PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG PASIG

ALKALDE JOSE ST., KAPASIGAN, PASIG CITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
ECE 426

SUBMITTED BY:

PERILLO, WINCY R.

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. ANTONIO L. SUINAN

DATE:
NOVEMBER 18, 2019

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ………………………………………………………………… Page Number

Cover Page ………………………………………………………………. i

Table of Content …………………………………………………………. ii

Rectifier …………………………………………………………………… 1 - 2

Filter (L, C) ………………………………………………………………... 2 - 4

Voltage Regulator ………………………………………………………… 4 - 6

Silicon Control Rectifier ……………………………………………….…. 6 - 8

Triac ………………………………………………………………………... 8 - 9

Diac …………………………………………………………………………. 9 - 10

UniJunction Transistor ……………………………………………………. 10 - 11

Programmable UJT …………………………………………………….…. 11 - 12

LASCR ……………………………………………………………………… 12 - 13

Phototransistor ………………………………………………………….…. 13 – 14

References …………………………………………………………………. 14

ii
 Rectifier
Definition

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC) into a

Direct Current (DC) by using one or more P-N junction diodes.

What is a rectifier?

When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the
diode is said to be forward biased.

When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor, the
diode is said to be reverse biased.

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Types of rectifiers

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:

 Half wave rectifier

 Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier

As the name suggests, the half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts
half of the AC input signal (positive half cycle) into pulsating DC output signal and
the remaining half signal (negative half cycle) is blocked or lost. In half wave
rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.

Full wave rectifier

The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input signal
(positive half cycle and negative half cycle) to pulsating DC output signal. Unlike
the half wave rectifier, the input signal is not wasted in full wave rectifier. The
efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the half wave rectifier.

Filter (L, C)

A filter circuit is one which removes the ac component present in the rectified
output and allows the dc component to reach the load.
The following figure shows the functionality of a filter circuit.

A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor.
We have already studied in Basic Electronics tutorial that
 An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.
 A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.

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Series Inductor Filter
As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can
be constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the
load. The figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac
components that are present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc. This is a
simple primary filter.
Shunt Capacitor Filter
As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor
Filter can be constructed using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the
following figure.

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the ac components present
in the signal are grounded through the capacitor which allows ac components.
The remaining dc components present in the signal are collected at the output.
L-C Filter
A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to
obtain a better output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be
used. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a LC filter.

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The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows dc components
to pass through it, blocking the ac components in the signal. Now, from that signal,
few more ac components if any present are grounded so that we get a pure dc
output.
This filter is also called as a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the
inductor. The output of this filter is a better one than the previous ones.
Π- Filter (Pi filter)
This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor
at its input and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two
capacitors and one inductor are connected in the form of π shaped network. A
capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another capacitor in
parallel makes this circuit.
If needed, several identical sections can also be added to this, according to the
requirement. The figure below shows a circuit for (Pi-filter).

Voltage Regulator

Definition
A voltage regulator is used to regulate
voltage level. When a steady, reliable
voltage is needed, then voltage
regulator is the preferred device. It
generates a fixed output voltage that
remains constant for any changes in
an input voltage or load conditions. It
acts as a buffer for protecting
components from damages.
A voltage regulator is a device with a
simple feed- forward design and it
uses negative feedback control loops.

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Types of Voltage Regulators
Basically, there are two types of Voltage regulators: Linear voltage regulator and
Switching voltage regulator.
 There are two types of Linear voltage regulators: Series and Shunt.
 There are three types of Switching voltage regulators: Step up, Step down and
Inverter voltage regulators.

Linear Regulator
Linear regulator acts like a voltage divider. In Ohmic region, it uses FET. The
resistance of the voltage regulator varies with load resulting in constant output
voltage.

Advantages of linear voltage Disadvantages of linear voltage

regulator regulator
 Gives a low output ripple voltage  Efficiency is very low
 Fast response time to load or line  Requires large space – heatsink is
changes needed
 Low electromagnetic interference  Voltage above the input cannot be
and less noise increased

Series Voltage Regulator

A series voltage regulator uses a
variable element placed in series with
the load. By changing the resistance
of that series element, the voltage
dropped across it can be changed.
And, the voltage across the load
remains constant.

The amount of current drawn is effectively used by the load; this is the main
advantage of the series voltage regulator. Even when the load does not require
any current, the series regulator does not draw full current. Therefore, a series
regulator is considerably more efficient than shunt voltage regulator.
Shunt Voltage Regulator
A shunt voltage regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to
ground through a variable resistance. The current through the shunt regulator is
diverted away from the load and flows uselessly to the ground, making this form
usually less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes
consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered
circuits wherein the wasted current is too small to be of concern. This form is very
common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt regulator can usually only sink
(absorb) current.

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 Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Definition

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a 3 terminal and 4-layer semiconductor current

controlling device. It is mainly used in the devices for the control of high power.
Silicon controlled rectifier is also sometimes referred to as SCR diode, 4-layer
diode, 4-layer device, or Thyristor. It is made up of a silicon material which controls
high power and converts high AC current into DC current (rectification). Hence, it
is named as silicon controlled rectifier.

The principle of p-n-p-n switching was

developedby Tanenbaum, Goldey, M
oll and Holonyak of Bell Laboratories
in 1956. The silicon controlled rectifier
was developed by a team of power
engineers led by Gordon Hall and
commercialized by Frank W. Frank
W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957. In the
early days of this device
development, it is often referred by
names like SCR and controlled
rectifier. However, now-a-days, this
device is often referred by Thyristor.

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Silicon Controlled Rectifier Symbol

The schematic symbol of a silicon

controlled rectifier is shown in the
below figure. A SCR diode consists of
three terminals namely anode (A),
cathode (K), Gate (G). The diode
arrow represents the direction
of conventional current.

Modes of Operation in SCR

There are three modes of operation for a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR),
depending upon the biasing given to it.

1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off

State)

When the voltage applied to the SCR

reaches a breakdown value, the high
energy minority carriers causes
avalanche breakdown. At this
breakdown voltage, current starts
flowing through the SCR. But below
this breakdown voltage, the SCR
offers very high resistance to the
current and so it will be in off state.

2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier can

be made to conduct in two ways:

i. By increasing the forward bias

voltage applied between
anode and cathode beyond the
breakdown voltage
ii. By applying positive voltage at
gate terminal.

In this mode of operation, SCR is

forward biased and current flows
through it. Hence, it is named as
Forward Conducting Mode.

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3) Reverse Blocking Mode (On
State)

this mode of operation, the negative

voltage (-) is given to anode (+),
positive voltage (+) is given to
cathode (-), and gate is open
circuited as shown in the below
figure. In this case, the junction
J1 and junction J3 are reverse
biased whereas the
junction J2 becomes forward biased.

As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through the
SCR circuit. But a small leakage current flows due to drift of charge carriers in the
forward biased junction J2. This small leakage current is not enough to turn on the
SCR. So the SCR will be in Off state.

TRIAC
Definition

Triac is a three terminal AC switch

which is different from the other
silicon controlled rectifiers in the
sense that it can conduct in both the
directions that is whether the applied
gate signal is positive or negative, it
will conduct. Thus, this device can be
used for AC systems as a switch.
This is a three terminal, four layer, bi-
directional semiconductor device that
controls AC power. The triac of
maximum rating of 16 kw is available
in the market.

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Construction of Triac
Two SCRs are connected in inverse parallel with gate terminal as common. Gate
terminals is connected to both the N and P regions due to which gate signal may
be applied which is irrespective of the polarity of the signal. Here, we do not have
anode and cathode since it works for both the polarities which means that device
is bilateral. It consists of three terminals namely, main terminal 1(MT 1), main
terminal 2(MT2), and gate terminal G.

Advantages of Triac SCR protection should be

1. It can be triggered with positive
or negative polarity of gate
pulses.
2. It requires only a single heat
sink of slightly larger size,
whereas for SCR, two heat
sinks should be required of
smaller size.
3. It requires single fuse for
protection.
4. A safe breakdown in either
direction is possible but for
given with parallel diode.
Disadvantages of Triac
1. They are not much reliable
compared to SCR.
2. It has (dv/dt) rating lower than
SCR.
3. Lower ratings are available
compared to SCR.
4. We need to be careful about
the triggering circuit as it can
be triggered in either direction.

DIAC
Definition
A DIAC is a diode that conducts
electrical current only after its break
over voltage (VBO) has been reached.
DIAC stands for “Diode for Alternating
Current”. A DIAC is a device which
has two electrodes, and it is a
member of the thyristor family. DIACs
are used in the triggering of thyristors.
The figure below shows a symbol of a
DIAC, which resembles the
connection of two diodes in series.

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Application of DIAC
The main application of a DIAC is its use in a TRIAC triggering circuit. The DIAC
is connected to the gate terminal of the TRIAC. When the voltage across the gate
decreases below a predetermined value, the gate voltage will be zero and hence
the TRIAC will be turned off.

Some other applications of a DIAC include:

1. It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit

2. It is used in a heat control circuit
3. It is used in the speed control of a universal motor

Construction of DIAC
It is a device which consists of four
layers and two terminals. The
construction is almost the same as
that of the transistor. But there are
certain points which deviate from the
construction from the transistor. The
differentiating points are-

1. There is no base terminal in

the DIAC
2. The three regions have almost
the same level of doping
3. It gives symmetrical switching
characteristics for either
polarity of voltages

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

Definition

UJT stands for Uni Junction Transistor. It is a three terminal semiconductor

switching device. The Unijunction Transistor is a simple device that consists of a
bar of n-type silicon material with a non-rectifying contact at either end (base 1 and
base 2), and with a rectifying contact (emitter) alloyed into the bar part way along
its length, to form the only junction within the device (hence the name
‘Unijunction’). The Unijunction Transistor is also known as Double Base Diode.

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 Symbol and Construction of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

In Unijunction Transistor, the PN Junction is formed by lightly doped N type silicon

bar with heavily doped P type material on one side. The ohmic contact on either
ends of the silicon bar are termed as Base 1 (B1) and Base 2 (B2) and P-type
terminal is named as emitter.

Applications of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The Unijunction Transistor can be employed in variety of applications such as:

 Switching Device
 Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR’s
 Timing Circuits
 For phase control
 In saw tooth generators
 In simple relaxation oscillators

Programmable UJT (PUT)

Definition

Programmable unijunction transistor or PUT is a close relative of the thyristor

family. It has a four layered construction just like the thyristors and have three
terminals named anode(A), cathode(K) and gate(G) again like the thyristors. Yet
some authors call it a programmable UJT just because its characteristics and
parameters have much similarity to that of the unijunction transistor. It is called
programmable because the parameters like intrinsic standoff ratio (η), peak
voltage(Vp) etc can be programmed with the help of two external resistors. In a
UJT, the parameters like Vp, η etc are fixed and we cannot change it.

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From the above figure, you can see that the PUT has a four layered construction.
Topmost P-layer is called the anode (A). The N-layer next to the anode is called
the gate (G). The P-layer next to the gate is left alone. The bottom most N-layer is
called cathode (K). Ohmic contacts are made on the anode, cathode and gate
layers for external connection.

PUT Applications
There are many, many applications for this device, but it is mainly useful for
triggering thyristors. Other than for thyristor triggering, the ubiquitous 555 timers
have taken over

LASCR
Definition

Light activated SCR (LASCR) or a Photo SCR is just an ordinary SCR except
that it can also be light triggered. Most LASCRs also have a gate terminal for
being triggered by an electrical pulse just as a conventional SCR. The basic
construction of an LASCR is shown in figure. The schematic symbols most
commonly used for the LASCR are shown in figure. Some LASCRs have clear
windows in their cases so that light sources from other devices can be coupled to
them. Many have the light source encapsulated in the same package so that a
relay is formed. When the light falling on depletion layers is strong enough, valence
electrons are dislodged from their orbits and become free electrons. When these
free electrons flow out of the collector of one, transistor into the base of the other.

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 LASCR Symbol

The positive feedback starts and the

LASCR turns on just like a normal
SCR, the LASCR will continue to
conduct even if the light source is
removed. For maximum sensitivity to
light, the gate is left open, as shown
in figure. Trigger adjust can be
included if an adjustable trip point is
desired as shown in figure. The gate
resistor diverts some of the light
produced electrons and alters the
sensitivity of the circuit to the
incoming light. The devices are for
low power applications.

LASCR Applications

The LASCRs find many applications including optical light controls, relays, phase
control, motor control and a large number of computer applications. The maximum
current (rms) and power (gate) ratings for LASCRs commercially avail-able are
about 3 A and 0.1 W. With the increase in junction temperature the light energy
required to activate the device is reduced.

Phototransistor
Definition

The phototransistor is a three-layer semiconductor device which has a light-

sensitive base region. The base senses the light and converts it into the current
which flows between the collector and the emitter region.

The construction of phototransistor is similar to the ordinary transistor, except the

base terminal. In phototransistor, the base terminal is not provided, and instead of
the base current, the light energy is taken as the input.

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Symbol of Phototransistor
The symbol of the phototransistor is
similar to that of the ordinary
transistor. The only difference is that
of the two arrows which show the light
incident on the base of the
phototransistor.

Phototransistor Construction
The construction of the
phototransistor is quite similar to the
ordinary transistor. Earlier, the
germanium and silicon are used for
fabricating the phototransistor. The
small hole is made on the surface of
the collector-base junction for placing
the lens. The lens focuses the light on
the surface.

References:
https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-
circuits/rectifier/rectifier-whatisrectifier.html
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_circuits/electronic_circuits_filters.htm
https://www.elprocus.com/types-of-voltage-regulators-and-working-principle/
https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-
circuits/semiconductor-diodes/silicon-controlled-rectifier.html
https://www.electrical4u.com/triac/
https://www.electrical4u.com/diac/
https://electricalfundablog.com/unijunction-transistor-ujt-construction-working-
characteristics-curve-applications/
https://www.electroschematics.com/programmable-unijunction-transistor-put-
flasher-circuit/
http://www.circuitstoday.com/lascr-light-activated-scr

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