 in off-grid mode, droop and maximum power point ultracapacitors are typically used [8].
(MPPT) control are basic strategies employed to regulate
19 the voltage across the dc link considering the lack of
Due to the intrinsic complexity of microgrids, an
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20 communication between the energy sources. In this context, intelligent control and management system is essential
21 this work describes some important issues regarding the for their accurate operation, aiming at controlling power
22 application of such approaches in microgrids to regulate flow among distinct elements e.g. DERs, ESSs, and
23 intelligent loads, while also mitigating the intermittence
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the dc link voltage, where active and nonlinear loads such
24 as constant-power loads (CPLs) and constant-impedance and uncertainty regarding the generated power,
loads (CILs) are connected. In this case, the existing providing a stable, reliable, and consistent source for
25 sources connected to dc link are considered as a set of
26 local customers and the utility [9]. In this context, power
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parallel-connected current sources associated with their electronics and recent advances in the research and
27 respective equivalent resistances. The proposed
development of power converters are of great
28 approximate model allows performing a nonlinear analysis
importance for the implementation of dc microgrids,
29 to predict the qualitative behavior of the system due to the
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which present prominent advantages of technical and

30 reduced number of differential equations. In addition, this
analysis provides sufficient conditions to determine the economic order when compared to ac ones [10].
31
operating points of the system, thus providing design A typical configuration for a standalone dc microgrid
32 guidelines for the reliable implementation of microgrids. is shown in Fig. 1, which can be divided into three parts:
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33 renewable sources i.e. photovoltaic solar energy (PV)

34 Keywords—Dc microgrids, droop and MPPT control, and wind energy (WE); ESSs; and ac and dc loads,
35 nonlinear analysis, off-grid mode, static model. which can classified as either constant-impedance loads
36
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(CILs) or constant-power loads (CPLs). DERs also

37 I. INTRODUTION include maximum power point tracking (MPPT) systems
38 associated to PV and WE generation to maximize the
39 Renewable energy and related distributed energy extracted power under distinct weather conditions. ESSs
40 resources (DERs) have drawn significant attention due to consist in series- and/or parallel-connected battery
41 environmental problems caused by conventional fossil banks, capacitor banks, and electric vehicles (EVs),
42 fuels and their possible extinction in a near future [1]. In which operate with droop control so that it is possible to
this scenario, microgrids are fundamental components to
43 regulate the voltage across the common dc link and
the modern power system aiming at the wide expansion
44 achieve proper balance between generated and consumed
of distributed generation (DG) [2, 3]. Microgrids can be
45 power. It is worth to mention that such equilibrium
classified in two categories regarding the operating
46 mode: alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc),
involving consumption and storage is necessary to
47 ensure the microgrid stability, which is based on power
while both of them are able to operate in grid-connected electronic converters responsible for decoupling distinct
48 or standalone mode [4].
49 loads and disturbance sources while properly adjusting
When compared to their respective ac counterparts, dc the required voltage levels as represented in Fig. 1 [11].
50 units are able to achieve higher efficiency by eliminating The control system in standalone microgrids is based
51 the ac-dc and ac-ac conversion stages, since many DG on a distributed control approach where each unit is
52 units, energy storage systems (ESSs), and an increasing associated to an individual controller, whose decisions
53 number of loads can be directly supplied by dc power are taken according to the available local variables [12].
54 sources. In addition, the dc system offers greater Thus the simplest solution to achieve stability lies in
55 controllability because synchronization with the utility employing parallel-connected sources to control the dc-
56 grid and reactive power control are not required [5-7]. link voltage. A common solution for this purpose
57 However, the instability associated to renewable energy consists in including a virtual resistance at the converter
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2 output so that the source can be integrated to the understanding the interaction among the system
3 microgrid, as this strategy is widely known as droop variables is not a trivial task.
4 control [13-16]. In this context, this work proposes an alternative
5 solution for the nonlinear modeling of a dc microgrid
6
DC/DC composed by a common dc link where sources and loads
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7 operate in droop mode and MPPT. An approximate
8
Droop-Controlled
DC
model of a subsystem with n sources parallel-connected
ESSs DC/DC

9 Ultracapacitors
DC/DC loads sources employing droop control is proposed, where
each one of them has a specific contribution to meet the
10
DC/DC load supply and system balance. The equivalent model
11 DC/AC
AC
Batteries l oads maintains the qualitative behavior of the system and
12
reduces the required number of differential equations
13 DC/DC
employed in the representation of a single system, as the
14 MPPT-Controlled Wind Energy (WE)
nonlinear dynamic analysis becomes far less complex.
DERs
15 DC/DC The remainder of this work is organized as follows.
16 Photovoltaic Solar Section II describes the power flow analysis involving
17 Energy (PV)
each element of the microgrid in order to predict the
Fig. 1. Typical configuration of a dc microgrid.
18 behavior of the dc-link voltage from the possible
19 Droop control increases the output impedance of each operating modes. It is worth to mention that this
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20 source by adding a nonideality to the control loop, thus parameter is directly affected by the amount of power
21 providing greater interaction among sources and loads as provided by each source, as droop control is then
22 a consequence. This issue causes the stability regarding implemented to provide stability to the dc link. In order
23
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the dc-link voltage to be dependent on the type of load to demonstrate the importance of load sharing, Section
24 coupled to the system. Besides, it is also worth to III is dedicated to the study of the influence of droop
25 mention that nonlinear CPLs is the most common type resistance on parallel sources operating cooperatively as
26 found in dc microgrids [17, 18]. connected to a common dc link. As one of the main
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27 Since the system open-loop gain can be easily contributions of this work, Section IV develops a generic
28 determined, Middlebrook and Ćuk criterion is often used mathematical model that represents a dc microgrid
29 for the linear analysis of the dc stability by knowing only composed by a single dc link constituted by distinct
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30 the output impedance equivalent to the generating source sources and loads operating in droop mode and MPPT. It
31 connected to a given converter and the load input is also worth to mention that the derived mathematical
32 impedance [19-22]. Linear analysis is only possible in dc modeling is of great relevance for the analysis of the
microgrids if CPLs are linearized around a voltage microgrid dynamic behavior. Section V proposes as
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33
operating point, thus making it possible to use the static analysis of the power flow involving the loads and
34
aforementioned method. This process results in a model sourced connected to the dc link, as it is possible to
35
composed of a negative resistance in parallel with a determine the operating point accurately. Section VI is
36
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current source [23, 24] which is suitable for the stability concerned with the graphical analysis of the introduced
37 mathematical model, while Section VII presents and
analysis close to the operating point of the microgrid.
38 discusses relevant issues.
Literature presents many works that have successfully
39 addressed the instability issue regarding CPL loads while
40 using the linear stability analysis as reported in [25-28]. II. DEFINITION OF THE OPERATING MODES OF A
41 However, a droop-controlled dc microgrid my operate DC MICROGRID
42 with voltage levels far from the point of linearization,
43 An important feature of a dc microgrid lies in the fact
thus making the linear negative resistance model
44 that the power balance condition relies on the dc-link
unsuitable in this case [29, 30].
45 voltage. For instance, the exceeding amount of power
Among the existing solutions to overcome this
may lead to the charge of ESSs while the dc-link voltage
46 problem, nonlinear stability analysis is used to predict
increases and vice-versa. Therefore, this parameter can
47 the overall qualitative behavior of the system. This
be used to indicate the operating mode and allow the
48 approach considers that the power converters have
eventual transition between distinct modes to occur in an
49 constant power characteristic for any voltage level
adaptive and continuous form. Based on this concept,
50 through the ideal CPL model, which assumes that the
there operating regions can be promptly defined for the
51 input power is constant and equal to the power
dc-link voltage according to Fig. 2 (a).
52 demanded by the load [31-34]. This model is able to
53 maintain and represent nonlinear characteristics
54 properly, being adopted in this work. However, the main
55 drawback regarding the stability analysis when using the
56 nonlinear model lies is the high number of differential
57 equations that makes it somewhat complex, as
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2 V [pu] Fig. 2 (a) and Table I describe the possible operating
3 MPPT mode Mode 3
modes and dc-link voltage regulation characteristics as a
4 VHigh
Droop mode
function of the power flow in the system elements, while
VBus
5 Mode2 the following parameters are defined:
6 VLow RdK Pload – power consumed by the local loads;
Mode1 PDER – power generated by the DERs while operating in
7
8 MPPT;
9 PESS-dsch – minimum power associated to ESSs;
PESS-ch – maximum power associated to ESSs;
10 IO [pu]
Io(max) – maximum current through the dc link;
11 -I Ohigh 0 IOlow
(a) Io(min) – minimum current through the dc link;
12 V [pu] V [pu] IMPP – current at the maximum power point for the
13 DERs;
14 Droopmode Imax – maximum current of the DERs;
VHigh
15 RdK
Currentmode Ich – charge current of the ESSs;
VBus
16 MPPT
Idsch – discharge current of the ESSs;
VLow Mode Droopmode
17 Vo – dc link voltage;
18 RdK Vmax, Vmin – maximum and minimum thresholds for the
19 operating modes of the microgrid.
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20 It is also worth to mention that the power level
21 associated to a given ESS depends on its respective state
0 I O_REDs[ pu] 0 I O_ESSs [pu]
22 IMPP Ihigh -I charge I discharge of charge. For instance, if it is fully discharged, then
23
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(b) (c) PESSs-dsch<0.
24 The forthcoming section is focused on the detailed
25 Fig. 2. (a) Operating modes of a dc microgrid, (b) droop and MPPT analysis of a system using droop control for the
26 curve for the DERs, and (c) droop curve for the ESSs. cooperative load sharing performed by distinct sources.
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27
Firstly, let us present the typical analysis of an Table I
28 Detailed operating modes of a microgrid.
emergency situation, where the dc microgrid operates in
29
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standalone mode and the sources employ an independent Mode Power Range Voltage Range
30 1 Pload – PDER > PESS-dsch Vo < Vmin
and distributed control approach to regulate the dc-link
31 voltage. Since this is a generic analysis, the amount of 2 PESS-ch < Pload – PDER < PESS-dsch Vmin < Vo < Vmax
32 DERs (PV and WE), ESSs, and loads will not be 3 PDER – Pload > PESS-ch Vo > Vmax
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33 established as a conservative estimate. The interface

34 converters of the DERs and ESSs make autonomous III. DROOP CONTROL
35 decisions through the droop and MPPT control system
36 Distinct sources in a distributed control approach
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based only on the dc-link voltage to switch between the

37 operate cooperatively to regulate the dc-link voltage, but
possible operating modes adaptively. For example, if
38 current sharing issues are of major concern since each
DERs are not available and ESSs do not have enough
39 one of them must be able to supply power to the loads
stored energy while the available power is less than that
40 according to the rated capacity. In this context, load
required by the load, or even when a system failure
sharing is essential to prevent overload and ensure
41 comes to occur in this scenario, the dc-link voltage will
proper reliability to the DERs in the microgrid [14],
42 decrease. When the detected voltage drop reaches the
whose coordinated operation depends on the power
43 lower threshold Vmin, the microgrid may become unstable
regulation capability of unidirectional dc-dc converters
44 and, if there is not a proper energy management strategy,
for PV modules, bidirectional dc-dc converters for ESSs,
45 the system may collapse.
and ac-dc converters for WE conversion systems, which
46 On the other hand, if the local power system is
comprise several operating principles and control
47 recovered when the voltage is lower than Vmin, the dc-
strategies [14].
48 link voltage will increase until it becomes higher than
In order to increase flexibility in a dc microgrid, the
49 Vmin, after which ESSs will be charged and regulation is
control approaches associated to the DERs must provide
50 achieved as a consequence. In this case, the voltage
reliable real-time operation by allowing the dc-link
across the dc link is properly regulated by the DERs and
51 voltage to be regulated adaptively. Thus, droop control is
ESSs as demonstrated in Fig. 2 (b) and Fig. 2 (c).
52 mainly used in parallel-operated converters to obtain
When the ESSs reach their respective rated capacities
53 good power sharing and increase system robustness [35-
and there are no loads to be supplied, the dc-link voltage
54 may exceed Vmax. Under this condition, the interface
37], although a significant drawback lies in poor voltage
55 converters must be responsible for regulating the dc-link
regulation. To solve this problem, several solutions have
56 voltage through droop control keeping it within the
been proposed in terms of droop methods as reported in
57 acceptable range between Vmin and Vmax.
[38-40] so that the dc-link voltage can be restored to the
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2 nominal value. However, another critical issue is that The dc-link voltage is represented by Vo in this case,
3 traditional droop control leads to inaccurate power being given by:
4 sharing when the output impedances or line impedances V R + VDC 2 R1 RR
Vo = DC1 2 − 1 2 Io (5)
5 of parallel-connected converters are not the same [41- R1 + R2 R1 + R2
6 43].
The power electronic converters associated to DERs It can be seen that expression (5) is composed by two
7 terms: one of them represents the weighted average of
8 can be modeled as a nonideal representation in the form
of an ideal voltage source connected to an intrinsic series the source voltages, while the remaining one corresponds
9 to the equivalent resistance to the parallel association of
resistance when droop control is employed to improve
10 R1 and R2 multiplied by the load current. If VDC1=VDC2
power sharing and increase the system reliability [44].
11 and the resistances are not equally increased, the first
Therefore, dc microgrids can be properly represented
12 term of (5) is not modified. However, the equivalent
through multiple parallel-connected nonideal voltage
13 sources. In order to properly analyze the contribution of resistance is increased, thus compromising the load
14 each source in such complex system, let us consider a voltage regulation. In this sense, tradeoffs exist between
15 simplified circuit with two sources responsible for load sharing and voltage regulation when the output
16 supplying a given load as shown in Fig. 3, where VDC1 resistance increases.
17 and VDC2 are the dc output voltages of two parallel- Since it is an autonomous method with open-loop
18 connected power electronic converters, while R1 and R2 characteristic, the main advantages of droop control are:
19 are the respective equivalent resistances that connect use of only local variables that are independent of the
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20 them to a common point A in the dc microgrid. communication between the sources; and existence of a
21 direct relationship between load sharing and voltage
22
A regulation. In order to evidence the difference in power
I1 Io I2
23 and current as supplied to a load shared by two
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I1
Io R2 independent sources using droop control, the circuit in
24 VDC1 DC/DC
R1 L
o
I2 RL Fig. 3 (b) was simulated considering two distinct cases,
25 DC/DC a
d while the obtained results are shown in Fig. 4.
26 VDC2 DC/DC
ee

+
Vo
- VDC1 VDC2
27 VDC2=1.04

28
1.02
(a) (b)
VDC1=1.0 VDCR
29 Fig. 3. (a) Representation of a dc microgrid with two parallel-
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0.98
30 connected converters and (b) equivalent circuit representing the VDCR’
Voltage [pu]

0.96 R2
system.
31 0.94

32 0.92 R1
Applying Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws to Fig.
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33 0.9 ∆I’R
3 (b), it is possible to obtain the following expressions: R’2
34 0.88
∆IR
V −V R2
35 I1 = DC1 DC 2 + Io (1)
0.86
R’1
36 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 0.84
iew

0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Current [pu]
37 V −V R1
I 2 = CC 2 CC1 + Io (2) Fig. 4. Load sharing involving two sources with different voltage
38 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 ratings and equal series resistances in a dc microgrid.
39 where I1 and I2 are the dc output currents for converters 1
40 and 2, respectively; and Io is the load current. The The first case is represented by the blue lines in Fig. 4,
41 difference between the currents supplied by the where voltage VDC1 is 4% higher than VDC2 and
42 converters defines the current sharing as ∆I, which can parameters R1=R2 assume low values. It can be seen
43 be represented as: that the currents supplied by the voltage sources are
44 2 (VDC1 − VDC 2 ) R2 − R1 significantly different as evidenced by parameter ∆I R ,
45 ∆I = I1 − I 2 = + Io (3) which represents the current injected in the dc link. Load
46 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
sharing becomes more evident in Fig. 5, where the blue
47 If VCC1=VCC2 and R1=R2 in (3), then ∆I=0 i.e. both lines show that VDC2 is not only able to supply the total
48 converters supply the same current. It can be stated that load power, but also inject power into VDC1. It is worth
49 the difference regarding the power supplied by each to mention that ESSs are capable of supplying or
50 source is directly proportional to the difference between absorbing power as necessary, being this characteristic
51 the voltages and series resistances in this case. Besides, addressed to VDC1.
52 as R1 and R2 increase in the denominator of (3), load
53 sharing is improved.
The load current corresponds to the sum of the
54
individual currents supplied by each converter i.e.:
55
56 V R + VDC 2 R1 − Vo ( R1 + R2 )
I o = I1 + I 2 = DC1 2 (4)
57 R1 R2
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2 VDC2=1.04 [pu] andR2 - sources with V-I characteristic operating with droop
3 control;
4 - sources with V-P or f-P characteristic operating with
5 VDC2=1.04 [pu] and R’2
droop control;
Power [pu]

6 - sources operating with MPPT;

7 VDC1 =1.0 [pu] and R’1 - sources with current source characteristic;
8 - resistive loads;
9 - loads with current source characteristic;
- CPLs;
10 VDC1 =1.0 [pu] and R1

- loads with droop characteristic.

11
12 Time [s]
Sources
DC Link
+ - Loads
13
e – Resistive load:
a – Droop (V-I) :
Fig. 5. Contribution of each source to the supplied power for
14 VDC1≠VDC2 and very low values of R1=R2.
15
16
g – Constant-current load:
In a second instance corresponding to the red lines in
17 Fig. 4, the difference between voltages VDC2 and VDC1 is b – Droop (V-P or f-P):

18 also 4%, but the series resistances are drastically h – Constant-power load:
19 modified i.e. R1' = R2' = 5 ⋅ R1 . Even though the sources
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20
do not present the same voltage ratings, current sharing c – MPPT:
21 is improved since the current supplied to the load from l – Load:

22 VDC2 is reduced, while VDC1 injects a higher current in

23
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the dc link. This fact can be clearly seen according to

24 d – Current Source:
∆I R' in Fig. 4. Under this condition, the source with the q – Load:

25
26 highest voltage is responsible for supplying most part of
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the load power as demonstrated by the red lines in Fig. 5.

27
However, even though the power supplied by VDC1 is
28 Fig. 6. Dc microgrid composed by n sources and m loads.
lower than that in the first scenario, this source
29
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influences current sharing significantly while supplying In standalone mode, the sources operate cooperatively
30 the required load power.
31 to regulate the dc-link voltage and provide greater
From the previous basic concepts associated to reliability. Another issue is the dynamic behavior
32 droop control, it has been demonstrated that there is a regarding the possible operating points of the microgrid,
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33 compromise between voltage regulation and load which is investigated in the forthcoming mathematical
34 power. The forthcoming analysis is extended to several analysis.
35 parallel-connected sources operating with droop and Initially, it is necessary to represent all sources and
36
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MPPT control, being connected to the dc link through loads as current sources while also applying Kirchhoff’s
37 a transmission line to determine the dynamic behavior circuit laws to the model in Fig. 6 i.e.:
38 of the dc-link voltage. n m
39 ∑ I NK − ∑ I LK = 0 . (6)
40 IV. MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF A DC K =1 K =1

41 MICROGRID Then the following expression results:

42  a  V  b  1  1 c 
43
The proposed topology for the dc microgrid consists  ∑  I NK −  + ∑  I PNK − + ∑P SK 
in multiple paralleled sources connected to distinct loads  K =1  RdK  K =1  mK  V K =1 
44 through a common dc link as shown in Fig. 6. Each  d 
45 source can be controlled in droop or MPPT mode, being  + ∑ I SK 
46  K =1 
modeled as an ideal current source INK in parallel with a (7)
47 virtual droop resistance RdK. The model obtained from  e g
1 h 
 −V ∑ ( RLK ) + ∑ ( − I CLK ) + ∑ ( − PLK ) + 
−1
48 the n-source circuit in Fig. 6 is referred to as the n-source V
+ l =0
K =1 K =1 K =1
49 model in this work.   V  q  1  
50  + ∑  I NLK −
The proposed study is typically employed in the  + ∑  I PLNK −  
51 representation of emergency situations where the dc  K =1  RdLK  K =1  mLK  
52 microgrid operates in standalone mode, without where:
53 communication with the central control system and I NK – ideal current source;
54 sources. Therefore, each controller of the power
I LK – load represented by an ideal current source;
55 converter uses only local variables, being this
56 configuration composed of the following elements in V = Vo – voltage across the dc link;
57 represented in Fig. 6:
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2 RdK – droop resistance of the droop-controlled source A =  − ( Rdeq ) − ( RLeq ) − ( RdLeq ) 
−1 −1 −1

3 with V-I characteristic;  

4 I PNK – droop-controlled current source with V-P or f-P  a l d g
−1 
5 B =  ∑ I NK + ∑ I NLK + ∑ I SK − ∑ I CLK − meq−1 − mLeq  .(9)
characteristic;  K =1 K =1 K =1 K =1 
6 mK – power droop in droop-controlled loads with V-P or
7  V 
b q
V  c h 
f-P characteristic; C =  ∑  nlK  + ∑  oK  + ∑ PSK − ∑ PLK 
8
PSK – power supplied by the source operating in MPPT  K =1  mK  K =1  mLK  K =1 K =1 
9 Term “A” in (9) is the equivalent resistance of the
10 mode;
system, which can be represented as:
11 I SK – current supplied by a given current source;
1
12 RLK – load resistance; A=− . (10)
13 Req
I CLK – current absorbed by a constant-current load;
14 Let us consider the following statement:
PLK – power consumed by a CPL;
15 R 1 V
m= d → = =I (11)
16 I NLK – current absorbed by the droop-controlled load V m Rd
17 with V-I characteristic; Therefore it can be seen that 1/m corresponds to a
18 RdLK – droop-controlled resistive load with V-I current, as term B in (9) represents the equivalent current
19 characteristic; through the system i.e.
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20 I PLNK – current absorbed by a droop-controlled load with B = I eq . (12)
21 V-P or f-P characteristic; Finally, term “C” in (9) is the equivalent power of the
22
mLK – power droop in droop-controlled loads with V-P system, being simplified as:
23
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or f-P characteristic. C = Peq . (13)

24
The first term in (7) represents the sources, while the
25 It is possible to rewrite (8) as a function of (9), which
second one corresponds to the loads. Then expression (7)
26 gives:
ee

can be simplified as:

27 1
AV + C + B = 0 .
V  − ( Rdeq ) − ( RLeq ) − ( RdLeq )  +
−1 −1 −1 (14)
28 V
 
29 A second-degree equation can be obtained by
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30 1  b  VnlK  q  VoK  c h 
∑   + ∑  + ∑ PSK − ∑ PLK  +
+ multiplying both sides of (14) by V:
31 V  K =1  mK  K =1  mLK  K =1 K =1  AV 2 + BV + C = 0 . (15)
32 Solving (15), two possible roots can be obtained as
 a l d g
−1 
+  ∑ I NK + ∑ I NLK + ∑ I SK − ∑ I CLK − meq−1 − mLeq
ev

33 =0 represented in (16).

34  K =1 K =1 K =1 K =1 
( ) ( ) ( )
2
35 (8) − B ± B 2 − 4 AC − A ±
B B −4 C
A A
36 V= = .(16)
iew

where:
2A 2
37 Rdeq – equivalent droop resistance of the droop- Substituting (10), (12), and (13) in (16) gives:
38 controlled source with V-I characteristic;
(R )
2
39 RLeq – equivalent resistance of the resistive loads; Req I eq ± I
eq eq + 4 Req Peq
40 V= (17)
RdLeq – equivalent resistance of the droop-controlled 2
41 The term inside the square root in (17) is the equation
42 loads with V-I characteristic; discriminant, which can be represented as a function of
43 VnlK – equivalent Thévenin voltage of the droop- V. Therefore, both current and power sharing can be
44 controlled sources with V-P or f-P characteristic; determined as in (18).
45 VoK – load voltage; V Peq
46 + + I eq = f (V ) . (18)
meq−1 – equivalent current associated to the droop − Req V
47
48 resistance of the sources with V-I characteristic; Expression (19) can then be determined differentiating
−1
49 mLeq – equivalent current associated to the droop (18) with respect to V. In this case, it represents the
50 resistance of the loads with V-I characteristic; variation rate with respect to the dc-link voltage, where
51 The following terms can be substituted in (8): the current decreases when the current decreases and
52 vice-versa so that it is possible to achieve an equilibrium
point.
53
54 1 Peq df (V )
− − = . (19)
55 Req V 2 dV
56 If both voltage and current increase or decrease
57 simultaneously, the system may become unstable, as the
58
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Page 7 of 10 European Transactions on Electrical Power

1
2 possible operating conditions associated to (18) are When I eq > 0 and Peq = ( − Req I eq2 ) 4 , the system
3 described in the detail as follows.
presents two positive roots that are equal to each other,
4
where only a minimum threshold is imposed to keep the
5 V. STATIC ANALYSIS OF THE OPERATING
6 POINTS FOR THE DC MICROGRID stability of the dc link. Any value Peq < ( − Req I eq2 ) 4
7 The previous mathematical model that represents the causes the microgrid to become unstable, as this
8 dc microgrid is of great importance to perform the static condition should be avoided.
9 analysis, as it is possible to determine the equilibrium If I eq < 0 and Peq > 0 , the system presents a solution
10 points of the system. Since I eq and Peq depend directly that is similar to that regarding the first case, but the only
11 difference lies in the negative current, thus denoting that
on the sources and loads connected to the system, such
12 parameters tend to vary in practice while this condition there is a valid operating point for the microgrid even
13 must be considered to solve (17) and (18), and when it supplies power to the ESSs.
14 consequently define the operating points for the Finally, the fifth and sixth cases correspond to
15 microgrid. theoretical conditions that cannot be assumed by the
16 From (17) and (18), it is reasonable to state that two microgrid as characterized by two negative roots
17 roots exists in terms of voltages V1 and V2 , which can obtained from (17).
18
assumed to be either positive and/or negative. The
19 square root of a negative value in (17) is only a
VI. GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE DC
Fo
20 theoretical operating point and does not effectively
MICROGRID
21 represent the microgrid in practice, since the dc-link In order to provide a better explanation of the static
22 voltage cannot be negative. On the other hand, the analysis applied to the operating points of the microgrid,
23
rP

square root of a positive value in this case is a valid it is possible to perform a graphical analysis of
24 condition that can be employed in the forthcoming expressions (17) and (18).
25 analysis. The equilibrium point between the source and load is
26 In order to simplify the study, Table II is presented in achieved when f (V ) = 0 . Then expression (17) shows
ee

27 terms of the behavior of parameter I eq . If I eq > 0 and how current sharing is achieved when equilibrium exists
28
Peq > 0 , expression (17) provides a positive root and a between the consumed and generated power. Table II
29 should be considered for simplicity, where V can assume
rR

30 negative one. The positive root corresponds to a real

negative values theoretically speaking, what is not
31 operating condition for the dc-link voltage, but the
negative one is not viable in practice, since the microgrid feasible in practice because ( P V ) ≥ 0 if V < 0 .
32
would supply all power generated by the DERs and Fig. 7 represents the first condition in Table II where
ev

33
34
stored in the ESSs to the load in this case. Peq > 0 and I eq > 0 , while 0 < Peq 2 < Peq1 < Peq . For a
35 Table II same value of Peq , it can be seen that expression (17)
Summarized operating conditions of the dc microgrid derived from the
36
iew

mathematical model (16) provides equilibrium points i.e. roots V1 >0 (real
37 Peq > 0 V1 > 0 V2 < 0 condition) and V2 <0 (theoretical condition).
38
39 − Req I eq2
< Peq ≤ 0 V1 > 0 V2 ≥ 0
I eq > 0
40 4
V1 > 0
41 − Req I eq2
V1 = V2 =
Req I eq
>0
Peq =
42 4 2
43 Peq > 0 V1 > 0 V2 < 0
44 −R I 2
eq eq
< Peq ≤ 0 V1 ≤ 0 V2 < 0
45 I eq < 0 4
46 V1 < 0
− Req I eq2 Req I eq
47 Peq = V1 = V2 =
2
<0
4
48
49 The second case considers I eq > 0 and
50
51 (−R I2
eq eq 4 ) < Peq ≤ 0 , where V1 > 0 and V2 ≥ 0 , while
Fig. 7. Operating points of the dc microgrid for I eq > 0 and Peq > 0 .
52 Peq must be maintained to a restricted interval.
53 Otherwise, the resulting roots will be complex and there When f (V ) = 0 and [ df (V ) dV ] < 0 , there is a
54 will be no stable operating points for the microgrid. It is
55 stable operating point i.e.:
worth to mention that the voltage may assume two
56 V1
positive values V1 and V2 , which correspond to an I eq = . (20)
57 attractor point and a repeller point, respectively.
Req
58
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 European Transactions on Electrical Power Page 8 of 10

1
2 df (V ) 1 zero i.e. V1 = V2 = ( Req I eq 2 ) > 0 . The single point
=− . (21)
3 dV Req V1 = V2 must be avoided as much as possible since it
4
where the right-hand side of (20) represents the droop. represents the boundary condition for the system
5
When f (V ) > 0 , voltage V1 increases. Otherwise V1 stability, corresponding to the minimum equivalent
6
7 will decrease if f (V ) < 0 . Thus the operating point power Peq ( min ) . It is reasonable to state that the dc-link
8 becomes stable if [ df (V ) dV ] < 0 . Analogously, voltage becomes stable for any Peq < ( − Req I eq2 4 ) .
9 parameters can be greater than, less than, or equal to zero
10 even though V > 0 . Therefore the point represented by
11 “V1” and the respective sides are of major importance
12 for the common dc link. A similar analysis can be
13 performed for V2, but it will be suppressed because a
14 single theoretical point can be obtained in this case.
15 Fig. 8 corresponds to the second operating condition
16 in Table II, where − ( Req I eq2 4 ) < Peq ≤ 0 for I eq > 0 and
17
18 − ( Req I eq2 4 ) < Peq 2 < Peq1 < Peq ≤ 0 .
19
Fo
20
21
22 Fig. 9. Operating points of the dc microgrid for I eq > 0 and
23
rP

Peq = ( − Req I eq2 4 ) .

24
25
Fig. 10 shows the fourth possible operating condition
26
ee

which, analogously to the first one, presents one positive

27
root V1 and one negative root V2 . It is worth to mention
28
29 that the current flows from the dc link to the ESSs when
rR

30 I eq < 0 in this case, while the ESSs absorb all energy

31 generated by the REDs.
Fig. 8. Operating points of the dc microgrid for I eq > 0 and
32
ev

33 ( −R 2
I
eq eq 4 ) < Peq ≤ 0 .
34
35 The curves represented on the left-hand side of the
36
iew

ordinate axes do not provide any root for the solution of

37 (17), while the ones on the right-hand side curves
38 represent positive and real roots. As Peq tends to zero, it
39
can be seen that two positive and real roots will exist. It
40 is noteworthy that only V1 is a stable solution for the dc
41 microgrid since this root is the farthest one from zero.
42 This is due to the fact that V1 is an attractor point, that it,
43
the dc-link voltage tends to remain constant at such
44 Fig. 10. Operating points of the dc microgrid for I eq < 0 and Peq > 0 .
value even when the demanded power increases or
45
decreases. Even though it represents a positive value,
46
point V2 is a repeller, as the dc-link voltage will tend to a The fifth operating condition is valid for
47
48
nearby region of V1 when the voltage approaches V2. − ( Req I eq2 4 ) < Peq ≤ 0 and I eq < 0 , while the sixth one
This behavior is evidenced in Fig. 8 and can be extended
49 corresponds to Peq = − ( Req I eq2 4 ) and I eq < 0 . Both
to other points. When Peq tends to − ( Req I eq2 4 ) , the
50
51 roots of (17) tend to be far from zero and V1 ≅ V2 . them represent only theoretical solutions for (17) since
the dc microgrid cannot operate with negative voltages.
52 The third operating condition is Peq = ( − Req I eq2 4 ) and Finally, it can be stated that the graphical analysis
53
I eq > 0 as represented in Fig. 9, where there is a single presented in this section shows that equilibrium between
54
the source and load is only achieved when f (V ) = 0 .
55 negative value for Peq . In this case, the roots of
56 expression (17) are equal to each other and greater than
57
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Page 9 of 10 European Transactions on Electrical Power

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ee

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rP

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ee

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rR

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ev

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iew

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