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EE453: Power System Protection and

Stability

Farhan Mahmood, PhD

Department of Electrical Engineering
UET, Lahore

May 23, 2016

Outline

Current and Voltage Transformers

• Working principles of current transformers (CT)

• Steady state performance of CT
• Multi-ratio CT
• Standard class designation
• Polarity marking on CT winding
• Transient performance of CTs
• Saturation of CTs
• Auxiliary CTs

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Outline

• CT connections

• Zero-sequence current shunts

• Flux summing CTs

• Potential transformers (PT)

• Coupled capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT)

• Transient performance of VTs

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Introduction

• The function of current transformer (CT) and voltage transformer (VT) is to

˗ transform power system currents and voltages to lower magnitudes that are
suitable for the operation of low-range measuring or protective devices
˗ provide isolation between the power network and the relays and other
instruments connected to the secondary windings of CT or PT.
• The ratings of the secondary windings of transducers have been standardized.
˗ CT: 1A or 5A
˗ VT: 120 V (for phase-to-phase voltage) or, equivalently, 69.3 V for phase-to-
neutral voltage
• These are nominal ratings, and the transducers must be designed to tolerate higher
values for abnormal system conditions.

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Current Transformer (CT)

• A current transformer (CT) is a magnetically coupled, multiwinding transformer,

which produces a low current in its secondary winding, which is proportional to the
high current flowing in its primary winding.
• Typically, the primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5
or 1000/5 .
• With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100 A flowing in the primary winding will result in 5A flowing in
the secondary winding, provided that the correct rated burden is connected to the
secondary winding.

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Current Transformer (CT)

• The most common type of C.T. is consists of an iron toroid, which forms the core of
the transformer, and is wound with many secondary turns.

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Current Transformer (CT)

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• The function of transducers is to provide current and voltage signals to the relays
(and meters) that are faithful reproductions of the corresponding primary quantities.
• Thus, the performance of the relays can be assessed in the presence of
transformation errors introduced by the transducers.
• CTs are usually two types,
˗ Metering CT → performance is important during normal loading conditions
˗ Relaying CT → performance is important during fault conditions
• In spite of this difference, the performance of both measuring and relaying CT may
be calculated with the same equivalent circuit but with different values of equivalent
circuit parameters.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• Difference between the design of metering CTs and relaying CTs.

Metering CTs

Protective CTs

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• In the equivalent circuit shown in fig (a), the primary winding of the CT is connected
in series with the power network and its primary current I1’ is dictated by the network.
• Leakage impedance of the primary winding Zx1 has no effect on the performance of
the transformer, and may be omitted.
• Referring all quantities to the secondary winding, the simplified equivalent circuit of
fig (b) is obtained.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• Thus, it can be written as,

• Load impedance Zb is known as the burden on the CT and includes the impedance

of all the relays, meters connected to the secondary winding, as well as the leads

connecting the secondary winding terminals of the CT located in the substation yard

to the protection equipment, which is located in the control house of the substation.

• Zb is specified either in ohms, or as a burden of I2Zb volt-amperes. If 5 A is the rated

secondary current at which the burden is specified, the burden would be 25Zb volt-

amperes.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• Referring to the phasor diagram in fig, the voltage Em across the magnetizing
impedance Zm is given by,

• Magnetizing current Im is given by,

• Primary current I1 (referred to secondary winding) is,

• For small values of the burden impedance, Eb and Em are also small, and
consequently Im is small.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• The per unit current transformation error defined by,

• Per unit error ϵ , is small for small values of Zb i.e. CTs work at their best when
they are connected to very low-impedance burdens. In the limiting case of zero-
burden impedance (and a small Zx2) I1 = I2, and the CT error is zero.
• CT error is also presented in terms of a ratio correction factor R instead of the per
unit error ϵ.
• The ratio correction factor (RCF) is defined as the constant by which the name
plate turns ratio n of a CT must be multiplied to obtain the effective turns ratio.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

• Since the magnetizing branch of a practical transformer is nonlinear, Zm is not

constant, and the actual excitation characteristic of the transformer must be taken
into account in determining the factor R for a given situation.
• The magnetizing characteristic of a typical CT is a plot of the root mean square
(rms) magnetizing current versus the rms secondary voltage,
• Thus, Im for each Em must be obtained from the magnetizing characteristic curve to
calculate the ratio correction factor R.
• Note that the turns ratios for CTs have also been standardized and the magnetizing
curve contains a family of characteristics.

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Steady-State Performance of CT

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Multi-Ratio CT

• Each CT may be provided with several taps, which can be used to obtain a turns
ratio that is most convenient in a given application.
• For example, a dual-ratio consists of a center tapped secondary winding such that
the ratio obtained by the tap is usually one-half the ratio obtained by the full
secondary winding.
• A schematic example is previously shown with 200 amperes flowing in the primary, a
connection X2 – X3 will produce 5 amperes out of the secondary. As the load grows
to 400 amperes, the secondary circuit will be reconnected to X1 – X3 to still produce
5 amperes in the secondary circuit.

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Multi-Ratio CT

Single-Ratio CT Dual-Ratio CT

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Multi-Ratio CT

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Numerical Problem

• Evaluate the performance of the multi-ratio CT with turns ratio 100:5 for the following

secondary output currents and burden.

(a) IB = 5 A, ZB = 0.5 Ω

(b) IB = 10 A, ZB = 0.8 Ω

(c) IB = 20 A, ZB = 1.5 Ω

Compute the CT error for each output current assuming ZS = 0.1 Ω.

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Standard Class Designation

• The equivalent circuit method of calculating the performance of a CT depends upon

the availability of the magnetizing characteristics.
• When magnetizing characteristic are not available, the CT performance can be
approximately assesed by standard class designation as defined by ANSI and IEEE.
• The ANSI/IEEE class designation of a CT consists of two integer parameters,
separated by the letter “C” or “T”. For example, 10C400 or 10T300.
• The first integers describe the upper limit on the error made by the CT when the
voltage at its secondary terminals is equal to the second integer, while the current in
the transformer is 20 times its rated value.
• As most CT secondary windings are rated at 5 A secondary, this corresponds to a
secondary current of 100 A.

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Standard Class Designation

• For example, 10C400 CT will have an error of less than or equal to 10% at a
secondary current of 100 A for burden impedances that produce 400 V or less at its
secondary terminals.

• If the magnetizing impedance is assumed to be linear, the error made will be

approximately proportional to the developed voltage.

• The letter “C” in the class designation implies that the transformer design is such that
the CT performance can be calculated, whereas the letter “T” signifies some
uncertainties in the transformer design, and the performance of the CT must be
determined by testing the CT.

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Standard Class Designation

• IEC 61869-2 specifies the accuracy of CT as

15 VA, Class 10 P 20
• The above CT is rated for continuous 15 VA burden.
• ‘P’ stands for protective CTs
• The number preceding letter ‘P’ is ‘accuracy class’ (the maximum %age error).
• The number following the letter ‘P’ is accuracy limit factor (ALF), which indicates the
multiples of rated secondary current at which the accuracy class applies.

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Polarity Markings on CT Winding

• Polarity markings of transformer windings are a means of describing the relative

directions in which the two windings are wound on the transformer core.
• The terminals identified by solid marks indicate that if one of the winding currents is
considered to be flowing into the marked terminal, the current in the other winding
should be considered to be leaving its marked terminal.
• The two currents will then be (approximately) in phase with each other.
• Similarly, the voltages of the two windings, when measured from the unmarked
terminal to the marked terminal, will be (approximately) in phase with each other.

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Polarity Markings on CT Winding

• An alternative way is to label the primary winding terminals H1 and H2, and the
secondary winding terminals X1 and X2. H1 and X1 may then be assumed to have
the polarity mark on them. Both of these conventions are shown in fig.

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Transient Performance of CTs

• When a fault occurs on a power system, the fault current is given by,

• The maximum transient occurs when sin (α - β) = 1;

• When the current is passed through the primary winding of a current transformer, the
response can be examined by replacing the CT with an equivalent circuit.
• Assuming an ideal CT has no losses and exciting current, all further analysis can be
carried out in terms of equivalent secondary quantities (is and Is).

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Transient Performance of CTs

• The flux developed in an inductance is obtained by integrating the applied e.m.f.

through a time interval:

• Integrating for each component in turn, the steady state peak flux over a quarter
cycle is given by:

• The transient flux is integrated from t = 0 to t = ∞, is given by:

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Transient Performance of CTs

• Hence, the ratio of the transient flux to the steady state value is:

where X and R are the primary system reactance and resistance values.
• The CT core has to carry both fluxes, so that:

• The term (1+X/R) has been called the 'transient factor' (TF), the core flux being
increased by this factor during the transient asymmetric current period.
• From this it can be seen that the ratio of reactance to resistance of the power system
is an important feature in the study of the behaviour of protection relays.

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Transient Performance of CTs

• Alternatively, L/R is the primary system time constant T, so that the transient factor
can be written:

• Again, fT is the time constant expressed in cycles of the a.c. quantity T’, so that:

• This latter expression is particularly useful when assessing a recording of a fault

current, because the time constant in cycles can be easily estimated and leads
directly to the transient factor.
• For example, a system time constant of three cycles results in a transient factor of
(1+6π), or 19.85; that is, the CT would be required to handle almost twenty times the
maximum flux produced under steady state conditions.

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Transient Performance of CTs

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Saturation of CTs

• Fig. shows the equivalent circuit of

CT referred to secondary.
• As the primary current ↑, the
secondary current tends to ↑ and
the secondary voltage also ↑.
• As the flux increases, the
transformer needs to draw a
higher magnetizing current.
Es = 4.44 f N Φm

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Saturation of CTs

• However, because of the nonlinear nature of the B-H curve for the CT, as the knee of
the excitation characteristics is passed, any further increase in flux demand causes a
disproportionately large increase in the magnetizing current requirement of the CT.
• It may also be noted that I0 is no longer sinusoidal and its waveform has a prominent
peak.

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Saturation of CTs

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Saturation of CTs

• Thus, as the primary current ↑, a stage comes when the magnetizing current
requirement is so large that almost all the transformed current is taken up by the CT
for the sole purpose of magnetization, and that there is hardly any current available
for the burden.
• When this occurs, we say that the CT is completely saturated.
• The secondary induced voltage and burden current waveforms of a CT, operating in
saturation, are highly distorted.
• Thus, the secondary current of a CT may not represent the primary current faithfully
if the CT goes into saturation, and hence relays which depend upon the secondary
current are likely to mis-operate during this period.

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Auxiliary CTs

• Auxiliary CTs are used in many relaying applications for providing

˗ galvanic separation between the main CT secondary and some other circuit.
˗ an adjustment to the overall current transformation ratio.
• However, the auxiliary CT makes its own contributions to the overall errors of
transformation particularly due to saturation.
• Auxiliary CTs with multiple taps, providing a variable turns ratio, are also available.
• The burden connected into the secondary winding of the auxiliary CT is reflected in
the secondary of the main CT, according to the normal rules of transformation: if the
auxiliary CT ratio is l : n, and its burden is Z1, it is reflected in the main CT secondary
as Z1/n2.

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Wye Connection

• In three-phase circuits, the CT secondaries may be

connected in wye or delta connections to obtain certain
phase shifts and magnitude changes between the CT
secondary currents and those required by the relays
connected to the CTs.
• The wye connection of the CTs shown in figure produces
currents proportional to phase currents in the phase
burdens Zf and a current proportional to 3I0 in the neutral
burden Zn. No phase shifts are introduced by this
connection.

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Delta Connection

• The delta connection shown in fig produces currents

proportional to (Ia − Ib), (Ib− Ic), and (Ic− Ia) in the three
burdens Zf.
• If the primary currents are balanced, (Ia− Ib) = √3|Ia| exp
(j π/6), and a phase shift of 30º is introduced between the
primary currents and the currents supplied to the burdens
Zf.
• By reversing the direction of the delta windings, a phase
shift of −30º can be obtained.
• The factor √3 also introduces a magnitude change that
must be taken into consideration.

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Zero-Sequence Current Shunts

• Sometimes, it is desired that the zero-sequence current be bypassed from these

burdens. This is achieved by connecting auxiliary CTs that provide an alternative
path for the zero-sequence current.

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Zero-Sequence Current Shunts

• The neutral of the main CT secondaries is not connected to the burden neutral.
Instead, a set of auxiliary CTs have their primaries connected in wye and their
secondaries in delta.
• The neutral of the auxiliary CTs is connected to the neutral of the main secondaries
through the neutral burden Zn.
• The secondary windings of the auxiliary CTs provide a circulating path for the zero-
sequence current, and it no longer flows in the phase impedance burdens Zf.

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Flux-Summing CT

• It is possible to obtain the zero-sequence current using a single CT, rather than by
connecting the secondaries of three CTs as in figure.
• If three-phase conductors are passed through the window of a toroidal CT, the
secondary current is proportional to (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 3 I0.
• Since this arrangement effectively sums the flux produced by the three-phase
currents, the CT secondary contains the true zero-sequence current.

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Voltage Transformers

• VTs (also known as potential transformers) are normal transformers with the primary
winding connected directly to the high-voltage apparatus, and with one or more
secondary windings rated at the standard voltage of 120 V (for phase-to-phase
voltage) or, equivalently, 69.3 V (for phase-to-neutral voltage).
• Their performance, equivalent circuit, and phasor diagrams are similar to those of a
power transformer.
• At operating voltages higher than 345 kV, VTs are rather expensive and
consequently, they are usually found on low, medium, and high-voltage systems.
• At extra high voltages, capacitive VTs, are the more usual sources for relaying and
metering.

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Voltage Transformers

• When a ground fault occurs in ungrounded (or high-impedance grounded) power

systems, the VTs connected to the unfaulted phases are subjected to a voltage equal
to the phase-to-phase voltage of the power system.
• This usually drives one of the transformers well into saturation, and, because of the
excessive magnetizing current drawn by this transformer, may blow the protective
fuse.

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Voltage Transformers

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• One of the most common voltage sources for relaying (particularly at higher
voltages) is the CCVT.
• A string of capacitors is used as a potential divider between the high-voltage
apparatus and ground, and a tap provides a reduced voltage of about 1 – 4 kV.
• The tap point is connected to a transformer through an inductance, as shown in fig.
• The turns ratio of the transformer is such that the secondary voltage is the standard
voltage (120 V or 69.3 V) required for relaying.
• The burden impedance is Zb, and Zf is a specially designed damping circuit for
suppressing ferroresonance that may occur under certain conditions.

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• Under normal steady-state operating conditions, the load current drawn by the

parallel combination of Zb and Zf is relatively small.

• As the transformer supplies the load current, there may be a phase shift between

the primary voltage and the voltage appearing at the load.

• Consider the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the capacitive divider. The Thevenin

voltage is given by Eth = EpriC1/(C1 + C2), and the Thevenin source impedance is a

capacitance of (C1 + C2).

• If the primary and secondary currents in the transformer are I1 and I2, respectively,

then,

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• Clearly, the secondary voltage will have a phase angle error, unless the inductance L
is in resonance with (C1 + C2) at the power system frequency ω.
• To avoid a phase angle error, an inductance of an appropriate size is introduced to
satisfy the resonance condition:

• Since the Thevenin impedance of a CCVT is capacitive, the nonlinear magnetizing

branch of the connected transformer may give rise to ferroresonant oscillations,
especially under light loads.

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• Unless these oscillations are eliminated voltages of multiple frequencies – including

subharmonic frequencies such as ω/3 – superimposed on the power frequency are
likely to appear at the secondary terminals of the transformer.
• A special suppression circuit, represented by Zf, is usually provided to damp these
oscillations. This circuit is a damped R, L, C circuit, a nonlinear resistor, a spark-gap,
or a combination of these elements.

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• The VT windings are also marked to indicate their polarity. Terminals of like polarity
may be identified by dots, or by terminal labels H1, H2 and X1, X2.

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Coupling Capacitor VTs

• Windings of three-phase VTs may be connected in wye or in delta, according to the

specific application.
• As in the case of CTs, the delay connection introduces a magnitude factor of √3, and
a phase angle shift of ±30◦ depending upon the manner in which the delta is
connected. In this respect, VTs are no different from normal power transformers.
• An open delta connection may be used to provide a three-phase voltage source with
only two single-phase transformers.

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Transient Response of VTs

• When a fault occurs on a power system, the voltages at different points on it may fall
suddenly and then they may suddenly increase when the fault is cleared.

Voltage divider

Electromagnetic VT

CVT

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Transient Response of VTs

• These results clearly indicate that the response of the electromagnetic transformer is
close to the ideal, whereas the capacitor voltage transformer generates undesirable
damped oscillations when the sudden changes of system voltage occur.
• These oscillations, which arise because of the tuned nature of the transformer circuit,
together with sustained oscillations which can arise because of ferroresonance, can
affect the behaviour of protective equipment.

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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