UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CVS 416: STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN NOTES

COURSE LECTURER: Dr. Eng. B. Sabuni

2016/17 Academic Year

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1.0 Introduction
Structural (Reinforced) concrete is one of the principal materials used in structural design. It is a
composite material, consisting of reinforcements, usually steel bars embedded in concrete.
Concrete has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. Steel bars, on the other, can
resist high tensile stresses but will buckle when subjected to comparatively low compressive
stresses. Steel is much more expensive in Kenya than concrete. An economical structural
material can be produced which is both strong in compression and strong in tension by use of
concrete and steel.
Concrete also provides corrosion protection and fire resistance to the more vulnerable embedded
steel reinforcing bars. Design of reinforced concrete is based on BS 8110 or EC2. The sections
refer to BS 8110.

1.1 RC Materials
1.1.1 Concrete
Concrete strength, fcu is the 28 day cube strength in N/mm2. The minimum grades for concrete
15,20,25,30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 N/mm2.

1.1.2 Steel Reinforcement

Reinforcing steel bars are produced as:
- Hot rolled mild steel bars;
- Hot rolled or cold worked high yield steel bars:
- Steel fabric made from cold drawn steel wires welded to form a mesh;

The hot rolled bars have a definite yield point. A defined proof stress is recorded for the cold
worked bars. Stress-strain curve for all reinforcing bars is shown in BS8110: Part 1. The
behaviour in tension and compression is taken to be the same. Mild steel bars are produced as
smooth round bars while high yield bars are produced as deformed bars to increase bond stress.

1.2 RC Elements
Reinforced concrete is used in many civil engineering applications such as the construction of
structural frames, foundations, retaining walls, water retaining structures, highways and bridges.

The complete structure can be broken down into the following structural elements:
Slabs horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads
Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads
Columns vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally subjected to axial load and
moment
Walls vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane loads
Bases and Foundations pads or strips supported directly on the ground that spread the loads from
columns or walls so that they can be supported by the ground without excessive settlement.
Alternatively the bases may be supported on piles.

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2.0 Principles of Structural Concrete design
2.1 Limit State Design Principle.
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure will not become
unfit for its intended use - that is, that it will not reach a limit state.

2.1.1 Ultimate Limit State.

This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with adequate factor of safety
against buckling or overturning, accidental damage e.g explosion

The designer considers:- Stability, robustness, movement joints, fire resistance, durability,
loading, and materials design stresses,

(a) Strength
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads to which it is
subjected. The sections of the elements must be capable of resisting the axial loads, shears
and moments derived from the analysis.
The design is made for ultimate loads and design strengths of materials with partial safety
factors applied to loads and material strengths. This permits uncertainties in the estimation of
loads and in the performance of materials to be assessed separately. The section strength is
determined using plastic analysis based on the short-term design stress-strain curves for
concrete and reinforcing steel.

(b) Stability
Clause 2.2.2.1 of the BS 8110 code states that the layout of elements should be such as to
give a stable and robust structure. It stresses that the engineer responsible for overall stability
should ensure compatibility of design and details of parts and components. Overall stability
of a structure is provided by shear walls, lift shafts, staircases and rigid frame action or a
combination of these means. The structure should be such as to transmit all loads, dead,
imposed and wind, safely to the foundations.

(c) Robustness
Clause 2.2.2.2 of the BS 8110 code states that the planning and design should be such that
damage to a small area or failure of a single element should not cause collapse of a major
part of a structure. This means that the design should be resistant to progressive collapse. The
clause specifies that this type of failure can be avoided by taking the following precautions.

1. The structure should be capable of resisting notional horizontal loads applied at roof level
and at each floor level. The loads are 1.5% of the characteristic dead weight of the structure
between mid-height of the storey below and either mid-height of the storey above or the roof
surface. The wind load is not to be taken as less than the notional horizontal load.
2. All structures are to be provided with effective horizontal ties. These are
(a) peripheral ties
(b) internal ties
(c) horizontal ties to column and walls
3. For buildings of five or more storeys, key elements are to be identified, failure of which
would cause more than a limited amount of damage. These key elements must be designed

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 for a specially heavy ultimate load applied in any direction on the area supported by the
member. Provisions regarding the application of this load are set out in BS8110: Part 2,
section 2.6.
4. For buildings of five or more storeys it must be possible to remove any vertical
loadbearing element other than a key element without causing more than a limited amount of
damage. This requirement is generally achieved by the inclusion of vertical ties in addition to
the other provisions noted above.

2.2. Serviceability Limit States

In analyzing a section for the serviceability limit states the behaviour is assessed assuming a
linear elastic relationship for steel and concrete stresses. Allowance is made for the stiffening
effect of concrete in the tension zone and for creep and shrinkage.

The serviceability limit states are discussed in BS8110: Part 1, section 2.2.3. The code states
that account is to be taken of temperature, creep, shrinkage, sway and settlement. The main
serviceability limit states and code provisions are as follows:-

(a) Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance.
Deflections may be calculated, but in normal cases span-to-effective depth ratios can be used
to check compliance with requirements.
(b) Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing. Crack widths can be
calculated, but in normal cases cracking can be controlled by adhering to detailing rules with
regard to bar spacing in zones where the concrete is in tension. In analyzing a section for the
serviceability limit states the behaviour is assessed assuming a linear elastic relationship for
steel and concrete stresses. Allowance is made for the stiffening effect of concrete in the
tension zone and for creep and shrinkage.

Other serviceability limit states are:-

 Durability Clause 2.2.4 of BS8110
This states that ‘integration of all aspects of design, materials and construction is required to
produce a durable structure’.

The cover to a main bar should not be less than the bar size or in the case of pairs or bundles
the size of a single bar of the same cross-sectional area. The cover depends on the exposure
conditions given in Table 3.2 in the code. These are as follows:-
Mild - concrete is protected against weather
Moderate - concrete is sheltered from severe rain concrete under water concrete in non-
aggressive soil
Severe - concrete exposed to severe rain or to alternate wetting and drying
Very severe - concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salts or corrosive fumes
Extreme - concrete exposed to abrasive action

Limiting values for nominal cover are given in Table 3.4 of the code.
Note that the water-to-cement ratio and minimum cement content are specified. Good
workmanship is required to ensure that the steel is properly placed and that the specified
cover is obtained.
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  Excessive Vibration
 Fatigue
 Fire Resistance

Minimum dimensions for fire resistance.

3.0 CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN VALUES

3.1 Characteristic and Design Loads
The characteristic or service loads are the actual loads that the structure is designed to carry.
These are normally thought of as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded during the life
of the structure. In statistical terms the characteristic loads have a 95% probability of not being
exceeded. The characteristic loads used in design and defined in BS8110: Part 1, clause 2.4.1,
are as follows:
1. The characteristic dead load Gk is the self-weight of the structure and the weight
of finishes, ceilings, services and partitions;
2. The characteristic imposed load Qk is caused by people, furniture, equipment etc.
on floors and snow on roofs. Imposed loads for various types of buildings are
given in BS6399: Part 1;
3. The wind load Wk depends on the location, shape and dimensions of the buildings.

The code states that nominal earth loads are to be obtained in accordance with normal practice.
Reference should be made to
BS8004:1986: Code of Practice for Foundations and textbooks on geo-technics.
The structure must also be able to resist the notional horizontal loads defined in clause 3.1.4.2 of
the code.

design load =characteristic load × partial safety factor for loads

=Fkγf
The partial safety factor γf takes account of

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1. possible increases in load
2. inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads
3. unforeseen stress distributions in members
4. the importance of the limit state being considered

The code states that the values given for γf ensure that serviceability requirements can generally
be met by simple rules. The values of γf to give design loads and the load combinations for the
ultimate limit state are given in BS8110: Part 1, Table 2.1 Partial safety factors are given for
earth and water pressures. The code states that the adverse partial safety factor is applied to a
load producing more critical design conditions, e.g. the dead load plus a wind load acting in the
same direction. The beneficial factor is applied to a load producing a less critical design
condition, e.g. in the case of dead load plus wind uplift where the loads are in opposite
directions.
In considering the effects of exceptional loads caused by misuse or accident γf can be taken as
1.05. The loads to be applied in this case are the dead load, one-third of the wind load and one-
third of the imposed load except for storage and industrial buildings when the full imposed load
is used.

3.2 Characteristic and Design Strengths

The characteristic strengths or grades of materials are as follows:
Concrete, fcu is the 28 day cube strength in N/mm2.
Reinforcement, fy is the yield or proof stress in N/mm2
The minimum grades for reinforced concrete are given in Table 3.4 in the code. These are grades
30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 in N/mm2. Can also be 15, 20 and 25. The specified characteristic strengths
of reinforcement given in Table 3.1 in the code are Hot rolled mild steel fy = 250 N/mm2
High yield steel, hot rolled or cold worked fy = 460 N/mm2

Clause 3.1.7.4 of the code states that a lower value may be used to reduce deflection or control
cracking.

The resistance of sections to applied stresses is based on the design strength, which is defined as

Values of γm are given in Table 2.2 in the code. For exceptional loads γm is to be taken as 1.3 for
concrete and 1.0 for steel.

Values of γm for the ultimate limit state

Reinforcement 1.15
Concrete in flexure or axial load 1.5
Shear strength without shear reinforcement 1.25
Bond strength 1.4
Others, e.g. bearing strength ≥1.5

The factor γm takes account of

1. uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure
2. uncertainties in the accuracy of the method used to predict the behaviour of members

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3. variations in member sizes and building dimensions

The short-term design stress-strain curves for normal-weight concrete and reinforcement are
given in Figs 2.1 and 2.2 in the code. The curve for concrete in compression is an idealization of
the actual compression behaviour which begins with a parabolic portion where the slope of the
tangent at the origin equals the short-term value of Young’s modulus. At strain ε0, which
depends on the concrete grade, the stress remains constant with increasing load until a strain of
0.0035 is reached when the concrete fails. Expressions for Ec and ε0 are given in the figure. The
maximum design stress in the concrete is given as 0.67fcu/γm. The coefficient 0.67 takes account
of the relation between the cube strength and the bending strength in a flexural member. It is not
a partial factor of safety. The behaviour and strength of reinforcement are taken to be the same in
tension and compression. In previous codes a reduced strength was specified for compression
reinforcement.

Short-term design stress-strain curve for (a) normal-weight concrete and (b) reinforcement

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4.0 CONSIDERATIONS IN RC ELEMENT DESIGN
4.1 Reinforcement and Bar Spacing
Before beginning section design, reinforcement data and code requirements with regard to
minimum and maximum areas of bars in a section and bar spacing are set out. This is to enable
practical sections to be designed.

Reinforcement data
In accordance with BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.4.1, bars may be placed singly or in pairs or in
bundles of three or four bars in contact. For design purposes the pair or bundle is treated as a
single bar of equivalent area. Bars are available with diameters of 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and
40 mm and in two grades with characteristic strengths fy:
Hot rolled mild steel fy=250 N/mm2
High yield steel fy=460 N/mm2
Steel bars types are specified by letters i.e.
R mild steel bars
Y or T or H high yield bars
Bars are designated on drawings as, for example, 4Y25, i.e. four 25 mm diameter bars of
high yield steel.

Table 4.1 Cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)

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 (a) Rectangular beam and slab, tension steel only; (b) rectangular beam, tension and
compression steel; (c) flanged beams.

Minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement in beams

The minimum areas of reinforcement in RC section to control cracking as well as resist tension
or compression due to bending in different types of section are given in BS8110: Part 1, clause
3.12.5.3 and Table 3.2.7.
The maximum area of both tension and compression reinforcement in RC is specified in
BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.6.1. Neither should exceed 4% of the gross cross-sectional area of
the concrete.

Minimum spacing of bars

The minimum spacing of bars is given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.12.11.1. This clause states the
following:
1. The horizontal distance between bars should not be less than hagg+ 5 mm;
2. Where there are two or more rows
(a) The gap between corresponding bars in each row should be vertically in line and (b) the
vertical distance between bars should not be less than 2hagg/3 where hagg is the maximum size of
coarse aggregate. The clause also states that if the bar size exceeds hagg+5 mm the spacing should
not be less than the bar size.
Note that pairs or bundles are treated as a single bar of equivalent area. The above spacing
ensures that the concrete can be properly compacted around the reinforcement. Spacing of top
bars of beams should also permit the insertion of a vibrator.

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4.2 BEHAVIOUR OF RC SECTION IN BENDING
Concrete is strong in compression but weak and unreliable in tension. Reinforcement is required
to resist tension due to moment. A loaded beam will develop tension cracks at collapse due to
moment, Initially the concrete in the un-cracked section will resist tension, but it soon cracks.
The behaviour of the cracked section is elastic at low loads and changes to plastic at higher
loads. The concrete at the top of the section resists compression and the steel resists tension. At
low loads the concrete stress in compression and the steel stress in tension are in the elastic
range. At collapse the stresses are at ultimate values. Design is based on the strength of the
section calculated from the stress distribution at collapse which is determined from tests. Beam
section designed for the ultimate limit state is given first. The elastic section analysis is then set
out because this is required in calculations for checking the serviceability limit states.

(a) Flexural cracks at collapse; (b) load-deflection curve; (c) effective section and stress distributions.

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Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section Subjected to Bending
Assumptions
1. The strains in the concrete and reinforcement are derived assuming that plane sections remain
plane;
2. The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived using either
(a) the design stress-strain curve with γm=1.5 or
(b) the simplified stress block where the depth of the stress block is 0.9 of the depth to the
neutral axis. Note that in both cases the strain in the concrete at failure is 0.0035;
3. The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored;
4. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve where γm=1.15;
5. Where the section is designed to resist flexure only, the lever arm should not be assumed to be
greater than 0.95 of the effective depth.

Stress-strain diagrams

Design stress-strain curve (a) Concrete, fcu=30 N/mm2, (b) high yield steel, fy=460 N/mm2.

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(a) Section; (b) strain; (c) rectangular parabolic stress diagram; (d) simplified stress diagram.

The following symbols are used:

h overall depth of the section
d effective depth to the centre-line of the steel
b breadth of the section
x depth to the neutral axis
As area of tension reinforcement
εc strain in the concrete (0.0035)
εs strain in the steel

Moment of resistance—simplified stress block

The method of calculating the moment of resistance of a concrete section is given first using the
simplified stress block. The calculation is made for the case where the depth x to the neutral axis
is d/2. This is the maximum depth to the neutral axis permitted in clause 3.4.4.4 of the code

(a) Section; (b) strain diagram; (c) stress diagram.

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The design concrete stress is

which is generally rounded off to 0.45fcu. The strain is 0.0035

The steel stress is

fy/1.15=0.87fy
From the stress diagram the internal forces are
C =force in the concrete in compression
=0.447fcu×0.9b×0.5d
=0.201fcubd
T =force in the steel in tension
=0.87fyAs
For the internal forces to be in equilibrium C =T.
z=lever arm
=d−(0.9x)/2 = d - (0.9d/2)/2 = d – 0.225d
=0.775d
MRC=moment of resistance with respect to the concrete
=Cz(Force x lever arm)
=0.201fcubd×0.775d
=0.156fcubd2
=K’fcubd2
where the constant K’ = 0.156.

MRS =moment of resistance with respect to the steel

=Tz
=0.87fyAs×0.775d
=0.674fyAsd
The area of steel As=MRS/0.674fyd. Because the internal forces are equal the moments of
resistance with respect to the steel and concrete are equal, i.e. MRS=MRC. Then the percentage p
of steel in the section is defined as

Example on Singly reinforced rectangular beam— balanced design

A simply supported rectangular beam of 8 m span carries a uniformly distributed dead load
which includes an allowance for self-weight of 7 kN/m and an imposed load of 5 kN/m. The
breadth of the beam is 250 mm. Find the depth and steel area when the depth to the neutral axis
is one-half the effective depth. Use concrete grade 30 and high yield steel reinforcement. The
design load is calculated using the values of partial factors of safety given in BS8110: Part 1,
Table 2.1.
design load=(1.4×7)+(1.6×5) =17.8 kN/m
ultimate moment=17.8×82/8 =142.4 kN m
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Using the design constants K=4.69 and p=1.51 derived we obtain

√ √

Provide three 25 mm diameter bars to give a steel area of 1472 mm2. From BS8110: Part 1,
Table 3.4, the cover on the links is 25 mm for mild exposure. Referring to Table 3.5 of the code,
this cover also gives a fire resistance of 1.5 h. If the link diameter is 10 mm the overall depth of
the beam on rounding the effective depth up to 350 mm and placing the bars in vertical pairs is
h=350+12.5+10+25=397.5 mm say 400mm.

3Y25

Types of failure and beam section classification

Referring to the stress-strain diagrams for concrete and grade 460 steel three failure situations
can occur depending on the amount of reinforcement provided.
These are as follows:-
1. The concrete fails and the steel yields simultaneously at ultimate load. The concrete strain is
0.0035 and the steel strain 0.002. From the strain diagram

or
x=0.64d
The amount of steel to give this situation can be determined by equating the internal forces C and
T in the concrete. This is the theoretical balanced design case.
2. If less steel is provided than in case 1 the steel has reached yield and continues yielding before
the concrete fails at ultimate load (Fig. (b)). This is termed an under-reinforced beam. Cracks
appear, giving a warning of failure.
3. If more steel than in case 1 is provided, the concrete fails suddenly without warning before the
steel reaches yield. This is termed an over-reinforced beam (Fig. (c)).
For a singly reinforced beam the code in clause 3.4.4.4 limits the depth to the neutral axis to 0.5d
to ensure that the design is for the under-reinforced case where failure is gradual, as noted above.
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(a) Theoretical balanced design case; (b) under-reinforced beam; (c) over-reinforced beam.

General design of under-reinforced beams

In most design cases the beam dimensions are fixed with to the neutral axis less than one-half the
effective depth. The problem is to determine the steel area required. This is the general case of
design for under-reinforced beams. It is normal design.

Under-reinforced beam—analytical solution

Consider a beam section subjected to a moment M shown in Fig. (a) and the internal
stresses and forces are shown in Fig. (b).

(a) Section; (b) stress diagram and internal forces.

C =force in the concrete in compression
=0.447fcub×0.9x
=0.402fcubx
z =lever arm
=d−0.45x
M =applied moment
=Cz
=0.402fcubx(d−0.45x)

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=0.402fcubdx−0.181fcubx2
2
x −2.221dx+5.525M/fcub=0
Solve the quadratic equation to give
x =1.11d+(1.233d2−5.525M/fcub)1/2
z =d−0.45x
=d[0.5+(0.25−K/0.9)1/2]
where K=M/fcubd2. This is the expression given in the code. The lever arm z is not to
exceed 0.95d.

As = area of tension steel

=M/(0.87fyz)

Example - Singly reinforced rectangular beam— under-reinforced design

A simply supported rectangular beam of 8 m span carries a design load of 17.8 kN/m.
The beam dimensions are breadth 250 mm and effective depth 400 mm. Determine the area of
steel required. The concrete is grade 30 and the steel grade 460.

Provide four 20 mm diameter bars; As=1260 mm2 as shown.

4Y20

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Using Design chart

Note that the code stipulates in clause 3.4.4.4 that the lever arm z must not be more than 0.95d in
order to give a reasonable concrete area in compression. A series of design charts is given in
BS8110: Part 3. For design, the moment M and the beam dimensions b and d are given, M/bd2 is
calculated and 100As/bd is read from the chart. The steel area As can then be determined. Note
that when M/bd2 is less than 1.27 the steel area should be calculated using z=0.95d.

The lever arm ratio z/d can also be plotted against M/bd2fcu as shown in the chart below. Note
that the ratio z/d varies between 0.774 when x/d=0.5 and 0.95, the maximum value permitted in
the code. The advantage of this chart is that it can be used for all grades of concrete. For design,
M/bd2fcu is calculated and the ratio z/d is read off from the chart.
The steel area is given by As=M/0.87fyz

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Lever arm chart

Example Singly reinforced rectangular beam— Using design chart

A simply supported rectangular beam of 8 m span carries a design load of 17.8 kN/m. The beam
dimensions are breadth 250 mm and effective depth 400 mm. Find the steel area required. The
concrete is grade 30 and steel grade 460.

(a) Section at mid-span; (b) section at support; (c) loading and bending moment
diagram.

From chart. , 100As/bd=1.05. Therefore

As=1.05×250×400/100=1050 mm2
Provide four 20 mm diameter bars; As=1256 mm2.

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DOUBLY REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
If the concrete alone cannot resist the applied moment in compression, reinforcement can be
provided in the compression zone. The design formulae for a doubly reinforced beam are derived
using the simplified stress block.

These are based on

1. a depth x=d/2 to the neutral axis and a depth 0.9x of the stress block
2. a stress of 0.45fcu in the concrete in compression
3. a stress of 0.87fy in the reinforcement in tension and compression
The beam section, strain diagram and stress diagram with internal forces are shown above, where
the symbols are as follows:
d′ inset of the compression steel
As′ area of compression steel
εsc strain in the compression steel
Cc force in the concrete in compression
Cs force in the compression steel
The stress in the compression steel will reach 0.87fy if the strain εsc is not less than 0.002, i.e.

or
d′≯0.214d≯0.43x
If d′ exceeds this limit the stress in the compression steel must be taken from Fig.(b). The
moment of resistance of the concrete, MRC = 0.156fcubd2 from previous sections. If this is less
than the applied moment M, the compression steel resists a moment
M−MRC.
Area of steel in compression,

Area of steel in tension

where

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Example Doubly reinforced rectangular beam
A rectangular beam is simply supported over a span of 6 m and carries a dead load including
self-weight of 12.7 kN/m and an imposed load of 6.0 kN/m. The beam is 200 mm wide by 300
mm effective depth and the inset of the compression steel is 40 mm. Design the steel for mid-
span of the beam for grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.
design load=(12.7×1.4)+(6×1.6)=27.4 kN/m
ultimate moment=27.4×62/8=123.3 kN m
MRC=0.156×30×200×3002/106=84.24 kN m
d′/x=40/150=0.27<0.43
The stress in the compression steel is 0.87fy. Therefore

For the compression steel two 16mm diameter bars give As′=402 mm2. For the tension steel two
25 mm diameter plus two 16 mm diameter bars give As = 1383 mm2.

2Y25 + 2Y16

FLANGED BEAMS
Flanged beams occur where beams are cast integral with and support a continuous floor slab.
Part of the slab adjacent to the beam is counted as acting in compression to form T- and L-beams
as shown in figure below where b is the effective breadth of the compression flange, bw is the
breadth of the web of the beam and hf is the thickness of the flange.
The effective breadth b of flanged beams is given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.1.5:
1. T-beams—web width bw+lz/5 or the actual flange width if less
2. L-beams—web width bw+lz/10 or the actual flange width if less

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(a) Neutral axis in flange; (b) neutral axis in web.

where lz is the distance between points of zero moment in the beam. In continuous beams lz may
be taken as 0.7 times the effective span. The design procedure depends on where the neutral axis
lies. The neutral axis may lie in the flange or in the web.

Neutral axis in flange (Clause 3.4.4.4)

When the simplified stress block is used the actual neutral axis may be in the web provided that
0.9x does not exceed the flange depth hf. The moment of resistance of the section for the case
when 0.9x=hf is
MR=0.45fcubhf(d−hf/2)
The design curves can also be used for values of 0.9x not exceeding hf. If the applied moment M
is greater than MR the neutral axis lies in the web.

Neutral axis in web (clause 3.4.4.5)

The case of the neutral axis in the web can be analyzed using the assumptions for moment of
resistance given in BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.4.1. As an alternative, a conservative formula for
calculating the steel area is given in clause 3.4.4.5 of the code.
The equation in the code is derived using the simplified stress block with x=0.5d
depth of stress block=0.9x=0.45d
The concrete forces in compression are
C1 =0.45fcuhf(b−bw)
C2 =0.45fcu×0.45dbw
=0.2fcubwd
The steel force in tension is
T=0.87fyAs
The values of the lever arms are
z1 =d−0.5hf
z2 =d−0.5×0.4d=0.77d
The moment of resistance of the section is found by taking moments about force C1:
M =Tz1−C2(z1−z2)
=0.87fyAs(d−0.5hf)−0.2fcubwd(0.225d−0.5hf)
21
from which

(a) Section; (b) stresses and internal forces

This is the expression given in the code. It gives conservative results for cases where x is less
than 0.5d. The equation only applies when hf is less than 0.45d.

For a section with tension reinforcement only, the applied moment must not exceed the moment
of resistance of the concrete given by
M =C1z1+C2z2
=0.45fcuhf(b−bw)(d−0.5hf)+0.155fcubwd2
Thus

or
M=βffcubd2

where βf is the expression immediately above. Thus the equation for the steel area As
only applies when the ultimate moment M is less than βffcubd2. This is the expression given in the
code. A further stipulation is that not more than 10% redistribution has been carried out. Sections
can be designed using the basic assumptions for the following cases:
1. when the applied moment exceeds βffcubd2 and compression reinforcement is required
2. where redistribution exceeds 10% and the depth to the neutral axis must be limited

Example - Flanged beam—neutral axis in flange

A continuous slab 100 mm thick is carried on T-beams at 2 m centres. The overall depth of the
beam is 350 mm and the breadth of the web is 250 mm. The beams are 6m span and are simply
supported. The dead load including self-weight and finishes is 7.4 kN/m2 and the imposed load is
5 kN/m2. Design the beam using the simplified stress block. The materials are grade 30 concrete
and grade 460 reinforcement.

design load=(7.4×2×1.4)+(5×2×1.6)=36.7 kN/m

ultimate moment=36.7×62/8=165 kN m
breadth of flange b=250+6000/5=1450 mm
22
The beam section is shown in Fig.

From BS8110: Part 1, Table 3.4, the nominal cover on the links is 25 mm for grade 30 concrete.
If the links are 8 mm in diameter and the main bars are 25 mm in diameter, then
d=350−25−8−12.5 = 304.5 mm, say 300 mm. The moment of resistance of the section when the
slab depth
hf=100 mm is equal to 0.9 of the depth x to the neutral axis is
MR =0.45×30×1450×100(300−0.5×100)/106
= 489.3 kN m
The neutral axis lies in the flange. Using the code expressions in clause 3.4.4.4

Provide three 25 mm diameter bars; As=1472 mm2.

Redesign the beam using the chart

This is less than 1.27. Calculate the steel area using z=0.95d as above.

Example - Flanged beam—neutral axis in web

Determine the area of reinforcement required for the T-beam section shown in Fig. which is
subjected to an ultimate moment of 260 kN m.

The materials are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement.

23
Check the location of the neutral axis. If 0.9 multiplied by the neutral axis depth is equal to hf,
the moment of resistance of the concrete is

MR =0.45fcubdhf(d−0.5hf)
=0.45×30×600×100×290/106=234.9 kN m
<applied moment

The neutral axis lies in the web. The steel area is calculated using the expression from clause
3.4.4.5 of the code.

Provide five 25 mm diameter bars; As=2454 mm2.

Check the moment of resistance of the concrete.

This is greater than the applied moment. The section is satisfactory with tension reinforcement
only.

General Procedure for Beam Design in accordance with BS 8110-1-1997

1. Select Grade Strengths

- Concrete strength, fcu
- Longitudinal reinforcement, fy
- Shear reinforcement, fyv

2. Geometrical properties
- Minimum member size
- Cover to reinforcement, c
- Effective depth, d and width, b

3. Loading
- Characteristic Dead and Live Loads
- Self weight
- Ultimate loads
- Design moment, M
- Design shear force, V

4. Calculate Moment of Resistance

If , then design as singly reinforced

Where,
24
 √ and

If , the design as doubly reinforced

Area of steel in compression,

And Area of steel in tension, for equilibrium

√ and
is effective depth to compression steel.

5. Design Shear reinforcement (Clause 3.4.5.2)

Design shear stress,
In no case should v exceed:
√ or 5 N/mm2, whichever is the lesser, whatever shear reinforcement is provided.
Shear reinforcement should be as given in Table 3.7. Stress in any bar should not exceed 0.95fyv.

Design concrete shear stress vc (in N/mm2) are given in Table 3.8 or from the equation:

( ) ( ) ( )

6. Check Deflection (Clause 3.4.6)

The basic span/effective depth ratios for beams are given in Table 3.9. Deflection is influenced
by the amount of tension reinforcement and its stress. The span/effective depth ratio should
therefore be modified according to the ultimate design moment and the service stress at the
centre of the span (or at the support in the case of a cantilever). Values of span/effective depth
ratio obtained from Table 3.9 should be multiplied by the appropriate factor obtained from Table
3.10.
Compression reinforcement also influences deflection and the value of the span/effective depth
ratio obtained from Table 3.9 modified by the factor obtained from Table 3.10 may be multiplied
by a further factor obtained from Table 3.11.

25
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS
Reinforced concrete slabs are used to form a variety of elements in building structures such as
floors, roofs, staircases, foundations and some types of walls.

Since these elements can be modeled as a set of transversely connected beams, it follows that the
design of slabs is similar, in principle, to that for beams. The major difference is that in slab
design the serviceability limit state of deflection is normally critical, rather than the ultimate
limit states of bending and shear.

TYPES OF SLABS
Slabs may be solid, ribbed, precast or in-situ and if in-situ they may span one-way or two-ways.
In practice, the choice of slab for a particular structure will largely depend upon economy,
buildability, the loading conditions and the length of the span. Thus for short spans, generally
less than 5 m, the most economical solution is to provide a solid slab of constant thickness over
the complete span.

Solid slabs

With medium size spans from 5 to 9 m it is more economical to provide flat slabs since they are
generally easier to construct
26
 Flat slabs

Shear stresses can be reduced in flat slab construction by:-

(a) Deep slab and large columns
(b) Slab with flared column head
(c) Slab with drop panel and column head.

The ease of construction chiefly arises from the fact that the floor has a flat soffit
Slabs can also be made of a series of beams connected transversely.

Slab made from a series of beams (can be precast)

27
 Ribbed slab

Waffle slab

SOLID SLAB DESIGN (Clause 3.5)

If lY/lX > 2 then design adopts one- way spanning slab

If ly/lx ≤ 2, slab will span two-way.

lx is length of shorter side, and ly is length of longer side.

28
Design of One-Way Spanning Solid Slab
If lY/lX > 2 then design adopts one- way spanning slab
The general procedure to be adopted for slab design is as follows:
i) Determine a suitable depth of slab.
ii) Calculate main and secondary reinforcement areas.
iii) Check critical shear stresses.
iv) Check detailing requirements.

Span of slab (clause 3.5.7)

Solid slabs are designed as if they consist of a series of beams of l metre width. The effective
span of the slab is taken as the smaller of (a) the distance between centres of bearings, A, or (b)
the clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the slab.

Effective span of slab

Steel areas (clause 3.5.4, BS 8110)

Ultimate moment

If , which is the usual condition for slabs, compression reinforcement will not be
required and the area of tensile reinforcement, As

Where √( ) in which

Secondary or distribution steel is required in the transverse direction and this is usually based on
the minimum percentages of reinforcement (Asmin) given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110

=0.24%Ac, when fy = 250N/mm2 and = 0.13%Ac when fy = 460N/mm2

Where Ac is the total area of concrete.

29
Shear Reinforcements (clause 3.5.5 of BS 8110)

Design shear stress, , is calculated from,

The ultimate concrete shear resistance c is determined from Table 3.8. If , no shear
reinforcement is required. Where , the form and area of shear reinforcement in solid slabs
should be provided in accordance with the requirements contained in Table 3.16

Reinforcement details (clause 3.12, BS 8110)

For reasons of durability, the code specifies limits in respect of:

i) minimum % of reinforcement
ii) spacing of reinforcement
iii) maximum crack width

Spacing of reinforcement (clause 3.12.11.2.7,

BS 8110).

The clear distance between tension bars, , should lie within the following limits:
or bar diameter whichever is the lesser, where is the maximum
aggregate size

Curtailment of reinforcement (clause 3.12.10.3, BS 8110).

Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in slabs (a) simply supported ends (b) continuous slabs

30
Crack width (clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110).

Unless the actual crack width have been checked by direct calculations, the following rules will
ensure that crack width will not generally exceed 0.3mm. This limiting crack width is based on
considerations of appearance and durability.
(i) No further check is required on bar spacing if either:
(a) and slab depth , or
(b) and slab depth
(c) the reinforcement percentage
(ii) Where none of conditions (a), (b), or (c) apply and the % of reinforcement in the slab exceed
1%, the maximum clear distance, between bars given in Table 3.28 of BS 8110 should be
used , namely

2
Cross-sectional area per metre width for various bar spacing (mm )

Deflection (Clause 3.5.7)

To control deflection, it will be sufficient to restrict the span/effective depth ratio. The
appropriate ratio may be obtained from Table 3.9 and modified by Table 3.10. Only the
conditions at the centre of the span in the width of slab under consideration should be considered
to influence deflection. The ratio for a two-way spanning slab should be based on the shorter
span.

31
 Example: Design of a one-way spanning concrete floor (BS 8110)
A reinforced concrete floor subject to an imposed load of 3.5 kN/m2 spans between brick walls
as shown below. Design the floor for mild exposure. Assuming the following material strengths:
fcu = 35N/mm2, fy = 460 Nmm2

The design of continuous one-way spanning slabs is similar to that outlined above for single-
span slabs. The main differences are that (a) several loading arrangements may need to be
considered and (b) such slabs are not statically determinate. Methods such as moment
distribution can be used to determine the design moments and shear forces in the slab as
discussed in section 3.9.3.1. However, where the following conditions are met, the moments and
shear forces can be calculated using the coefficients in Table 3.12 of BS 8110,

TWO-WAY SPANNING RESTRAINED SOLID SLAB DESIGN

When simply-supported slabs do not have adequate provision to resist torsion at the corners, and
to prevent the corners from lifting, the maximum moments per unit width are given by the
following equations:

Values for αsx and αsy are given in Table 3.13

The design of two-way spanning restrained slabs supporting uniformly distributed loads is
enerally similar to that outlined for one way spanning slabs.
Thus, the maximum design moments per unit width of rectangular slabs of shorter side lx and
longer side ly are given by

and

Where
msx is the maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips of
unit width and span lx
msy is the maximum design ultimate moments either over supports or at mid-span on strips of
unit width and span ly
n is the total design ultimate load per unit area =

Similarly, the design shear forces at supports in the long span direction, , and short span
direction, , may be obtained from the following expressions.
υsy = βvynlx
υsx = βvxnlx

32
BS 8110 contains tables of coefficients (βsx, βsy, βvx, βvy) that may assist in this task (Tables 3.14
and 3.15).

Location of moments

These moments and shears are considered to act over the middle three quarters of the panel
width. The remaining edge strips, of width equal to one eight of the panel width, may be
provided with minimum tension reinforcement.

In some cases, where there is a significant difference in the support moments calculated for
adjacent panels, it may be necessary to modify the mid-span moments in accordance with the
procedure given in BS 8110.

Example : Design of a two-way spanning restrained slab (BS 8110)

Figure below shows a part plan of an office floor supported by monolithic concrete beams (not
detailed), with individual slab panels continuous over two or more supports. The floor is to be
designed to support an imposed load of 4 kN/m2 and finishes loads of 1.25 kN/m2. The
characteristic strength of the concrete is 30 N/mm2 and the steel reinforcement is 500 N/mm2.
The cover to steel reinforcement is 25 mm.
(a) Calculate the mid-span and support moments for panel (shaded part) assuming the thickness
of the floor is 180 mm.
(b) Design the steel reinforcement for panel and check the adequacy of the slab in terms of shear
resistance and deflection. Illustrate the reinforcement details on plan and elevation views of the
panel.

5m

7m critical panel

33
Loading
Total dead load, Gk = finishes etc. + self-weight of slab = 1.25 + 0.180 × 24 = 5.57 kN/m2
Imposed load, Qk = 4 kN/m2
Design load, n = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk = 1.4 × 5.57 + 1.6 × 4 = 14.2 kN/m2
Design moment
By inspection, panel is an interior panel. ly/lx = 7/5 = 1.4
From Table 3.14 of BS 8110,
Short span coefficient for negative (i.e. hogging) moment at continuous edge, βsx,n = 0.05
Short span coefficient for positive (i.e. sagging) moment at mid-span, βsx,p = 0.037
Long span coefficient for negative moment at continuous edge, βsy,n = 0.032 and
Long span coefficient for positive moment at mid-span, βsy,p = 0.024
Short span
negative moment at continuous edge in the short span,
msx,n = βsx,nnl2x
= 0.05 × 14.2 × 52 = 17.8 kNm;
positive moment at mid-span in the short span,
msx,p = βsx,pn
= 0.037 × 14.2 × 52 = 13.1 kNm;
Long span
negative moment at continuous edge in the long span,
msy,n = βsy,nn
= 0.032 × 14.2 × 52 =11.36 kNm;
and positive moment at mid-span in the long span,
msy,p = βsy,pn
= 0.024 × 14.2 × 52 = 8.52 kNm.

Steel reinforcement
Continuous supports

Assume diameter of main steel, φ = 10 mm and nominal cover, c = 25 mm. Hence,

Effective depth of main steel, d = h –φ/2− c = 180 −10/2− 25 = 150 mm
Assume diameter of secondary steel, φ′ = 10 mm. Hence,
Effective depth of secondary steel, d′ = h − φ −φ′/2− c = 180 − 10 −10/2− 25 = 140 mm

34
.
Mid-span

35
Shear stress
From Table 3.15

36
Reinforcement details

Ribbed and Hollow Block Floor

The ribbed floor is formed using temporary or permanent shuttering while hollow block floor is
generally constructed with blocks made of burnt clay or concrete with lightweight aggregates. If
37
the blocks are suitably manufactured and have adequate strength, they can be considered to
contribute to the strength of the slab in design calculations, but in many designs no such
allowance is made.

The principal advantage of these floors is the reduction in weight achieved by removing part of
the concrete below the neutral axis and, in the case of the hollow block floor, replacing it with a
lighter form of construction.

Ribbed and hollow block floors are economical for buildings where there are long spans, over
5m and light or moderate live loads such as apartment buildings.

Near the supports, the hollow blocks are stopped off and the slab is made solid. This is done to
achieve greater shear strength, and if the slab is supported by a monolithic concrete beam, the
solid section acts as the flange of a T-section. The ribs should be checked for shear at their
junction with the solid slab. It is good practice to stagger the joints of the hollow blocks in
adjacent rows so that, as they are stopped off there is no abrupt change in cross section extending
across the slabs. The slabs are made solid under partitions and concentrated loads.

During construction the hollow blocks should be well soaked in water prior to placing the
concrete, otherwise shrinkage cracking of the top concrete flange is likely to occur.

The thickness of the concrete flange should not be less than

1. 40mm or one tenth of the clear distance between the ribs, whichever is greater for slabs
with permanent blocks.
2. 50mm or one tenth of the clear distance between ribs, whichever is greater for slabs
without permanent blocks.
If these requirements are not met, then a check of longitudinal shear between web and flange
should be made to see if additional transverse steel is needed.
38
The rib width is governed by cover (Table 4.8), bar spacing (3.12.11) and fire resistance (Table
4.9).
The ribs should be spaced no further than 1.5m and their depth below the flange should not be
greater than four times their width. Transverse ribs should be provided at spacing no greater than
ten times the overall slab depth.

Provided that the above dimensional requirements are met, ribbed slabs can be treated for
analysis as solid slabs and designed as solid slabs. Calculations for reinforcement will require
evaluation of effective flange breadths using procedures for T-beams.

Ribbed slabs are designed for shear using procedures for T-beams.
Where hollow blocks are used, the rib width may be increased by the wall thickness of the block
on one side of the rib.
Span effective depth ratios are based on the shorter span with basic values multiplied by 0.8
where the ratio of the flange width to the rib width exceeds 3. Thickness of the rib width may
include the thickness of two adjacent block-walls.

At least 50% of the tensile reinforcement in the span should continue to the supports and be
anchored.
In some instances the slabs are supported by steel beams and are designed as simply supported
even though the topping is continuous. Reinforcements should be provided over the supports to
prevent cracking in these cases. This top steel should be determined on the basis of 25% of the
mid-span moment and should extend at least 0.15 of the clear span into the adjoining span.

A light reinforcing mesh in the topping flange can give added strength and durability of the slab,
particularly if there are concentrated or moving loads, or if cracking due to shrinkage or thermal
movement is likely. The minimum area of reinforcement required to control shrinkage and
thermal cracking can be calculated or an area of mesh equivalent to 0.13% of the topping flange
will be adequate.

Waffle Slabs

Waffle slabs are designed as ribbed slabs and their design moments each way are obtained from
coefficients given in Table 3.14 for two-way spanning slabs.

39
STAIR SLABS

40
41
42
Laying of Waffle Slab

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS (Clause 3.8)

The function of columns in a structure is to act as vertical supports to suspended members such
as beams and roofs and to transmit the loads from these members down to the foundations
Columns are primarily compression members although they may also have to resist bending
moments transmitted by beams.
Size of columns

43
The size of a column and the position of the reinforcement in it may be affected by the
requirements for
durability and fire resistance, and these should be considered before the design is commenced.
The greatest overall cross-sectional dimension for columns does not exceed four times its smaller
dimension Where h > 4b the member should be regarded as a wall for design purposes

Short and slender columns

A column may be considered as short when both the ratios lex/h and ley/b are less than 15
(braced) and 10 (unbraced). It should otherwise be considered as slender.

Braced and unbraced columns

A column may be considered braced in a given plane if lateral stability to the structure as a
whole is provided by walls or bracing or buttressing designed to resist all lateral forces in that
plane. It should otherwise be considered as unbraced. The most common type of column found
in building structures, namely short-braced columns.

Effective height of a column

The four end conditions are as follows:

a) Condition 1. The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams on either side which
are at least as deep as the overall dimension of the column in the plane considered. Where the
column is connected to a foundation structure, this should be of a form specifically designed to
carry moment.
b) Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs on either
side which are shallower than the overall dimension of the column in the plane considered.
c) Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which, while not specifically
designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column will, nevertheless, provide some nominal
restraint.
d) Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral movement and rotation
(e.g. the free end of a cantilever column in an unbraced structure).

44
Axially loaded columns

45
Columns resisting axial load and bending
The area of longitudinal steel for columns resisting axial loads and uniaxial or biaxial bending is
normally calculated using the design charts in Part 3 of BS 8110. These charts are available for
columns having a rectangular cross-section and a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement.
It should be noted that each chart is particular for a selected
1. characteristic strength of concrete, fcu;
2. characteristic strength of reinforcement, fy;
3. d/h ratio.
Example

Column design chart (based on chart 27, BS 8110: Part 3).

Reinforcements

Columns with rectangular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of four

longitudinal bars; columns with circular cross-sections should be reinforced with a minimum of
six longitudinal bars. Each of the bars should not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
Reinforcement areas

(a) Size and spacing of links. Links should be at least one-quarter of the size of the largest
longitudinal
bar or 6 mm, whichever is the greater. However, in practice 6 mm bars may not be freely
available
and a minimum bar size of 8 mm is preferable. Links should be provided at a maximum spacing
of 12 times the size of the smallest longitudinal bar or the smallest cross-sectional dimension of

46
the column.

Arrangement of links in columns

FOUNDATIONS
Foundations are required primarily to carry the dead and imposed loads due to the structure’s
floors, beams, walls, columns, etc. and transmit and distribute the loads safely to the ground.

The purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the safe bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may occur.

Foundation failure can produce catastrophic effects on the overall stability of a structure so that it
may slide or even overturn (Fig. 3.69)

Such failures are likely to have tremendous financial and safety implications. It is essential,
therefore, that much attention is paid to the design of this element of a structure.

47
FOUNDATION TYPES
There are many types of foundations which are commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft.
 The foundations may bear directly on the ground or be supported on piles.
 The choice of foundation type will largely depend upon (1) ground conditions (i.e.
strength and type of soil) and (2) type of structure (i.e. layout and level of loading).
 Pad footings are usually square or rectangular slabs and used to support a single column
(Fig. 3.70).
 The pad may be constructed using mass concrete or reinforced concrete depending on
the relative size of the loading.
 Detailed design of pad footings is discussed in section 3.11.2.1.
 Continuous strip footings are used to support load bearing walls or under a line of closely
spaced columns
48
 Strip footings are designed as pad footings in the transverse direction and in the
longitudinal direction as an inverted continuous beam subject to the ground bearing
pressure.

49
  Where the ground conditions are relatively poor, a raft foundation may be necessary in
order to distribute the loads from the walls and columns over a large area.
 In its simplest form this may consist of a flat slab, possibly strengthened by upstand or
downstand beams for the more heavily loaded structures.
 Where the ground conditions are so poor that it is not practical to use strip or pad footings
but better quality soil is present at lower depths, the use of pile foundations should be
considered

 The piles may be made of precast reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete or in-situ
reinforced concrete. Loads are transmitted from the piles to the surrounding strata by end
bearing and/or friction.
 End bearing piles derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of
the soil at the toe of the pile, while friction piles rely on the adhesion or friction between
the sides of the pile and the soil.
FOUNDATION DESIGN
 Foundation failure may arise as a result of (a) allowable bearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded, or (b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.
 The first condition allows the plan-area of the base to be calculated, being equal to the
design load divided by the bearing capacity of the soil


Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design loadings to be
considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as those for the serviceability
limit state (i.e.1.0Gk +1.0Qk). The calculations to determine the thickness of the base and the
bending and shear reinforcement should, however, be based on Ultimate loads (i.e. 1.4Gk +
1.6Qk). The design of a pad footing will be considered. In most cases the design process would
be similar to that for beams and slabs.

Design of a Pad footing

The general procedure to be adopted for the design of pad footings is as follows:

50
51
52
53
54
55
Hence no shear reinforcement is required

56
REINFORCEMENT DETAILS

RETAINING WALLS
- Used when there is a difference in ground levels between adjacent areas of land.
- Typical examples of this include road and railway embankments, reservoirs and ramps.

Retaining wall - vertical wall which is capable of resisting the pressure of the retained material.
These structures are commonly referred to as retaining walls. It is an important element in many
civil engineering projects. They are designed to withstand all horizontal pressures and forces
without movement arising from deflection, sliding or overturning.

TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

There are two main categories of concrete retaining walls (a) gravity walls and (b) flexible walls.
Gravity walls
 up to 2 m in height
 Usually constructed of mass concrete with mesh reinforcement in the faces to reduce
thermal and shrinkage cracking.
 Other construction materials for gravity walls include masonry and stone.
 Designed so that the resultant force on the wall due to the dead weight and the earth
pressures is kept within the middle third of the base.
 The width of base should be about a third of the height of the retained material.

57
  Retained materials include a granular layer behind the wall and weep holes near the base
to minimize hydrostatic pressure behind the wall.
 Gravity walls rely on their dead weight for strength and stability.
 Preferred because of their simplicity in construction and ease of maintenance.

Gravity retaining walls

Flexible walls
These retaining walls may be of two basic types, namely (i) cantilever and (ii) counterfort.

Cantilever walls
 Cantilevered reinforced concrete retaining walls are suitable for heights up to about 7
m. They generally consist of a uniform vertical stem monolithic with a base slab.
 A key is sometimes incorporated at the base of the wall in order to prevent sliding
failure of the wall.
 The stability of these structures often relies on the weight of the structure and the
weight of backfill on the base.

Cantilever Retaining wall

Counterfort walls.
 Where higher stem is needed, counterfort walls are preferred

58
  Counterfort walls can be designed as continuous slabs spanning horizontally between
vertical supports known as counterforts. The counterforts are designed as cantilevers
and will normally have a triangular or trapezoidal shape.
 Stability is provided by the weight of the structure and earth on the base.

Counterforts retaining wall

Design of Cantilever Walls

To ensure that the wall will not fail due to:
 foundation failure or
 structural failure of the stem or base.

Design procedure involves the following steps:

1. Calculate the soil pressures on the wall.
2. Check the stability of the wall.
3. Design the bending reinforcement.

Soil pressures
The pressure on the wall resulting from the retained fill has a destabilizing effect on the wall and
is normally termed active pressure. The earth in front of the wall resists the destabilizing forces
and is termed passive pressure.
The active pressure (pa) is given by
pa = ρkaz
where
ρ = unit weight of soil (kN/m3)
ka = coefficient of active pressure
z = height of retained fill.

Active and passive pressures acting on a retaining wall

59
where φ is the internal angle of friction of retained soil.

The passive pressure (pp) is given by

pp = ρkpz
where
ρ = unit weight of soil
z = height of retained fill
kp = coefficient of passive pressure and is calculated using

Just like slabs, the design of retaining walls is usually based on a 1 m width of section.

Stability
Fountain failure of the wall may arise due to (a) sliding or (b) rotation. Sliding failure will occur
if the active pressure force (Fa) exceeds the passive pressure force (Fp) plus the friction force (Ff)
arising at the base/ground interface where
Fa = 0.5pah1
Fp = 0.5pph2
Ff = μWt
The factor of safety against this type of failure occurring is normally taken to be at least 1.5:

Rotational failure of the wall may arise due to:

 the overturning effect of the active pressure force
 bearing pressure of the soil being exceeded which will display similar characteristics
to ; or
 failure of the soil mass surrounding the wall (handled under soil mechanics)

60
Overturning can be checked by taking moments about the toe of the foundation (A) and ensuring
that the ratio of sum of restoring moments (ΣMres) and sum of overturning moments (ΣMover)
∑
exceeds 2.0, i.e. ∑

The ground pressure should not exceed the allowable bearing pressure for the soil. The ground
pressure under the toe (ptoe) and the heel (pheel) of the base can be calculated using

and

Provided that the load eccentricity lies within the middle third of the base (KERN) to ensure
there is no tension in the concrete

Where M = Moment about centerline of base

P = total vertical load

61
Reinforcement Steel
The area of steel reinforcement needed in the wall can be calculated by considering the ultimate
limit states of bending and shear. As was pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, cantilever
retaining walls can be regarded for design purposes as three cantilever beams

Example
The cantilever retaining wall shown below is backfilled with granular material having a unit
weight, ρ, of 19 kN/m3 and an internal angle of friction, φ, of 30°. Assuming that the allowable
bearing pressure of the soil is 120 kN/m2, the coefficient of friction is 0.4 and the unit weight of
reinforced concrete is 24 kN/m3
1. Determine the factors of safety against sliding and overturning.
2. Calculate ground bearing pressures.
3. Design the wall and base reinforcement assuming fcu = 35 kN/m2, fy = 500 kN/m2 and the
cover to reinforcement in the wall and base are 35 mm and 50 mm respectively

Active pressure
1. Factor of safety against sliding

Consider the forces acting on a 1 m length of wall. Horizontal force on wall due to backfill, FA,
is Fa = 0.5pah

Therefore,
Fa = 0.5 × 34.2 × 5.4 = 92.34 kN

Weight of wall (Ww) = 0.4 × 5 × 24 = 48.0 kN

Weight of base (Wb) = 0.4 × 4 × 24 = 38.4 kN
Weight of soil (Ws) = 2.9 × 5 × 19 = 275.5 kN
Total vertical force (Wt) = 361.9 kN

Friction force, Ff, is

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Ff = μWt = 0.4 × 361.9 = 144.76 kN
Assume passive pressure force (Fp) = 0. Hence factor of safety against sliding is

= 1.56 > 1.5 OK

Factor of safety against overturning

Taking moments at the toe

Sum of overturning moments

∑
Sum of restoring moments
∑

∑
F.S against overturning ∑ OK

Ground Pressures
Moment about centre line of base (M) is

Toe Heel

Therefore, the maximum ground pressure occurs at the toe, ptoe, which is given by

.
Less than the allowable 120kN/m2 O.K

63
Moment Reinforcements (for Ultimate Limit state

Provide H20 at 200 mm centres (As = 1570 mm2/m) in near face (NF) of wall. Steel is also
required in the front face (FF) of wall in order to prevent excessive cracking. This is based on the
minimum steel area, i.e.
= 0.13%bh = 0.13% × 103 × 400 = 520 mm2/m
Hence, provide H12 at 200 centres (As = 566 mm2)

64
Base design

Moment at C (RHS)

Provide H20 at 200 mm centres (As = 1570 mm2/m) at the top face

Moment at B (LHS)

Hence provide H12 at 200 mm centres (As = 566 mm2/m), in bottom face (B) of base and as
distribution steel in base and stem of wall.

65
Reinforcement Details

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete has attained worldwide recognition in the development of industrialized
construction and design. Prestressing consists of introducing imposed deformations by
tensioning prestressing wires, cables or strands and tendons to a high stress which decreases with
time due to various losses such as shrinkage, creep, steel relaxation, friction and wobbling
effects.

The fundamental aim of pre-stressed concrete is to limit tensile stresses, and hence flexural
cracking in the concrete under working condition. It is a method of overcoming concrete’s
natural weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer
span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.

In beams both tensile and compressive stresses are induced. If a longitudinal pre-compression
could be introduced, the final tensile stress would be zero or very small.

1 2 3

66
1. Stress due to bending
2. Stress due to pre-stress
3. Combined stress

It is assumed that the beam cross section is symmetrical about the horizontal centroidal axis. It
may be seen that the axial pre-compression is not applied through the centroid of the cross
section but at some eccentricity to give a small tensile stress at the top and large compression at
the bottom. When the stresses due to the pre-compression (pre-stress) are added to the bending
stresses due to dead and applied loads it may be seen that the highest compressive stress is at the
top and that at the bottom there may be a very small tensile stress or whole section may be in
compression.

The pre-compression is usually applied by means of wires or bars, called tendon, threaded
longitudinally through the beam. The tendon is tensioned by jacking against the concrete and
then anchoring it once the right amount of pre-stress has been achieved. The wires or bars used
to provide pre-tensioning force may either be straight or curved depending on the application and
they may be grouped to form a single cable or distributed to form several cables. The terms Pre-
tensioning and Post-tensioning are used.
In the case of pre-tensioned concrete structures, the tensioning of the tendon is carried out before
concreting. The pre-stressing force is held temporarily either by a specially-constructed pre-
stressing bed or by a mould or form. When the concrete strength reaches the specified transfer
strength, de-tensioning and stress transfer to such structures can be performed. In practice these
structures are prefabricated.
In the case of post-tensioned concrete structures, the tensioning of the tendon is carried out after
casting and hardening of the concrete. This method is more effective in the design and
construction of high-rise and long-span concrete structures. The design and detailing of such
structures are influenced by the serviceability classification, which includes the amount of
flexural tensile stresses allowed while carrying out the design/detailing of such structures. They
are then classified into individual classes which are given below:
Class 1: no flexural tensile stresses.
Class 2: flexural tensile stresses but no visible cracking.
Class 3: flexural tensile stresses but surface width of cracks not exceeding 0·1 mm for members
in very severe environments and not exceeding 0·2 mm for all other members.
The structural detailing of pre-stressed concrete members must take into consideration durability,
fire resistance and stability. The relevant codes include BS 8110 which should strictly be
followed for the correct evaluation of design ultimate loads and the characteristic strength of
concrete and steel. Generally, high strength concrete is used for pre-stressed concrete work. The
steel used in pre-stressed concrete is generally of a much higher strength than mild steel.

Advantages of Pre-stressed Concrete

The main advantages of pre-stressed concrete (PSC) are:
i) Smaller Section Sizes
Since PSC uses the whole concrete section, the second moment of area is bigger and so the
section is stiffer:
ii) Smaller Deflections
The larger second moment of area greatly reduces deflections for a given section size.
iii) Increased Spans

67
The smaller section size reduces self-weight. Hence a given section can span further with pre-
stressed concrete than it can with ordinary reinforced concrete.
iv) Durability
Since the entire section remains in compression, no cracking of the concrete can occur and hence
there is little penetration of the cover. This greatly improves the long-term durability of
structures, especially bridges and also means that concrete tanks can be made as watertight as
steel tanks, with far greater durability.

Tendon profiles.

Example:
Find the profile of pre-stressing cable with an effective force of 500kN, which can balance the load
on the beam. Sketch the profile of the cable along the length of the beam. Density of concrete is
25kN/m3.

Cross sectional area of the beam = 150×50 + 250×50+45050 ×

= 850×50 = 42500 mm2
Now, Dead load = A×25 kN/m = 1.02 kN/m
Live load = 4 kN/m
Therefore, total load, w = (4+1.02) kN/m = 5.02 kN/m

And

Consider a distance x from B

68
Also M = 0 when

5.02kN/m
A B

6m

18.825
+
- 11.295 SFD

22.59 2.25m

+ BMD
12.71

Tendon Profile

Distance from Mx Eccentricity

B (m) kNm e (mm)
0 0 0
1 8.785 17.57
2 12.55 25.10
2.25 12.71 25.41
3 11.295 22.59
4 5.02 10.04
5 -6.275 -12.55
6 -22.59 -45.18

45.18mm

25.41mm

304.4mm

69
 2.25m

Not to scale

70