A SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON
AIR (ALL INDIA RADIO) (2019-20)

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY: - SHIVAM TIWARI
UNI. ROLL NO. : - 1605631045
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF: - D.N. OJHA

BABU BANARASI DAS NORTHERN INDIA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW

AFFILIATED BY
DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,
LUCKNOW
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like express my gratitude and appreciation to

all who gave me the possibility to complete this report.
A special thanks to our TRAINING HEAD D.N. OJHA SIR
whose help, suggestions and encouragement helped
me to coordinate my training session.

I would also like to acknowledge with much

appreciation the crucial role of the staff of ALL INDIA
RADIO (AIR), KANPUR who gave the permission to use
all required machinery and the necessary material
needed for my training.

Last but not least, many thanks goes to the HEAD OF

ENGINEERING OF ALL INDIA RADIO, KANPUR V.B.
PATEL who has given his effort in guiding me in
achieving the goal as well as his encouragement to
maintain our progress in track. I would also like to
appreciate the guidance given by other supervisors.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORY
3. INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION
4. PRESENT SETUP
5. STUDIO CUM OFFICE COMPLEX
6. STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK
7. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM AT STUDIO
8. ANTENNAS
9. TRANSMITTER COMPLEXSPECIFICATIONS
10. 100 KW BEL HMB 140 MW TRANSMITTER
11. CONTROL AND INTER LOCK SYSTEM
12. COOLING TECHNIQUES IN TRANSMITTER
13. ANTENNA TUNING UNIT
14. AKASAVANI IN NEAR FUTURE
15. CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION
Commercial broadcasting service, All India Radio, Kanpur is situated at Dr. Ambedkar road,
Benajhabar, Kanpur about 6km from Kanpur central Railway station. The geographical
Coordinates of the station are; Latitude-26 28 42 N, Longitude-80 1925"E and high above
Mean sea level 120m.
The centre was commissioned on 15 Sep 1963 as an auxiliary centre For broadcasting ‘Vividh
Bharti' program by producing tapes from Vividh Bharti service
Mumbai. Commercial were introduced over this Vividh Bharti centre on 27th Dec 1973 and
Since then booking of advertisement are being accepted for the AIR Station of U.P. through
Various agencies and departments. Though it has been declared as an industry but the work
Involved is restricted to broad cast of Vividh Bharti program and booking of commercial
Spots. The AIR organization comes under the Prasar Bharti (the broad casting corporation of
India) and autonomous body since 23 Nov. 1997.

In the 10 plan the existing 1kw mw BEL transmitter is being replaced with 10kw FMM
Transmitter & the existing studio set up have been replaced with stereo facilities.
GYANWANI
FM service on 10kw FM Harris make transmitter has been started from 22 June 2006 & FM
Rainbow service of AIR on 1kw FM Ecreso make transmitter has been started from 11th July
2006.

Private operates under FM phase scheme have also started their FM services on 92.7
MHz, 93.5 MHz & 98.3 MHz respectively w.e.f. 19th June 2007 that is the date of
Commissioning of CTI through F\S BECIL from AIR premises under MOU signed b\w
Prasar Bharti & BECIL & b\w Prasar Bharti and private operators.

All India Radio (AIR), officially known since 1956 as Akashvani ("Voice from the Sky"), is the
national public radio broadcaster of India and is a division of Prasar Bharati. It was
established in 1930. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, an Indian
television broadcaster. Headquartered in the Akashvani Bhavan building in New Delhi, it
houses the Drama Section, the FM Section, the National Service, and is also home to the
Indian television station Doordarshan Kendra, (Delhi).

All India Radio is the largest radio network in the world, and one of the largest broadcasting
organizations in the world in terms of the number of languages broadcast and the spectrum
of socio-economic and cultural diversity it serves. AIR’s home service comprises 420 stations
located across the country, reaching nearly 92% of the country’s area and 99.19% of the
total population. AIR originates programming in 23 languages and 179 dialects.
 HISTORY
Broadcasting began in June 1923 during the British Raj with programs by the Bombay
Presidency Radio Club and other radio clubs. According to an agreement on 23 July 1927,
the private Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio
stations: the Bombay station which began on 23 July 1927, and the Calcutta station which
followed on 26 August 1927. The company went into liquidation on 1 March 1930. The
government took over the broadcasting facilities and began the Indian State Broadcasting
Service (ISBS) on 1 April 1930 on an experimental basis for two years, and permanently in
May 1932 it then went on to become All India Radio on 8 June 1936.

On 1 October 1939, the External Service began with a broadcast in Pushtu. It was intended
to counter radio propaganda from Germany directed at Afghanistan, Persia and
Arabnations. 1939 also saw the opening of the Dhaka station of Eastern India, in what is
now Bangladesh. This station catered and nurtured the pioneers of Bengali intellectuals. The
foremost among them, Natyaguru Nurul Momen, became the trail-blazer of the talk-show in
1939. He wrote and directed the first modern radio-play for this station in 1942. When India
became independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations
(Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Lucknow, and Tiruchirappalli). The three radio stations
at Lahore, Peshawar and Dhaka remained in what became Pakistan after the division. The
total number of radio sets in India at that time was about 275,000. On 3 October 1957,
the Vividh Bharati Service was launched, to compete with Radio Ceylon. Television
broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as part of AIR, but was split off from the radio network
as Doordarshanon 1 April 1976. FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, and
expanded during the 1990s.

Deccan Radio (Nizam Radio 1932), the first radio station in Hyderabad
State (now Hyderabad, India), went live on air on 3 February 1935. It was launched by Mir
Osman Ali Khan the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad with a transmitting power of 200 Watts. On 1
April 1950, Deccan Radio was taken over by the Indian Government, and in 1956 it was
merged with All India Radio (AIR). Since then, it has been known as AIR-Hyderabad
(100 kW).
 PRESENT SETUP
Currently there are two complexes in All India Radio (A.I.R) :-

1. STUDIO CUM OFFICE COMPLEX

2. TRANSMITTER COMPLEX

STUDIO CUM OFFICE COMPLEX

A broadcasting studio is a room in studio complex which has been specially designed and
constructed to serve the purpose of originating broadcasting programs. Whenever any
musician sings and we sit in front of a performing musician to listen to him, we enjoy the
program by virtue of the superb qualities of our sensory organs namely ears. However,
when we listen to the same program over the broadcast chain at our home through
domestic receivers, the conditions are entirely different. These changes that we experience
are because of the audio processing that are performed in a broadcasting studio. There are
three studios at AKASHVANI, KANPUR studio complex. They are:

 MUSIC STUDIO
 TALK STUDIO
 PLAYBACK STUDIO

Music and talk studio are together known as RECORDING STUDIO. A Recording studio is a
facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and the monitoring spaces
are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic properties (acoustic
isolation or diffusion or absorption of reflected sound that could otherwise interface with
the sound heard by the listener).
Recording studios may be used by recording musicians, voice over dialogue replacement in
film, television or animation, Foley or to record their accompanying musical sound tracks.
The typical recording studio consists of a room called “Studio” or “Live room”, where
instrumentalists and vocalists perform; and the “Control room”, where sound engineers
operate professional audio for analog or digital recording to route and manipulate the
sound.
Following equipment are generally provided in a recording/dubbing room:
i) Console tape recorders
ii) Console tape decks
iii) Recording/dubbing panel having switches jacks and keyset.

The above equipment can be used for the following purpose

 For recording of programmes originating from any studio.
 For recording of programmes available in the switching.
 Consoles in control room.
 For dubbing of programmes available on cassette tape.
 For editing of programmes.
 For mixing and recording of programmes.
 We can brief the studio arrangements at AIR-KANPUR as follows:

 MUSIC STUDIO

The MUSIC STUDIO is an acoustically treated room attached to a control room. The
studio consists of five microphones and sufficient musical instruments. The control room
consists of workstations/computers and a control console for adjusting and checking the
quality of the program. These arrangements together are used for producing musical
programmes. Live musical programmes can be also conducted here. SONYSOUND FORGE is
the software which is commonly used for processing the raw version of the recorded
program. The processed version of the recording is saved to the server and then it is made
available for broadcasting by scheduling it to the program list using the software VIRTUAL
STUDIO.

 TALK STUDIO

The TALK STUDIO is similar to a music studio with an acoustically treated LIVE ROOM
and a CONTROL ROOM. The live room consists of only two microphones. It is equipped with
a telephone connection which is a user friendly attribute for recording Phone-in programs.
The control room consists of an additional Phone-in console for conducting Phone-in
programs. The acoustics of the talk studio is entirely different from a music studio. It is
constructed in such a way that the reverberation time is minimised and no echo is
experienced. The recording produced and processed at the talk studio is then forwarded to
the playback studio for transmission. Talk studio can be also used to produce live chat
programs.

 PLAYBACK STUDIO

A PLAYBACK STUDIO is entirely different from all other studios. It consists of

transmission console, microphones, two workstations/computers (Master & Standby). Its
main function is co-ordinating the programs, announcements and advertisements. All the
recorded programs will be available in the workstations used and the programs are sent to
the control room for broadcasting as per the schedule. Before transmission of the first
program a tone of 1 kHz and signature tone will be aired. A GPS clock is used both in the
studio complex and transmitting section, to avoid time delays.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF STUDIO

CONTROL
TALK STUDIO
ROOM

PLAYBACK DUBBING/EDIT
STUDIO
SWITCHER TING STUDIO

CONTROL
MUSIC STUDIO ROOM SERVER

CONTROL ROOM STUDIO CONSOLE

The Studio console is the major equipment used in the STUDIO CONTROL ROOM. It is with
the help of this device the different programmes that are produced and those that are
received from other stations routed to air. The various inputs to the console are the
programmes from various studios, the programmes that are received using a C BAND
receiver which is broadcasted from Delhi and the programmes that are received via an ISDN
link from Calicut and Thiruvananthapuram. The Outputs from the console is taken through
two master amplifiers among which one is active at a time. This output is directed to
STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK (STL).
 CONTROL ROOM AUDIO CONSOLE INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS

TALK
DELHI (C- STUDIO MUSIC
BAND DISH STUDIO
OUTPUT)

CONTROL
ROOM AUDIO
CONSOLE

BSNL LINK TO MASTER PLAYBACK

OTHER AMPLIFIER 1 OR 2 STUDIO
STATIONS
(CALICUT AND
TVM)
STUDIO
TRANSMITTER
LINK

STUDIO TRANSMITTER LINK:

The programs produced at the Studios are not transmitted from the same complex with
intention of preventing the problems due to interference and radiation. Instead, the
programs are transmitted from the transmission complex which is situated at Avenzoar. The
high quality sound programmes from AIR studio centre are normally transported to the AIR
transmitting centre with the help of a transmission link named as the STUDIO TRANSMITTER
LINK (STL).
AIR is having three types of STL called STL-01, STL-02 and STL-05. The numbers 01, 02 and
05 describe the number of base band (50Hz – 15 kHz) channels that could be transported.
At KANPUR, we are using STL-01 since we are transmitting only one base band channel
For quality transmission of the programmes, STL is realised using four methods. They are:
1. A microwave link
2. 10W FM transmitter link
3. ISDN link
4. BSNL dial up link
 1. MICROWAVE
Radio and television broadcast companies originate their signals in studios, but must
get them to the transmitter site. In many cities, a nearby hill or mountain holds most of the
transmitters. A microwave studio transmitter link (STL) delivers the signal without wires.
Positioned at a fixed location and using radio waves, a microwave transmitter sends those
waves across space to be received by a microwave receiver at another fixed location.
Microwave is broadband, so it can transmit a substantial amount of information from point
to point, for use in cell phone and wireless Internet service, with no need for any other
equipment between the two fixed locations.

The microwave STL system consists of a transmitting system (STL-TX) housed in the
studio premises and a receiving system (STL-RX) housed in the AIR transmitting centre. A
low loss cable connects the STL TX/RX to the microwave dish antenna of diameter 2m
mounted on an approximately 50m tall self-supporting tower at either end. In addition, a
VHF service channel in duplex mode is provided at both the ends for voice communication
between the AIR studio and transmitting end through a multi-element yagi antenna
mounted on the top of the tower. The need for the service channel arises from the fact that
there is no RF monitoring facility of the transmitter sound program at STL-TX.
The STL system is meant to operate unattended round the clock. The microwave STL
TX/RX is powered by an external power supply unit kept adjacent to the STL rack with
floating batteries. This unit takes 230V, 50Hz AC and supplies 24V DC to STL TX/RX. The
service channel is energised by another external power supply unit placed over that of STL
TX/RX.

SERVICE CHANNEL (RT 33) (VHF Link)

The service channel is mounted at the top of the transmitter and receiver racks. It IS a VHF
1613-88 MHz) trans-receiver. The transmitter output power is 15 watts YAGI( antenna
mounted at the top of the towers on either end is used for the service channel This antenna
may be used both in horizontal and vertical polarizations Normally vertical polarization is
used The hand set with a press to talk (PM switch is employed at either end for service
communication. These units can be revised from the racks and kept at any other

2. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for
simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in
the CCITT red book. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport
voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it
integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in
the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined
as Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN),
and Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN).ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which
also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of
voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice
quality than an analog phone can provide.
For AIR, The ISDN link is facilitated by the BSNL. Air is making use of BROADBAND ISDN. In
addition to an STL system ISDN acts as a channel for live broadcasting of AIR programs.

BROADBAND ISDN (B-ISDN): The original or basic version of ISDN employs baseband
transmission on copper wires. But B-ISDN uses broadband transmission at 1.5Mbps for
transmission of voice, video and data at the same time. B-ISDN requires fiber optic cables
and is less widely available as it has relied mainly on evolution of fiber optics. According to
CCITT, B-ISDN is “a service requiring transmission channel capable of supporting
transmission rates greater than the primary rate”.

SALIENT FEATURES OF ISDN :

 ISDN is a fast network
 ISDN is a telephone network
 Integrated services
 Digital network

3. FM TRANSMITTER
Here in AIR, KANPUR, we use 60W FM transmitter link.

The principle of working of a modern FM transmitter is given in the block diagram, The L and
R audio signals are converted into the stereo signal by a stereo coder. The stereo signal also
called the MULTIPLEXED signals then frequency modulates the VFH oscillator which is a
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) OF THE PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL). The PLL is an
automatic frequency control system in the FM transmitter is maintained within the specified
tolerance limits of +2 KHz. In this arrangement the phase of the VHF oscillator is compared
with that of a reference crystal oscillator operating at10MHz. As the VHF oscillator can
operate at any assigned in the FM broadcasting band of 87.5MHz-108MHz, the factor N will
vary from 8750-10800Hz.The phases of the output from the two frequency dividers are then
compared in a phase comparator and the resultant error amplified rectified and filtered to
get a dc error voltage of positive negative polarity which corrects shift in the VHF oscillator
frequency. The FM signal obtained at the output of VHF oscillator is then amplified in a VHF
power amplifier with an output power of1.5KW. This amplifier is the basic building block in
the series of FM transmitters. It is a wide band amplifier so that no tuning is requires when
the operating frequency is changed.

4. BSNL Dial up Link

This link between the studio complex and the transmitter is the least preferred and least
used one. If all the other system fails then the program signals are transmitted via the
regular BSNL telephone cables. Techniques are used at the transmission station to receive
these signals and then it is fed to the modulator.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF STL
TRANSMITTER

FREQUENCY
BASE BAND MULTIPLIER &
MUSIC DUMMY VCO
INTERFERENCE PRE AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER
UNIT

I/P REFERENCE R F POWER

OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
AUDIO LINE
TRANSFORMER

DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
RECEIVER COUPLER CHANGE
OVER UNIT

AUDIO LINE P/D

TRANSFORMER

BASE BAND DUMMY I F AMPLIFIER & IF FREQUENCY

INTERFERENCE DEMODULATOR FILTER MULTIPLIER&
UNIT & PRE AMPLIFIER

REFERENCE VCO
MUSIC
OSCILLATOR
AMPLIFIER

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM AT STUDIO

The air conditioning at the studio complex is done using AC plants. There are 3 AC plants at the
studio complex each with a capacity of XX tonnes among which 2 are sufficient for the purpose.
These two plants supply conditioned air to two different parts of the studio via AC ducts that runs all
over the ceiling. The AC plant consists of Blowers and a water circulation system that carries the hot
air out of the building. The hot water is cooled at a cooling tower where water is cooled by
dissipation of heat to the surroundings. A fan is also attached to the cooling tower for easy cooling.
 ANTENNAS
Antenna is usually a metallic device (a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves. The radio frequency power developed in the final stage of a
transmitter is delivered through cables/feeders, without themselves consuming any power
to the transmitting antenna. The RF energy gets converted into electromagnetic waves and
travels in the free space at the speed of light. The receiving antenna picks up the radio
waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver for reception of signals. The
transmitting and receiving antennae are reciprocal in the sense, any characteristics of the
antenna in general applies equally to both.
Antennas play a vital role in AIR also since these are the communication links between the
various stations and the transmitter complex as well. As the purpose differ the shape, size
and specifications varies in case of Antennas. In an AIR station we can see a wide variety of
Antenna systems. These include:

1. A C-band receiver antenna with a dish whose diameter is about 5m. This antenna
receives signals from other stations like Delhi.
2. A DTH receiver antenna with a dish whose diameter is about 1m. This antenna
receives signals from stations like Calicut and Thiruvananthapuram
3. Yagi antennas are mounted on the top of a mast of height around 45 m. This is the
transmitter antenna for the microwave studio transmitter link. And a similar receiver
antenna is mounted on a mast of height about 50m. This enables the line of sight
communication between the studio and the transmitter.
4. Similar to microwave transmitter antennas, FM transmitter and receiver antennas
are also mounted on the same masts at the studio and transmitter complexes.
5. Private FM channels have also installed their antennas on the mast at the
transmitter complex.
6. A self-radiating mast of height 122m which itself acts as the antenna is present at the
transmitter complex.
7. Another self-radiating mast is present at the studio complex which was used in
earlier times. This mast, having a power dissipation capacity of 20kW has
decommissioned and is left as it is.
 TRANSMITTER COMPLEX, KANPUR
POWER SUPPLY TO THE TRANSMITTER COMPLEX

THANGALLUR
FEEDER

VARADIUM 4 POLE
FEEDER STRUCTURE

X VCB
VCB

TRANSFORMER
OCB OCB
500 KVA
TXR I TXR II
11KV/440V

OUTPUT
100KW BEL HMB 140-MW TRANSMITTER
A radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio
waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current which is
applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio
waves. The transmitter combines the information signal to be carried with the radio
frequency signal which generates the radio waves, which is often called the carrier.

Here in All India Radio, KANPUR; the 100KW BEL HMB transmitter performs amplitude
modulation in which the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude.
This transmitter mainly consists of these parts:

 A power supply circuit to transform the input electrical power to the higher voltages
needed to produce the required power output.
 A quartz crystal oscillator that generates sinusoidal wave at a frequency of 4MHz
and associated frequency dividers to divide the high frequency wave to the
transmission frequency 630 kHz.
 A modulator circuit to add the information to be transmitted to the carrier wave
produced by the oscillator. This is done by varying some aspect of the carrier wave.
The information is provided to the transmitter in the form of an audio signal whose
content is the program produced at the studio.

Transmitter complex includes the following rooms:

 Power supply
 HT room
 Transmitter
 Cooling

POWER SUPPLY IN 100kW HMB 140MW

TRANSMITTER
1. Main supply to Transmitter: 415 V 3PHASE 50Hz AC

2. Supply voltage to PA and Modulator: HT 11kV (Thyristor Controlled for smooth variation)

3. Screen Voltage to PA Valve: 800V

4. Screen voltage to Modulator valve: 1070V

5. Plate Voltage to RF Driver: 1900V

6. Grid bias to PA Modulator & RF Driver: -650V

7. Supply voltage to cathode of RF Driver: -600V (Supplied by Way of a tap on -650V supply)

8. Screen voltage of RF Driver: -100V

9. Tycoon unit: +12V DC & -12V DC

10. Audio unit: +24V & +10V

11. Reflectometer: +15V & -15V

12. Control units:

 VDDB : +15V Logic Circuits

 VDDC : +12V Relays
 VDDD : +15V For indication lamps
 VDDE : -15V Comparator

Transmitter section includes RF, Audio as well as modulator stages. RF section generates the
required operating frequency, here 630 kHz. Audio stage makes the audio to reach up to the
power requirement. Modulator stage further modulates the audio with the RF.
 RADIO FREQUENCY STAGE (RF STAGE)

TRANSISTOR To Feeder
CRYSTAL RF DRIVER POWER
OSCILLATOR POWER AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER

The RF chain consists of a crystal oscillator followed by a wide band transistorized

power Amplifier developing an output of 12-15 watts. This is followed by a driver stage
using 4-1000A valve working in class AB condition. This stage delivers a driving voltage of
900V peak to the grid of PA. The PA stage consists of CQK-50 ceramic tetrode valve working
as a Class-D Amplifier. The PA stage works into output impedance of 120 ohms delivering a
carrier of 100 KW. The stage is also high level anode modulated by the modulator. The stage
has been provided with a composite anode circuit to provide for generation of class-D
waveforms, harmonic suppression and matching of anode impedance to the output
impedance.

 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:

The basic frequency determining unit is the crystal oscillator. Two oscillator circuits
are provided one in circuit and one is in standby. The crystal oscillator is a self-contained
unit including its power supply and a proportionately controlled oven and gives an output of
5V square wave which is required to transfer the Transistor power Amplifier.

The 12 volts DC required for operating the unit as well as the crystal oven is derived
from a rectifier and a voltage regulator. The crystal oscillator works between 3MHz and
6MHz for different carrier frequencies. The basic oscillator is a pierce circuit with crystal as
the frequency determining element.

 TRANSISTOR POWER AMPLIFIER:

The power amplifier is a self-contained unit including its power supply and delivers
an output of about 12W and on output impedance of 75 ohms. The stage works as a
switching amplifier and is wide band. However, the output filters are to be selected for the
frequency ranges 525-1150 kHz & 1150-1650 kHz. The unit works on a 20V DC which is
derived by the rectifier. It is followed by the transistorized regulator and series pass
transistor.

 RF DRIVER:

The RF Driver stage provides the driving power required to develop an output of 100
KW to the final amplifier. Moreover, the wave shape required for Class D operation of the
final stage is also generated in the driver.
 4-1000A tetrode valve is used as a driver valve. The ac plate load impedance of the
tube is around 2.4K ohms which needs to the matched to an effective PA grid load of 710
ohms. In order to generate the required Class D driving waveform which is an approximate
square wave comprising of fundamental frequency and 20% of the third harmonic grid of
the final tube has got a parallel tuned circuit at third harmonic frequency.

 RF POWER AMPLIFIER:

The final stage RF amplifier consists of a single tube, CQK-50 beam power tetrode
delivering carrier power output of 100 KW. High level anode modulation is used using a class
B modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is also modulated by a tap on modulation
transformer.

The plate load impedance of the PA stage is about 750 ohms and the output
impedance is 120 ohms. The complex PA circuit matches the plate to the output impedance.
In addition, the Class D operation of the stage needs third harmonic impedance at the plate.
In addition, the output circuit should prevent radiation of harmonic frequencies. The plate
circuit provides all these functions.

AUDIO FREQUENCY STAGE (AF STAGE)

AF DRIVER
HIGH PRE PRE CORRECTOR MODULATION
PASS AMPLIFIER TRANSFORMER
FILTER PRE CORRECTOR AF DRIVER

The AF Stage supply the Audio power required to amplitude modulates the final RF
stage. The output of the AF stage is super imposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube
via modulation transformer. An auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides
AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists
of two CQK 25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive
stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.

 High Pass Filter

The audio inputs from the speech rack are fed to active High Pass Filter. It cuts off all
frequencies below 60Hz. Its main function is to supress the switching transistor from the
audio input. This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay which will not allow
AF to further stage till RF is about 70kW of power

 AF Pre-Amplifier

The output of the high pass filter is fed to AF Pre-Amplifier, one for each balanced
audio line. Signal from the negative feedback network from the secondary of the
modulation transformer and the signals from compensator also are fed to this unit.
  AF Pre-Corrector

Pre-Amplifier output is fed to the AF Pre-Correctors. As the final modulator valve in

the AF is operating as classB, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF signals. That
is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level AF input
because of the operating characteristics of the vacuum tubes. The Pre corrector amplifies
the low level signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to
have a better signal to noise ratio.

 AF Driver

2 AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the
necessary DC bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The output of AF
driver stage is formed by four transistors in series as it works with a high voltage of about -
400V. The transistors are protected with diodes and zener diodes against high voltages that
may result due to internal tube flashover. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping
can be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceed.

 AF Final Stage

AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK 25. Filament current of this
tube is about 210 amps at 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance
type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2-3 times the normal load current.
Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching ON will not exceed the maximum
limit.

A varistor at the screen or spark gaps across the grid are to prevent over voltages. As
the modulator valve is condensed vapour cooled tetrodes, deionised water is used for
cooling. The valve required about 11.5 L /minute of water. Two water flow switches WF1
and WF2 in the water lines of each of the valves protect against low or no water flow.
Thermostats WT1 and WT2 in each water line provides protection against excessive water
temperature by tripping the transmitter up to standby if the temperature of the water
exceeds 70 degree Celsius.

Modulation condenser and modulation choke have been dispensed due to the
special design of the modulation transformer. Special high power varistor is provided across
the secondary winding of the modulation transformer to prevent transformer over voltages.

CONTROL AND INTERLOCK SYSTEMS IN

TRANSMITTER
Control and interlocking circuits of the transmitter are to perform four major functions:-

1. Ensure correct switching sequence.

2. Safety of the equipment
3. Safety of the operating personnel.
4. Indication of the status of the transmitter.
In the following paragraph the details regarding the above aspects are dealt briefly:

1. Switching Sequence of Transmitter

a) Ventilation

b) Filament

c) Grid bias or medium tension

d) High tension.

a. Ventilation: All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters
convert power from AC mains to Radio frequency and Audio frequency energy. The
conversion process always results in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form
of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the
raise in temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure
that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the
ventilation equipment need to be switched on first. Normally the cooling provided in a
transmitter could be classified on the following lines:

 Cooling for the tube filaments.

 Cooling for the tube Anodes.
 General cooling of the cubic.
 Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.

The cooling equipment’s comprise of blowers, pumps and heat exchangers. Another
important consideration is that during the switching off sequence the cooling equipment’s
should run a little longer to carry away the heat generated in the equipment’s. This is
ensured by providing a time delay for the switch off of the cooling equipment. Normal time
delay is of the order of 3 to 6 minutes.

The water flow and the air flow provided by the cooling equipment’s to the various
equipment’s are monitored by means of air flow and water flow switches. In case of failure
of water or air flow, these switches provide necessary commands for tripping the
transmitter.

b. Filaments: All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF
amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. After ventilation
equipment’s are switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of
the tube, the control and interlocking circuits have to take care of the following points.

The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament voltage
in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube filament.
Hence it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps. Various methods
adopted are:

i. Use of step starter resistance. Here the filament voltage of the tubes is given through a
series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance which limits the initial
filament current is shorted and after a time interval by the of a timer switch.

ii. Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build-up of the filament voltage.
iii. Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps.

The emission from the tubes depends upon the temperature of the filament. Generally it
takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on.
Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable
temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the
filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. This aspect is taken care of
by providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next
sequence namely bias switching on.

c. Bias and Medium Tension: For obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to be
given the necessary negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence,
after the application of full filament voltage and after the laps of necessary delay for the
filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be switched on. Along with bias
generally anode and screen voltages of intermediate stages and driver stages are also
switched on. Application of bias and medium tension makes available very high voltages for
the various transmitter equipment. Hence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel
access to this equipment should be forbidden before the application of bias and medium
tension. This is ensured by providing the interlocking so that the bias and medium tension
can be put on only after all the transmitter and other HV equipment doors are closed to
prevent access.

Connection of load (Antenna/Dummy load)

After the application of ventilation, filament and bias the anode voltage can be switched on.
But before the anode voltage can be increased the interlocking circuit is to ensure that the
load of the transmitter namely antenna or dummy load is connected to the transmitter. The
tuning process of the various RF stages is complete and none of the tuning motors are
moving.

Application of screen voltage

In the case of tetrode tubes, the screen voltage to the tube should not be applied before the
application of anode voltage to keep the screen current and screen dissipation within limits.
This is taken care of by an interlocking provision that the screen voltage is applied only after
the anode voltage reaches a certain predetermined value well above the normal screen
voltage.

Release of Audio frequency

The application of AF signal to the AF stage in the absence of carrier power would result in
the operation of modulation transformer with no load connected. This is not desirable.
Therefore, the AF signal should be applied to the audio frequency stages only when the RF
power amplifier is delivering the nominal power. Normally AF frequency signal to the AF
stage is released only when the carrier power is approximately 80% of the normal power.
2. Safety of the equipment

The various transmitting equipment and auxiliaries are to be safe guarded against over loads
etc. The various safety provisions provided in the transmitter are as follows:

a) All the existing machineries are provided with switches with magnetic and thermal
overload release.
b) The air flow and water flow switches and temperature sensors monitors the air flow
and water flow of the cooling medium. If the air and water flow fall below a certain
predetermined value, it ensures the necessary tripping sequence.
c) Water level in the reservoir and water conductivity is monitored constantly.
d) Momentary release of air flow and water flow switches due to some turbulence for
a short duration will not result in the tripping of the transmitter. However, if the
fault persists for a few seconds then the tripping will result.
e) Sometimes thermal sensors are embedded in the filament transformers to monitor
its temperature.
f) The filament voltage of various high power tubes is monitored.in case of low or high
filament voltage tripping of the transmitter filament is initiated.
g) Circuit breakers associated with various rectifiers such as grid bias, screen voltages
etc. Protect the rectifiers and associated equipment against over currents.
h) All the vital currents of the tubes and stages are monitored and indicated by means
of panel meters. This is to monitor abnormality if any on the various operating
conditions.
i) Also current operated over load relays are provided in the cathode, screen grid and
anode circuits to protect the tubes and the associated rectifiers in case any of these
respective currents exceed a predetermined value. The operation of over load
relays are indicated by means of flags or latched lamps
j) The standing wave ratio on the load side is monitored suitably and signal is used to
trip the transmitter anode voltage in case of VSWR is higher than the
predetermined value.
k) Spark detectors are provided in various cubicles to ensure the tripping sequence in
case of sparking to prevent damage to the equipment’s.
l) Normally the over currents are counted over a period of time and if number of over
currents occur in a short interval the transmitter is tripped up to the filament.
m) In addition to the above safety provisions spark gaps and varistors provided at
various high voltage points offer protection to the equipment against high RF
voltage.
n) In some of the transmitter a crow bar device is provided to short circuit the stored
energies in the power supply circuit in case of over load. This provision is to protect
the high power tubes.
3. Safety for the personnel

Since very high voltage is encountered in transmitters the operating personnel are to
be protected by coming into contact with these high voltages accidently. The safety
interlocking generally comprises of:

a. An earthing switch which earths all the high voltage supplies before the access to
the cubicles keys are allowed.
b. A key exchange panel where the key to the transmitter cubicles can be utilized only
after the earthing switch is put ON. The earthing switch is interlocked in the bias
circuit and hence the operation of the earth switch automatically switches OFF up to
bias. This provision ensures that the cubicle doors can be opened only when the bias
and medium voltages are switched OFF and earthed through the earthing switch.
c. In addition to the above, earth hooks are provided at various parts of the cubicles
and high voltage equipment area. The operating professional are too short through
these hooks are high voltage points before any work is undertaken in these
equipment.
d. Some of the transmitters are also provided with additional shorting switches in the
cubicles which short the supplies in the cubicle as soon as the door is opened.

4. Indication Lamps

The indication lamps are provided in the transmitter to indicate the status of
switching ON of the transmitter as well as to indicate the occurrence of over load etc. These
indication lamps are provided to help the fault diagnosis.

COOLING TECHNIQUES IN TRANSMITTER

In high power A.M. transmitter, lot of power is dissipated in the valve as the input power
is not fully converted into output R.F. power due to the efficiency of the amplifier which
never reaches 100%. Hence the valves have to be cooled. In addition filaments are drawing
large current of the order of 210 Amps at 10 volt for CQK valve. Hence they also have to be
cooled. The dissipated heat in the valves also circulates in the concerned cubicle and heat
develops there. Hence some kind of cooling has to be provided to the transmitting
equipment. Different types of cooling are used in AIR transmitter at present.

a) Air cooling
b) Vapour cooling
c) Condensed vapour cooling
A]. Air Cooling

At present forced air cooling is used in AIR transmitters. A blower sucks the air through an
Air filter and a guided duct system and the forced air is passed on to the required
transmitting tubes. There has to be minimum air flow to cool the valves. Hence there will
be an air operated Air Flow Switch (Relay) AFR : the AFR will close only when sufficient
amount of air has been built up with the blower. Otherwise, AFR will not close and filament
cannot be switched on. Sometimes, if the filter is not cleaned, sufficient air may not go out
of the blower. Hence the blower needs periodical cleaning.

B]. Vapour Cooling System

This system is used in 100 kW BEL Transmitters. For very high power valves and efficient
cooling, air cooling is not sufficient. Hence some of the valves like BEL 15000, BEL 75000
etc. are cooled by vapour cooling. (Hence called Vaptron). Here the principle of heat
required to convert water into steam at its boiling point is used (Latent heat of steam). The
valves are kept in an in-tight water container filtered and de-ionized water. This water has
high resistivity and comes in contact with anode. The water containers called "Boilers" are
provided with inlet and outlet pipes.

Fig. 1 Block Diagram of Vapor-Cooling System

The inlet pipes are interconnected at the bottom to keep the water level same in the
entire boiler and the outlet pipes are joined at the top which provides passage of the steam
to the condensing equipment known as Heat Exchanger.

The heat produced at the anode of the vacuum tubes is absorbed by water and gets
converted into steam. The steam thus produced goes up through the glass-tube to the
steam pipe and to the heat exchanger mounted on top of the transmitter room. The
condenser is made of copper tubes. This is a mono-block fine tube moulded from copper in
extrusion moulding system and has high terminal conductivity. Steam flows inside the tube
and cool air is forced outside through the fins and the action of heat exchange takes place.
Now the steam is condensed to water and the cooled water flows down through the water
pipe due to gravity back to the boiler.

C]. Condensed Vapour Cooling in HMB-140BEL 100 kW MW XTR:

In BEL/BBC solid state transmitter of 100 KW/300 kW MW and 50 KW/100KW/500KW SW

transmitters, condensed vapour cooling is used for the PA and modulator valves. Here a
circulation of fast flowing stream of de-mineralized water is used. High velocity water flows
through the valve jacket and transforms into vapour due to the dissipation of power in
anodes. The tubes are fitted with a specially formed anode which sits in a cylindrical cooler.
Due to the fast flow of water, the vapour is condensed to water as soon as they are formed.
Hence the cooling efficiency is much higher. The temperature of water coming from the
transmitter can theoretically reach about 900 C, but in practice, it is desired to about 700 C in
normal programme modulation.

Filaments of the tubes are cooled by forced air by means of a high pressure blower.
It also cools the R.F. driver valves, the third harmonic and second harmonic suppression
coils.

The demineralized water is pumped by pumps (one in circuit and one as standby)
from the water tank to the PA and modulator tubes through the water piping. At the
inlet/outlet of each tube, a double ball valve is provided to facilitate shutting off water
supply when the valve is required to be changed. Except for changing the valve, this should
be kept in open condition always. (Lever In the horizontal position).

Fig.2 Water Flow Circuit 100 kW HMB 140

 ANTENNA TUNING UNIT (ATU)
Antenna Tuning Unit (ATU) is to match the feeder line impedance to the mast
impedance of MW Transmitters for maximum transmission of power. So ATU is located
between the mast base and the feeder line and is very close to the mast base. Commonly
“Feeder Unit” which is located in the aerial field, houses the ATU.

Generally the mast impedance (aerial impedance) is obtained in a complex form i.e.
the real part (resistive) and the imaginary part (reactive) component. When the mast
impedance is expressed in polar form then negative angle indicates the mast is capacitive
and positive angle indicates the mast is inductive. Whether the mast impedance is inductive
or capacitive depends on the height of the mast in terms of wave length (). If the height is
less than /4, it will be capacitive and inductive if more than /4. This can be measured with
impedance bridges.

ATU can be designed in a number of ways. The method used may be different in
different conditions. Criteria depend on the requirements. Especially when directional
antenna system is employed by splitting power to different antenna, the phase angle of the
network is the most important parameter. In other cases mostly, simplicity and safety
against lightning is important. One of the methods adopted in the past was the reactive
component of the mast impedance is neutralised, by putting opposite reactive component
of same value in series at mast end side, to make the mast impedance purely resistive (i.e.
for inductive mast the series reactance should be capacitive and vice versa). Then the
resistive part of the mast impedance can be matched to the feeder line impedance by
selecting a suitable matching network. This matching network can be L, T or  network, and
can be designed as phase lag or phase lead type. In these cases if a capacitor is put in series,
there is every possibility of puncturing of capacitors due to lightning. Hence this method is
being discouraged.

The second method, which is most commonly used now, is first to convert the
antenna impedance into a parallel combination. Most of the bridges used to measure the
mast impedance measure it in the series form.

At AIR, KANPUR we are using the first method and the matching network used is a pi
network. Here the mast impedance is 56+81.60j ohms and the feeder impedance is 121.60
ohms. The possibility for puncturing the capacitor bank is minimized by installing a
lightening arrest in the self-radiating mast. This will keep the pi network arrangement intact
from the threats of lightening.

The self-radiating mast is a part of the ATU. Its base is separated from the ground
using porcelain insulator. This prevents the signal from earthing. The mast is held vertical
using stay wires. For a certain area, Copper bars are laid radiantly on the earth surface for
the sake of proper earthing.
AKASHAVANI - In near future….
 DIGITAL RADIO MONDIALE (DRM)
DRM is the only universal non-proprietary digital radio system for the short wave,
medium wave and long wave AM broadcast bands. Many existing transmitters can
be easily modified with an inexpensive upgrade to carry DRM signals, enabling a
single tower to broadcast over a large geographic area so that the listeners can
receive the same station with near FM quality sound. Commercial and public
international broadcasters, as well as national radio networks and local radio
stations, have begun transmitting regular DRM broadcasts and special programs.
The frequencies required are exposed to highly fluctuating propagation conditions.
In this frequency range the waves are influenced by the ionosphere and they are
reflected depending on the time of day, season and the relative number on
sunspots. Thanks to the digital standards the AAC+ audio coding and the COFDM
technology, signal transmission now promises outstanding quality as compared to
conventional AM broadcasting.
DRM can use the existing band plan and the frequency grid present in the medium
wave, short wave and long wave. The technology therefore facilitates the
transmission from analog to digital transmission technology, which can cover large
areas end to end at a favourable price. Due to external influences on the
transmission conditions, the transmission parameters can be adjusted to match the
propagation conditions.
One advantage from using DRM plus is significantly lower power consumption of the
transmission systems.

 DIGITALIZATION
Digitalization of program production facilities, transmission facilities and uplink
stations has been undertaken to ensure good quality convergence-ready content,
which will also support interactive radio services like news on phone, music on
demand etc.

 FM RADIO STATION
AKASHAVANI, KANPUR is about to launch a new FM radio station which is
transmitted at a frequency 111 MHz this project which is undergoing the paper level
proceedings is expected to be trial running very soon. This project if brought into
existence will help in increasing the listenership of AKASHAVANI by means of
broadcasting a set of listener friendly programs.
 Computerization of AIR stations and offices is in progress to facilitate online
exchange of information and improvement of efficiency. Stations with digital
equipment’s including computerized hard disk based workstations for recording,
dubbing, editing and playback facilities etc. are being provided at all the major
stations.

 Control archives and regional archives have valuable collection of historical and
cultural important recordings in their libraries. The audio program material available
on analog audio tapes is being converted into digital and stored on CD’s. It is
proposed to provide control archive at Delhi and regional archives at four stations of
AIR such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Hyderabad connected in the network so
that the archival material can be shared among the stations. Provision of
digitalization of analog material & refurbishing the old recordings at these stations
for release in market in CD format is also proposed.

 Digitalization and automation of NEWS gathering NEWS production and NEWS

broadcast activity has already been introduced at NEWS services division of AIR in
Delhi and regional NEWS units. Under 2nd plan it is proposed fully digitalize and have
NEWS room automation at all the regional NEWS units by providing NEWS
automation software, computer server and workstations etc. This facility is further
extended to seven more regional stations of AIR.

 Up-linking facility used for distribution of programs through satellite is being

digitalized by augmenting the existing capital earth stations with digital uplinks. New
digital captive earth stations (Uplinks) have been installed at Varanasi, Rohtak, Leh,
Dehradun, Silchar and Aurangabad. Digital downlink facilities have also been
installed at most of the stations.

 Analog microwave links, used for transportation of programs from studio to

transmitter, are proposed to be replaced by digital microwave links. New digital
microwave STL equipment’s have been installed at Vijayawada, Srinagar, Patna,
Jodhpur, Chandigarh, Kota and Aurangabad. Twenty one numbers of Portable MSS
terminals have been procured for NEWS gathering in the network.

 Digitalization of studio which includes digitalization of switching consoles, audio

processor, cables, amplifiers, equalizers, audio ports, jacks etc.
 CONCLUSION
Broadcasting, in its significance, reach and impact, constitutes the most powerful
medium of mass communication. In India, All India Radio operates this service, over a
network of broadcasting stations located over the country. Starting with 6 broadcasting
stations in 1947, the AIR today has a network of 82 broadcasting stations. AIR program
pattern combines three main elements: a national channel providing program of
countrywide interest and significance, a zonal service from each of the four metropolitan
centers (Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras); and regional services from individual stations
each catering to the needs and interests of its respective area.

Currently there are two complexes in AIR KANPUR, Studio cum office complex and
the Transmitter complex. In studio complex, there are three studios, MUSIC, TALK and the
PLAYBACK. The first two together called to be the recording studio facilitates sound
recording and mixing whereas the latter helps in coordinating the programs,
announcements and advertisements. The Studio console is the major equipment used in the
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM. The various inputs to the console are the programs from various
studios, the programs that are received using a C BAND receiver which is broadcasted from
Delhi and the programs that are received via an ISDN link from Calicut and
Thiruvananthapuram. The Outputs from the console is taken through two master amplifiers
among which one is active at a time. This output is directed to the STUDIO TRANSMITTER
LINK (STL). This further route the programs to TRANSMITTER.

The source to the transmitter complex is also realized using MICROWAVE, FM

TRANSMITTER, ISDN or BSNL DIAL UP links. In AIR KANPUR, transmitter performs amplitude
modulation in which the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude.
The transmission frequency is at 630 kHz generated by a quartz crystal oscillator. RF driver
stage provides the driving power required to develop an output of 100 KW to the final
amplifier. High level anode modulation is used using a class B modulator stage. The AF Stage
supply the Audio power required to amplitude modulates the final RF stage. The modulator
stage consists of two CQK 25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B
configuration. The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized. The
transmitter complex is also equipped with various control and interlocking systems. Due to
the high power evolved, cooling systems are also provided, utilizing ionized air, vapor and
condensed vapor cooling techniques. The transmitter complex is also equipped with a HT
room for providing the required power supplies.

There is also an ATU to match the feeder line impedance to the mast impedance of
MW transmitter for maximum transmission of power, located between mast base and the
feeder line. The information in its modulated form is further given to the self-radiating mast
provided with proper earthing.