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Rappaport PDF
INVITED
WIRE~ESS COMMUNICATIONS:
PAST EVENTS AND A FUTUREPERSPECTIVE
THEODORES. RAPPAPORT,A. ANNAMALAI, R. M. BUEHRER,AND WILLIAM H. TRANTER
VIRGINIA TECH
W
Wireless ireless communications has years earlier, and Japan’s popular second-gener-
emerged as one of the largest ation digital TDMA standard, PDC (Pacific Dig-
communications sectors of the telecommunica- ital Cellular), was introduced shortly after
tions ,industry, evolving from a IS-136’s acceptance in the U.S. As cellular tele-
has emerged as one niche business in the last decade phone service caught on with consumers, govern-
to o n e of the most promising ments across the world auctioned additional
of the largest areas for growth in the 21st cen- spectrum (the Personal Communications Ser-
tury. This article explores some vices, or PCS spectrum) to allow new competi-
sectors of the of the key technological advances and approach- tors to support even more cellular telephone
telecommunications es that are now emerging as core components subscribers. The PCS spectrum auctions of the
for wireless solutions of the future. mid-1990s created a vast increase in frequencies
i n d ust r y, evo Ivin g for cellular telephone providers across the globe,
thereby providing the proving ground for the
from a niche INTRODUCTION: second generation of cellular technology (2G,
the first generation of digital modulation tech-
business i n the last A BRIEFLOOKAT THE PAST DECADE nologies).
The 1990s were a period of tumultuous growth While the pioneering design of GSM, which
decade to one of the for the wireless communications industry, and included international billing, short messaging
most promising few could have predicted the rapid rise of many features, and network-level interoperability,
of today’s key players that chose “winning” now enjoys the lead in today’s global wireless
areas for growth in approaches and technologies. Likewise, there market, it is also evident that wireless CDMA
were some amazing and startling failures in the was a b r e a k t h r o u g h technology, offering
the 21 st century. wireless sector, despite the brilliant engineering increased wireless capacity by increasing chan-
and technological efforts that went into their for- nel bandwidth and moving complexity in the
mations. handset to low-cost baseband signal processing
One of the most successful wireless communi- circuits. All proposed third-generation wireless
cations technologies of the previous decade was standards (except for E D G E ) use some form
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), pio- of C D M A (Fig. l), and t h e n u m b e r of sub-
neered by Qualcomm, Inc. Qualcomm intro- scribers using t h e major second-generation
duced its CDMA concept for mobile radio in technologies (Fig. 2) clearly show CDMA and
1990, at a time when the U.S. cellular industry GSM as the two leading worldwide technology
was selecting its first digital mobile telephone standards. In fact, within the past year major
standard [l,21. wireless c a r r i e r s in J a p a n a n d t h e U.S.
To appreciate the growth of the wireless sec- announced they were abandoning IS-l36/PDC
tor, it is worth noting that in 1990 there were technology in favor of newer third-generation
only 10 million cell phone subscribers worldwide, standards that have a core wideband CDMA
mostly using analog FM (first-generation) tech- component. While CDMA was an example of a
nology. Today there are approximately 700 mil- breakthrough technology of the past decade,
lion subscribers, and this is expected to increase there were many o t h e r brilliant system con-
to more than two billion subscribers in the 2006- cepts that ultimately failed.
2007 time frame. In China alone, more than 15 The vision of anytime, anywhere communica-
million cell phone subscribers are being added tions was championed by two companies that
each month, more than the cumulative number ultimately declared bankruptcy, although both
of wireless subscribers that existed throughout companies were ahead of their time. Iridium
the entire world in 1991 [3]. (and companies like it) attempted to provide
Just prior to Qualcomm’s introduction of its satellite-based wireless communications through-
wideband digital CDMA mobile radio standard out the globe, using cellular telephone concepts
in 1990, now known as IS-95, the U.S. cellular from space, whereas Metricom attempted to
industry was poised to select T D M A (which provide a nationwide service of always-on data
became IS-136) as the digital successor to the in metropolitan areas using Internet Protocol
analog AMPS standard. The European commu- connectivity over a large network of low-power
nity had already adopted GSM for its own pan- devices operating in unlicensed spectrum.
European digital cellular standard a couple of In the case of Iridium, the cost to build and
,
/
3G /- - 3GPP2
TD-SCDMA
3GPP
I
FIGURE I . Cellulor/PCS technologies ond their evolution io 3G. The 'blphobet soup" of wireless sfon-
dords continues into the third generation of cellulor phones. Firstgenerotion onolog FM systems of the
i 980s gove woy to second- enerotion /2Gj sfondords in the i990s. lodoy, 2.5G stondords ore being
9
rolled out, ond 3G is in it5 in oncy, woifing for better economic conditions 13, p. 3 IJ
service in many metropolitan areas, providing its 0 FIGURE 2. Number of subscribers of key wireless technologies in lote 200 I
customers with 64.128 kbis peak data through- 13. P 271
put (and even greater in some cities) by using
the license-free ISM hands and an extensive net-
work of radio repeaters, relay stations, and net- access, years ahead of the 2.5G cellulariPCS
work servers. The Ricochet infrastructure was technologies that are just now rolling out their
installed on thousands of buildings, lamp posts, medium and high data rate solutions. Ultimately,
and broadcast towers in select cities, and provid- Metricom was forced to file for bankruptcy in
ed high quality d a t a access and Internet for 2001, unable t o justify the mounting debt
mobile and portable users of personal comput- incurred from aggressive build-out plans. The
ers. Metricom was ahead of its time, as it built network infrastructure and subscriber equipment
and operated one of the first examples of an ad were costly, and subscribers were slow to adopt
hoc wireless network for packet-based d a t a the yrvice.
sions of O F D M are certainly possible (e.g., In fact, over the past decade OFDM has been
Multi-Carrier CDMA) and may be considered exploited for wideband data communications
for 4G. Another alternative is to return to the over mobile radio FM channels, high-bit-rate
roots of spread spectrum and attempt to achieve digital subscriber lines (HDSL) up to 1.6 Mb/s,
high data rates while still achieving low power asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSL) up to
spectral density through an Ultra Wideband 6 Mbls, very-high-speed subscriber lines (VDSL)
physical layer [14] as discussed subsequently. up to 100 Mbls, digital audio broadcasting, and
digital video broadcasting. More recently,
OFDM has been accepted for new wireless local
WIRELESS DATARATES: UP, UP, AND AWAY! area network standards which include I E E E
The next decade will finally see high-speed wire- 802.11a and IEEE 802.11g, providing data rates
less data come to maturity. A key to making this up to 54 Mb/s in the 5 GHz range, as well as for
a reality will be spectral efficiencies that are an high performance local area networks such .as
order of magnitude greater than what we see HIPERLAN/2 and others in ETSI-BRAN.
today. At the physical layer, three technologies OFDM has also been proposed for IEEE 802.16
will play a role in achieving these efficiencies: MAN and integrated services digital broadcast-
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, ing (ISDB-T) equipment.
Space-Time Architectures, and Ultra Wideband Coded-OFDM (COFDM) technology is also
communications. being considered for the digital television (DTV)
terrestrial broadcasting standard by the Federal
ORTHOGONALFREQUENCYDIVISION MULTIPLEXING
(OFDM) Communications Commission (FCC) as an alter-
AND MULTICARRIERCOMMUNICATIONS native to the already adopted digital trellis-
coded 8-T VSB (8-VSB) modulation for
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing conveying approximately 19.3 Mb/s MPEG trans-
(OFDM) is a special form of multicarrier trans- port packets using a 6 MHz channel. The transi-
mission where a single high-speed data stream is tion period to DTV in the United States is
transmitted over a number of lower-rate subcar- scheduled to end on December 31,2006, and the
riers. While the concept of parallel data trans- broadcasters are expected to return to the gov-
mission and OFDM can be traced back to the ernment a portion of the spectrum currently
late 1950s [15], its initial use was in several high- used for analog stations. T h e proponents of
frequency military systems in the 1960s such as COFDM technology are urging the FCC to allow
KINEPLEX [15] and KATHRYN [16]. The dis- broadcasters to use it because of its robustness
crete fourier transform implementation of in urban environments, compatibility with DTV
OFDM and early patents on the subject were in other countries, and appeal in the market-
pioneers in the early 1970s [17, 18, 191. Today, place for development of DTV.
O F D M is a strong candidate for commercial Current trends suggest that OFDM will be
high-speed broadband wireless communications, the modulation of choice for fourth-generation
due to recent advances in very-large-scale-inte- broadband multimedia wireless communication
gration (VLSI) technology that make high-speed, systems. However, there are several hurdles that
- intermodulation distortion.
Multicarrier systems are inherently more
susceptible to frequency offset and phase
devices, since the transmitter pulse shape is
applied directly to the antenna, with no upcon-
version. Spectral shaping is carried out by adjust-
ing the particular shape of the ultra-short
duration pulse (called a monopulse), and by
(a)
R 1 2
n 3 4
adjusting the loading characteristics of the anten-
na element to the pulse. Figure 3, provided to
the authors by XtremeSpectrum, Inc., a pioneer
in UWB technology [20], illustrates a typical
bimodal Gaussian pulse shape for a UWB trans-
mitter. The peak-to-peak time of the monopulse
(b)
R 1
A
v 2
i\ 3
A
v 4
is typically on the order of tens or hundreds of
picoscconds, and is critical to determining the
shape of the transmitted spectrum. When
applicd to a particular antenna element, the
n
radiated spectrum of the UWB transmitter
(C) 1
li 2
i\ 3
li 4
behaves as shown in Fig. 3.
The UWB signals, which may be thinly popu-
lated over time as shown in Fig. 4, have extreme-
ly low power spectral density, allowing them to
be used simultaneously with existing R F devices
(4 1
R L,
2 3
R R,
4
throughout the spectrum. Because of the
extremely wide bandwidths, UWB signals have a
myriad of applications besides communications
[SI.On February 14, 2002, the FCC in the U S .
authorized the introduction of UWB for radar-
E FIGURE 4. txompies of symbois sent using: aJmuff keyin? bJpu$e ompii~ ranging, metal detection, and communications
rude moduiotion; CJ binoy phose Shih keying; and d) pu se position modulo- applications. The UWB authorization, while not
tion using UWB technology [2Oj. completely final, is likely to limit transmitters
Interference
LANs. UWB can be used like other baseband 01
and noise
signaling methods, in an on-off keying (OOK),
antipodal pulse shift keying, pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM), or pulse position modula-
tion (PPM) format (Fig. 4). Furthermore, many
ho
+
monopulses may be transmitted to make up a hl Combiner
single signaling bit, thereby providing coding
gain and code diversity that may he exploited by
a UWB receiver.
SPACE-TIMEPROCESSING I Maximum likelihood detector 1
Since the allocation of additional protected
(e.g., licensed) frequency bands alone will not
suffice to mect the exploding demand for wire-
less data services, and frequency spectrum rep-
resents a significant capital investment (as seen I FIGURE 5. Functional block diagram of the space time block code (STBC)
from the 3G spectrum auctions in Europe), P21
wireless service providers must optimize the
return on their investment by increasing the
capacity of cellular systems. Cell-splitting can diversity solutions, concentrating on the uplink
achieve capacity increases at the expense of path from the mobile terminal to the base sta-
additional base stations. However, space-time tion. Recently, however, more attention has
processing technology and multiple-input-multi- been focuscd toward practical spatial diversity
ple-output (MIMO) antenna architectures, options for both base stations and mobile termi-
which simultaneously exploit small-scale tempo- nals [Zl]. One reason for this is the development
ral and spatial diversity using antennas and of newer systems operating at higher frequency
error-control codes in very close proximities, bands. For instance, the spacing requirements
hold great promise to vastly improve spectrum between antenna array elements for wireless
efficiency for PCS service providers by providing products at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz carriers do not
capacity enhancement and range extension at a significantly increase the size of the mobile ter-
considerably lower cost than the cell-splitting minals. Dual-transmit diversity has heen‘adopted
approach. Moreover, space-time technology is in 3G partnership projects (3GPP and 3GPP2)
envisioned to he used in both cellular and ad to boost the data rate on downlink channels
hoc network architectures. For instance, the use because future wireless multimedia services are
of smart antennas in rural areas can he effective expected to place higher demands on the dowo-
in range improvement over a larger geographi- link rather than the uplink. One particular imple-
cal area, resulting in lower equipment costs for mentation, known as open-loop transmit
a cellular system. The use of smart antennas in diversity or space-time block coding (STBC), is
an ad hoc network could increase network illustrated in Fig. 5.
throughput owing to suppression of the co-chan- T h e “spreading out” of data in time and
ne1 and adjacent-channel interference provided through proper selection of codes provides tem-
by the directional antenna gain pattern, in addi- poral diversity, while using multiple antennas at
tion to supporting LPILPD features for military both the transmitter and receiver provides spa-
applications. Space-time processing could also tial diversity. This implementation increases
enable 3G infrastructure to accommodate loca- spectrum efficiency and affords diversity gain
tion technoloev in order to meet the reauire- and coding gain with minimal complexity (all the
ments for E-9ji. transmit coding and receiver processing may he
Since multioath fadine affects the reliahilitv
I
implemented with linear processing). Further-
of wireless links, it is one of the issues that con- more, it is shown in Fig. 5 that the resultant sig-
tributes to the degradation of the overall Quality nals sent to the maximum likelihood detector
of Service. Diversity (signal replicas obtained are identical to those produced by a single trans-
through the use of temporal, frequency, spatial, mit antenna with a two-antenna maximum ratio
and polarization spacings) is an effective tech- receiver combiner (MRRC) architecture. Thus,
nique for mitigating the detrimental effects of without any performance sacrifice, the burden of
deep fades. In the past, most of the diversity diversity has been shifted to the transmitter,
implementations have focused on receiver-based resulting in a system and individual receiver that
-
L
e integer multiples of the symbol periods. In this
B
104 case, feedback from the receiver may he used
a to adjust delays.
d
P
MIMO architectures utilizing multiple
105 antennas on both transmitter and receiver is
one of the important enabling technique for
1n.6 meeting the expected demand for high-speed
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 wireless data services. Figure 7 illustrates the
expected capacities for systems exploiting spa-
Average SNR (de) tial diversity along with capacities of existing
wireless standards. Looking at these trends, we’
FIGURE 6. Performonce comporiscn behveen STBC cnd MRRC for vcricus may conclude t h a t spatial diversity a t both
cntenno ccniiguroticns 1221 . transmitter and receiver will be required for
future-generation high capacity wireless com-
munication systems.
are more cost effective (Fig. 6). It is possible to T h e Bell Labs Layered Space-Time
further increase the data rate on the downlink (BLAST) approach (also known as Diagonal-
by adding one or more antennas at the mobile BLAST or simply D-BLAST) is an interesting
terminal such as in Qualcomm’s High Data Rate implementation of a MIMO system to facilitate
(HDR) system specification [23] or in Tantivy’s a high-capacity wireless communications system
approach. with greater multipath resistance [6]. The archi-
In a closed-loop transmit diversity imple- tecture could increase the capacity of a wireless
mentation scheme, the receiver will provide the system by a factor of m , where m is the mini-
transmitter information on the current channel mum number of transmit or receive antennas
characteristics via a feedback message. It can [7]. Similar to the delay diversity architecture,
then select the best signal or pre-distort the sig- BLAST does not use channel coding. Instead, it
nal to compensate for current channel charac- exploits multipath through the use of multiple
teristics. Obviously, t h e performance of a transmit antennas and utilizes sophisticated
closed-loop transmit diversity scheme will he processing at the multi-element receiver t o
superior to that of the simple “blind transmit” recombine the signals that are spread across
S T B C scheme, shown in Fig. 5 . T h e l a t t e r both in time and space. Figure 8 depicts a func-
approach would be preferred for small hand- tional block diaeram of a BLAST transmitter
Y
“blind transmit” diversity may also be imple- tecture employs a recursive “divide and con-
quer” algorithm for each time instant, which is
1 1
known as a “nulling and cancellation” process.
Achievable data rates with multiple antennas Figure 9 illustrates this process over one com-
225 I plete cycle for one out of m processing chan-
-0.- 1 Tx 1 Rxantennas i nels (four transmit antennas are being received
200 -v- 1 T x 2 Rxantennas ~ = c a n ~ b e . h e r e - - - - - - ‘ - - - - - - - - - - - . by one of the four receiver channels). In this
2 Tx
-4.- 1 Rx antennas ---L illustration, the receiver will receive the packet
175 & 2 Tx 2 Rx antennas ..; ............. ~..~:..~.i
. .
.........
“ A as it sequences through the transmit anten-
....... . ~.....
. ;.
..:. ............ .;. ................. nas. At the beginning of a cycle, the signal from
a specific transmit antenna is isolated by can-
celing o t h e r signals that have already been
received from other transmitters. After the first
transmit antenna shift, the known, previously
received signals are again subtracted from the
composite signal, but now there is a “new” sig-
nal that has not been identified and must be
removed. The nulling process is performed by
exploiting the known channel characteristics
(which a r e determined by the training
sequences received from each transmit antenna,
0 5 10 15 20 typically 2m symbols long). By projecting this
SNR per Rx antenna (dB) new received signal vector against the transpose
of the channel characteristics from the target
FIGURE 7. Achievable doto roles for severol MIMO systems j241. antenna, it is effectively removed from tlie pro-
/
Signals periodically cycled Nulling and canceling
across all antennas iterative algorithm
u+
hand-off: multiple access to monitor and forecast water pollution, o r to
Network provide early warning of an approaching tsunami)
(281 and for homeland defense (e.g., to perform
remote sccurity surveillance). Therefore, it is not
Data link Physical: modulation; power surprising that the trends of future wireless sys-
control; data rate; spreading; tems, characterized by the convergcnce of fixed
channel model and mohilc networks and the realization of scam-
Physical
less and ubiquitous communications, are both
attributed to ad hoc networking.
The lack of a predetermined infrastructure
I FIGURE 10. Traditional OS/ communication nehvork byers [29] for an ad hoc nctwork and the temporal nature
of the network links, howevcr, pose several fun-
damental technical challenges in the design and
the cooperative engagement of a collection of implementation of packet radio architectures.
mobile nodes that allows the devices to establish
ubiquitous communications without the aid of a
central infrastructure. The links of the network
-
Some of them include:
Sccurity and routing functions must be
designed and optimized so that they can
are dynamic in the sense that they arc likely to operate cfficiently under distributed scenar-
break and change as the nodes movc about the ios.
network. The roots of ad hoc networking can be * Ovcrhead must he minimized while ensur-
traced hack as far,as 1968, when the work on the ing connectivity in the dynamic network
A L O H A network was initiated [25]. The topology is maintained (approachcs are
ALOHA protocol supports distributed channel needed to reduce the frcquency of routing
access in a single-hop network (i.e., every node
must he within reach of all othcr participating
nodes) although it was originally employed for
- table information updates).
Fluctuating link capacity and latency in a
multihop network must he kept minimal
fixcd nodcs. Latcr in 1973, DARPA began the with appropriatc routing protocol design.
development of a multi-hop packet radio net- * Acceptable tradcoffs are needed hetwecn
work protocol [26]. The multi-hopping technique nctwork connectivity (coverage), delay
increases the network capacity by spatial domain requirements, network capacity, and the
reuse of concurrent but physically separated power budget.
multihop sessions in a large-scale network (i.e., * lntcrference from competing tcchnology
reduces interference), conserves transmit energy must be minimized through the use of an
resources, and increases the overall network appropriate power management scheme
throughput at the expense of a more complex and optimized medium access control
routing-protocol design. (MAC) design.
' Blueloath technology In the past, ad hoc networking has been pri-
was bom in I998 ilhen marily considered for communications on battle-
five companies (Eicsson, fields and at the site of a disaster area, where a NETWORKOPTIMIZATION:
Nokia, IBM, Toshlba and decentralized network architecture is an opera- REMOVING BOUNDARIES
Intel) fomred a special tive advantage or even a necessity. For instance,
interest goup (SIC) to when major catastrophes happen, such as the NEW NLTWORK
DESIGN CHALLENGES
create an inepensive and September 11 attack, the need for a rapidly While the layered OS1 design methodology (Fig.
licensefree technologv for deployable, seamless communications infra- 10) has served communications systems well in
universal rhort-range structure between public service agencies, mili- the-past [29], evolving wireless networks are seri-
wirrless connectiviry that tary entities, and commercial communication ously challenging this design philosophy. Emerg-
will replace cables systems becomes essential. Now, as novel radio ing networks must support various and changing
between electronic technologies such as Bluetooth' materialize, the traffic types with their associated Quality-of-Ser-
devices. Thk group role of ad hoc networking in the commercial sec- vice (00s)requirements as well as networks that
expanded in December tor is expected to grow through interaction may have changing topologies. The problem of
1999 with the entv of between the applications of various portable various traffic types is typified in newly defined
3Com, Lucent, Microso# devices such as notebooks, cellular phones, 3G networks. These networks must support mul-
and Motomlo. Bluetooth PDAs, and MP3 players. timedia traffic with manifold delay, error-rate,
uses r? frequenq-hopping While present day cellular systems still rely and bandwidth needs [27, 301. Networks that
scheme in the unlicensed heavily on centralized control and management, experience changing topologies include ad hoc
Industrial, Scientijic and next-generation mobile wireless systems standard- networks that lack network infrastructure and
Medical (ISM) band af ization efforts are moving toward ad hoc opera- have nodcs that are continuously entering and
2.4 GHz. tion. For instance, in the direct-mode operation leaving the network.