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CBSE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

HARUR MAIN ROAD, VALASAIYUR
SALEM-636122.
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CBSE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

HARUR MAIN ROAD, VALASAIYUR
SALEM-636122.

INDEX
• CERTIFICATE OF EXCELLENCE
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• PREFACE
• INTRODUCTION
• THEORY
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
FAT IN SOAP
PREPARATION OF SOAP
TYPES OF SOAP
• INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENT
• OBJECTIVE
• PROCEDURE
• OBSERVATION TABLE
• RESULT
• TEST FOR HARDNESS
• PRECAUTION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
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CBSE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

HARUR MAIN ROAD, VALASAIYUR
SALEM-636122.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms.HARIDHARANI.P, a student of class XII-A has successfully

completed the research on the below mentioned project under the guidance of
Mr.SIVAKUMAR (Subject Teacher) during the year 2019-20 in partial fulfillment of
chemistry practical examination conducted by AISSCE, New Delhi.

Signature of external examiner Signature of chemistry teacher

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CBSE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

HARUR MAIN ROAD, VALASAIYUR
SALEM-636122.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Chemistry

Teacher “Mr.Sivakumar” for their able guidance and support in completing
my Project. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Principal Mam
“Mrs.Astalakshmi” and the Management for providing me with all the
facility that was required.

DATE : 11/11/2019 HARIDHARANI.P (XII-A)

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PREFACE

Soaps and detergents remove dirt and grease from skin and
clothes. But all soaps are not equally effective in their cleaning
action. Soaps are the Na and K salts of higher fatty acids such as
Palmitic acid, Stearic acid and Oleic acid.
The cleansing action of soaps depends on the solubility of the long
alkyl chain in grease and that of the -COONa or the -COOK part
in water.
Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth, the non-polar alkyl
group dissolves in grease while the polar -COONa part dissolves
in water. In this manner, an emulsion is formed between grease
and water which appears as foam.
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The washing ability of soap depends on foaming capacity, as well

as the water used in cleaning. The salts of Ca and Mg disrupt the
formation of micelle formation. The presence of such salts makes
the water hard and the water is called hard water. These salts
thus make the soap inefficient in its cleaning action.
Sodium Carbonate when added to hard water reacts with Ca
and Mg and precipitates them out. Therefore, sodium carbonate
is used in the treatment of hard water.
This project aims at finding the foaming capacity of various
soaps and the action of Ca and Mg salts on their foaming
capacity.
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INTRODUCTION
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water for
washing and cleaning, which historically comes either in solid bars or in
the form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists of sodium or potassium salts
of fatty acids and is obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a
strong alkaline in a process known as saponification.
The fats are hydrolyzed by the base, yielding alkali salts of fatty acids
(crude soap) and glycerol. The general formula of soap is
RCOO-Na+.

The basic structure of all soaps is essentially the same, consisting of a

long hydrophobic (water-fearing) hydrocarbon "tail" and a hydrophilic
(waterloving) anionic "head":

CH 3 (CH 2 ) n COO −
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Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both
a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic
end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease molecules. Applied to a
soiled surface, soapy water effectively holds particles in colloidal
suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean water.
The hydrophobic portion (made up of a long hydrocarbon chain)
dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic end dissolves in water. The
resultant forms a round structure called micelle.
Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-insoluble matter
by emulsification.
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THEORY

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF SOAPS

The most popular soap making process today is the cold process
method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong alkaline
solution, while some use the historical hot process. Handmade
soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat
is sometimes used to consume the alkali (super fatting), and in
that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing
soap and not pure detergent. Often, emollients such as jojoba oil
or Shea butter are added 'at trace' (the point at which
the saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap
has begun to thicken), after most of the oils have saponified, so
that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
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FAT IN SOAP

Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium

Tallowate, a common ingredient in much soap, is derived
from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such
as palm oil, and the product is typically softer.
An array of saponifiable oils and fats are used in the process such as
olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For
example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides
lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient.
Smaller amounts of unsaponifiable oils and fats that do not yield
soap are sometimes added for further benefits.
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PREPARATION OF SOAPS

In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be required

for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place at a sufficient
temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used. Unlike
cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away
because the alkali and fat saponify more quickly at the higher
temperatures used in hot-process soap making. Hot-process soap
making was used when the purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-process
soap making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts
and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that
the finished product is mild and skin-friendly.
TYPES OF PREPARATION:
 COLD PROCESS
 HOT PROCESS
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COLD PROCESS:

A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification value of the

fats being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to
calculate the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in
the soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not
enough alkali and the soap are greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water.
Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature.
Once both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-
43°C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be
combined. This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until "trace". There are
varying levels of trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to the
consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity.
Essential oils are added in small traces.
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HOT PROCESS:

In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled together at 80–100
°C until saponification occurs, which the soap maker can determine by
taste or by eye. After saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess
liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mold.

PLACE OF PREPARATION:
The cold process, suitable for homemade soaps, produces soap bars
which retain the glycerin by-product, and if the amount of alkali
employed in the saponification is limited, an excess of fat (super fatted).
The hot process, more suitable for laboratory or industrial preparation,
yields a more chemically pure powder; by-products and excess starting
materials are separated.
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SIMPLE WAY TO PREPARE YOUR OWN

SOAP
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FLOW CHART OF SOAP PREPARATION

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TYPES OF SOAP

Castile soap – A mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil.
Today many “castile” soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a
marvelous cleanser, producing a rich lather.

Cream soap – Soaps containing cold cream materials, moisturizers and

emollients. Cream soaps are particularly good for dry and delicate skin

Deodorant soap – Soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to

reduce odor-causing bacteria.

Floating soap – Soaps having air bubbles incorporated to lower the density.
This causes the bar to float.

Hypo-Allergenic soap – Mild formula soaps, low in potential irritants. They

usually produce a poor lather.
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Medicated soap – Soaps containing medications such as tar, sulphur, or

antibacterial ingredients, used to treat acne and other skin disorders.
Medicated soaps require through rinsing and are not recommended for
sensitive skin.

Milled soap – These are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps.
Milling refers to the mixing of color, perfume and soap flakes.

Oatmeal soap – A rough –textured soap to which oatmeal has been added
as a mild abrasive and lather. Good for oily, dry, and normal skin.

CREAM SOAP MEDICATED SOAP

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CASTILE SOAP DEODORANT SOAP

MILLED SOAP OATMEAL SOAP

HYPO-ALLERGENIC SOAP
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INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENT

• Soap samples of various brands are taken and their

foaming capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are taken
separately and their foaming capacity is observed.
• The soap with the maximum foaming capacity is thus, said
to be having the best cleaning capacity. The test requires to
be done with distilled water as well as with tap water.
• The test of soap on distilled water gives the actual strength
of the soaps cleaning capacity.
• The second test with tap water tests the effect of Ca2+ and
Mg2+ salts on their foaming capacities.
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OBJECTIVE

To compare the foaming capacity of various

soaps.

THEORY

The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the soap and
its concentration. This may be compared by shaking equal volumes of
solutions of different samples having the same concentration with same
force for the same amount of time. The solutions are then allowed to
stand when the foam produced during shaking disappears gradually.
The time taken for the foam to disappear in each sample is determined.
The longer the time taken for the disappearance of the foam for the
given sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing action.
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REQUIREMENTS
LABORATORY SET-UP REQUIREMENTS:

Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml

measuring cylinder, test tube stand, weighing
machine, stop watch.
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS:

Five different soap samples, distilled water, tap

water.

PROCEDURE
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of water in each
flask and add 8 Grams of soap.
2. Warm the contents to get a solution.
3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the process
for each soap solution in different test tubes.
4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a minute. Do the same
for all test tubes and with equal force.
5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
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OBSERVATIONS

The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the experiment

TEST TUBE NAME OF THE VOLUME OF VOLUME OF TIME TAKEN FOR

NUMBER SOAP SOAP SOLUTION WATER ADDED DISAPPEARANCE
OF 2mm
01 DOVE 8ml 16ml 11’42”

02 LUX 8ml 16ml 3’28”

03 TETMOSOL 8ml 16ml 5’10”

04 SANTOOR 8ml 16ml 15’32”

05 CINTHOL 8ml 16ml 9’40”

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RESULT

The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the order:

Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the highest
foaming capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux,
on the other hand is found to have taken the least amount of
time for the disappearance of foam produced and thus is said to
be having the least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.
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TEST FOR HARDNESS IN WATER

Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the water supplied

Test for Ca2+ in water
H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3
No precipitate
Test for Mg2+ in water
H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4
No precipitate

The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts
causing hardness in water. The water used does not contain salts
of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and thus, the
experimental results and values hold good for distilled water and
tap water.
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PRECAUTIONS
You must use distilled water for all samples because foaming of a soap
solution does not take place in hard water.
Stir the soap solution carefully so that it does not spill out.
Take equal quantity of soap samples in all solutions.
The amount of distilled water added in every soap sample must be same.
Be cautious.
Set-up used must be clean.
Entire experiment must be done under the supervision of an adult.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Parts of this project have been referred from foreign sources
and have been included in this investigatory project after editing.

The references of the sources are as follows:

Books:

Together With Lab Manual Chemistry-XII

Comprehensive Chemistry - 12

Internet sources:

www.wikipedia.org
WWW.GOOGLE.COM