TYPES OF MEDIA The print media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources.
Many
We can start our discussion of media by defining and describing different kinds of
media that children are using today. Modern media comes in many different formats,
including print media (books, magazines, newspapers), television, movies, video
games, music, cell phones, various kinds of software, and the Internet. Each type of
media involves both content, and also a device or object through which that content
is delivered.
Print Media .
The term 'print media' is used to describe the traditional or "old-fashioned" print-
based media that today's parents grew up with, including newspapers, magazines,
books, and comics or graphic novels. Historically, only wealthy publishers had access
to sophisticated type-setting technologies necessary to create printed material, but
this has changed in recent years with the widespread accessibility of desktop
publishing software and print-on-demand publication services such as Lulu.com
(LINK). More recently, electronic book readers such as the Amazon Kindle which
store hundreds of books on a single device and which allow readers to directly
download books and newspapers have become popular.
Television
Television has been entertaining American families for over fifty years. In the
beginning, there were few programs to pick from, but today, there are literally
hundreds of general and specialty channels to choose from and thousands upon
thousands of programs. Where it was once the case that programs had to be watched
at the time they were broadcast on a television, this is no longer the case. Today,
viewers can summon a movie or television episode whenever they want, through
many cable or satellite services' pay-per-view or free on-demand services. They may
also download or stream episodes from the Internet and watch them on their
computers. Viewers may use DVR (digital video recorder) devices, such as a Tivo to
record programs at one time and watch them at another time. Viewers with certain
cell phones may even watch programs through their cell phones.
Movies
Movies (films) are the oldest form of motion picture technology capable of capturing
lifelike video-style images. Originally, movies could only be consumed at a
neighborhood movie theater, but these days movies are widely available for people
to consume in their homes, on their computers, and even in through their telephones.
Commercial movies are broadcast on television, and via cable and satellite services
which may feature High Definition (HD) video resolution and sound, essentially
allowing the movie theater experience to be replicated in a home theater environment.
Commercial movies are also distributed on DVD and Blu-Ray disks, which can be
rented from stores and through-the-mail services such as Netflix, and through
downloadable computer files, which can be legally downloaded from movie rental
services such as Amazon and iTunes or streamed through Netflix or on-demand
cable services. Home movies produced by amateurs with inexpensive video cameras
are now also widely available through video sharing websites such
as YouTube.com and Vimeo.com.
Video Games .
Available since the early 1980s, video games have only grown in popularity among
youth. Today's games make use of advanced graphics and processors to enable three
dimensional game play featuring highly realistic landscapes and physics simulations,
and the ability to compete against other players through a network connection.
Modern video games are immersive, exciting and increasingly interactive. Players
feel like they really are in the situation because of the life-like graphics and sounds.
Through video games, youth can extend their pretend play, as they become soldiers,
aliens, race car drivers, street fighters, and football players.
Popular gaming consoles today include Nintendo Wii, Microsoft Xbox 360 and Sony
Playstation III. There are also hand held consoles which enable mobile game play
such as Nintendo's DS. As well, some video games can also be played on personal
computers. Most video games use a hand-held device with buttons, joysticks, and
other devices for manipulating the characters on the screen.
WHAT IS MEDIA?
The term Media refers to the groups that communicate information and news to
people. Most Americans get their information about government from the news
media because it would be impossible to gather all the news themselves. Media
outlets have responded to the increasing reliance of Americans on television and the
Internet by making the news even more readily available to people. There are three
main types of news media: print media, broadcast media, and the Internet.
Print Media
The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters, and other
printed material. These publications are collectively known as the Print
Media. Although print media readership has declined in the last few decades, many
Americans still read a newspaper every day or a newsmagazine on a regular basis.
The influence of print media is therefore significant. Regular readers of print media
tend to be more likely to be politically active.
news reports on television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about news that
first appeared in newspapers. The top American newspapers, such as the New York
Times, the Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for
many other media sources.
The Newspaper Of Record
Because of its history of excellence and influence, the New York Times is sometimes
called the newspaper of record: If a story is not in the Times, it is not important. In
2003, however, the newspaper suffered a major blow to its credibility when Times
journalist Jayson Blair admitted that he had fabricated some of his stories. The
Times has since made extensive efforts to prevent any similar scandals, but some
readers have lost trust in the paper.
Broadcast Media
Broadcast Media are news reports broadcast via radio and television. Television news
is hugely important in the United States because more Americans get their news from
television broadcasts than from any other source.
Television News
The main broadcast networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC—each have a news division
that broadcasts a nightly news show. For the past fifty years, most Americans
watched one or more of these broadcasts. Since the 1980s, however, cable news
channels have chipped away at the broadcast networks. CNN and MSNBC both
broadcast news around the clock. Because the cable news channels are always
broadcasting news programs, many people who want to follow a story closely tune
in to these stations first. The relatively new Fox network news program has also
drawn numerous viewers away from the big three networks.
Radio News
The other type of broadcast media is radio. Before the advent of television in the
1950s, most Americans relied on radio broadcasts for their news. Although fewer
Americans rely on radio as their primary news source, many people still listen to
radio news every day, especially during morning and evening commutes. Local news
stations have a particularly large audience because they can report on local weather,
traffic, and events.
Talk Radio
Since the 1980s, talk radio has emerged as a major force in broadcasting. Talk radio
is a radio format in which the hosts mix interviews with political commentary. As a
result, many talk radio shows are highly partisan. Conservatives have a strong hold
on American talk radio through programs hosted by influential commentators, such
as Rush Limbaugh and Sean Hannity.
The Internet
The Internet is slowly transforming the news media because more Americans are
relying on online sources of news instead of traditional print and broadcast media.
Americans surf the sites of more traditional media outlets, such as NBC and CNN,
but also turn to unique online news sources such as weblogs. Websites can provide
text, audio, and video information, all of the ways traditional media are transmitted.
The web also allows for a more interactive approach by allowing people to personally
tailor the news they receive via personalized web portals, newsgroups, podcasts, and
RSS feeds.
Weblogs—known colloquially as Blogs—have become very influential since the
start of the twenty-first century. Leading bloggers write their opinions on a variety of
issues, and thousands of people respond on message boards. Although many blogs
are highly partisan and inaccurate, a few have been instrumental in breaking big
stories.
FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA
The media has immense power within the American democracy because just about
all Americans get their news from the media rather than from other people or other
sources. Media coverage shapes how Americans perceive the world and what they
consider to be important. Voters and politicians alike must pay attention to the media.
In the American political system, the media perform a number of functions important
to the democratic process. The media reports the news, serves as an intermediary
between the government and the people, helps determine which issues should be
discussed, and keeps people actively involved in society and politics.
Reporting the News
Perhaps the most important role of the media in politics is to report the news. As
noted above, the vast majority of people must trust the media to provide them with
information. Democracy requires that citizens be informed because they must be able
to make educated voting choices.
Media Bias
These days, politicians often complain of bias in the media, usually a liberal bias
against the views of conservative politicians. They complain that the media’s ability
to decide which stories to report often reflects its partisanship. Although this is true
to some extent, most major newspapers and television news stations report the same
stories more or less objectively. Bias is often restricted to the media outlet’s
commentary and opinion pages.
Types of Reporting
For much of American history (until the early twentieth century), most news media
were clearly and openly biased. Many newspapers, for example, were simply the
voices of the political parties. This type of journalism is called Partisan
Journalism. Other newspapers practiced Yellow Journalism, reporting shocking
and sordid stories in order to attract readers and sell more papers.
Objective Reporting (also called descriptive reporting) did not appear until the early
twentieth century. Newspaper publishers such as Adolph Ochs of the New York
Times championed objective journalism and praised reporters for simply reporting
the facts. Although most journalists today still practice objective journalism, more
and more are beginning to analyze and interpret the material they present, a practice
called Interpretive Reporting.
Yellow Journalism
The media has influenced politics throughout American history. The most
prominent—and notorious—example is the role of William Randolph Hearst’s
newspapers in starting the Spanish-American War in 1898. According to the legend,
Hearst’s papers ran many stories chronicling the cruelty of Spanish colonial rule.
When the American battleship Maine exploded under mysterious circumstances,
Hearst seized the moment, alleging that the Spanish had destroyed the ship. War soon
followed. Few media moguls have this much direct influence, but with media
consolidation, some worry that the media has too much power.
Being the Common Carrier
The media plays a Common-Carrier Role by providing a line of communication
between the government and the people. This communication goes both ways: The
people learn about what the government is doing, and the government learns from
the media what the public is thinking.
Setting the Agenda
Journalists cannot report on an infinite number of stories, so they must choose which
are the most newsworthy. By choosing which stories to present to the public, the news
media helps determine the most important issues; in other words, the journalists set
the agenda. Agenda-Setting is crucial because it shapes which issues will be debated
in public. Sometimes political scientists refer to agenda-setting as Signaling because
the media signals which stories are the most important when they decide what to
report.
Pack Journalism
Critics allege that journalists often copy one another without doing their own
investigating. When one newspaper runs a story, for example, many others will run
similar stories soon afterward. Critics refer to this tendency as Pack Journalism.
Acting as the Public Representative
The media sometimes acts as a Public Representative by holding government
officials accountable on behalf of the people. Many people argue that the media is ill
equipped to play this role because the media does not face the same type of
accountability that politicians face. Serving as the representative of the public,
moreover, could undermine the media’s objectivity because the act of representing
the people might require reporters to take a position on an issue.
GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF THE MEDIA
Even though the Constitution guarantees freedom of the press, the government does
regulate some media. Print media are largely unregulated, and newspapers and
magazines can print nearly anything as long as they don’t slander anyone. The
Internet has also gone largely unregulated, despite congressional efforts to restrict
some controversial content. Broadcast media, however, are subject to the most
government regulation. Radio and television broadcasters must obtain a license from
the government because, according to American law, the public owns the airwaves.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issues these licenses and is in
charge of regulating the airwaves.
FCC Police
The FCC also acts as a police agency of the airwaves, and it can fine broadcasters for
violating public decency standards on the air. In extreme cases, the FCC can even
revoke a broadcaster’s license, keeping him off the air permanently. The FCC has
fined radio host Howard Stern numerous times for his use of profanity, for example,
and fined CBS heavily for Janet Jackson’s “wardrobe malfunction” during the
halftime performance at the Super Bowl in 2004.
Media Doctrines
The FCC has also established rules for broadcasts concerning political campaigns:
 The Equal Time Rule, which states that broadcasters must provide equal
broadcast time to all candidates for a particular office.
 The Right Of Rebuttal, which requires broadcasters to provide an opportunity
for candidates to respond to criticisms made against them. A station cannot air
an attack on a candidate and fail to give the target of the attack a chance to
respond.
 The Fairness Doctrine, which states that a broadcaster who airs a controversial
program must provide time to air opposing views.
The FCC has not enforced the fairness doctrine since 1985, and some allege that the
FCC has taken a lax approach to enforcing the other rules as well.
Media Consolidation
The government has also regulated ownership of media outlets to ensure that no one
broadcaster monopolizes the market. Since the 1980s, however, the government has
loosened restrictions on media ownership, and Congress passed the
Telecommunications Act in 1996 to allow companies to own even more media
outlets.
Cable Exceptionalism
It is not clear if the FCC has the authority to regulate cable television. The FCC is
entitled to regulate those who broadcast over the airwaves because the people (not
the broadcasters) own the airwaves. Cable television, however, is not sent over the
airwaves: Cables transmit the programs directly into people’s houses. Presumably
this means that cable television cannot be regulated, but some members of Congress
have still sought to do so
INFLUENCE OF MEDIA
Powerful media effects phase
During the early 20th century, developing mass media technologies, such as radio
and film, were credited with an almost irresistible power to mold an audience's
beliefs, cognition and behaviors according to the communicators' will. The basic
assumption of strong media effects theory was that audiences were passive
and homogeneous. This assumption was not based on empirical evidence but on
assumptions of human nature. There were two main explanations for this perception
of mass media effects. First, mass broadcasting technologies were acquiring a
widespread audience, even among average households. People were astonished by
the speed of information dissemination, which may have clouded audience perception
of any media effects. Secondly, propaganda techniques were implemented during
the war time by several governments as a powerful tool for uniting their people. This
propaganda exemplified strong-effect communication. Early media effects research
often focused on the power of this propaganda (e.g., Lasswell, 1927). Combing
through the technological and social environment, early media effects theories stated
that the mass media were all-powerful
Representative theories:
Hypodermic needle model, or magic bullet theory: Considers the audience to be
targets of an injection or bullet of information fired from the pistol of mass media.
The audience are unable to avoid or resist the injection or bullets.
POLITICAL IMPORTANCE OF MASS MEDIA AND HOW MASS MEDIA
INFLUENCE POLITICAL DECISIONS
The images that media create and carry the weight of social responsibility and the
right side of social value. Audiences learn and conduct their political sights of view
from reading, listening to the political analysis and evaluation. The mass media are
powerful guardians of proper political behavior because audience tends to trust the
press who should inform them about government wrongdoing and providing proper
suggestions. All of the mass media are politically important because of their potential
to reach large groups of audiences. However, the influence of each media varies
depending on their characteristics, ease of access and the quantity of the audience
reached. Print media, including newspaper, article and news on internet webpage
usually reach to those readers who are literate at appropriate levels and understand
the factual political environment. Electronic media especially television broadcasts
provide a greater sense of reality which sometimes provide more credibility than
others and stronger influence to the audiences. Moreover, large segments of the U.S.
population have limited reading skills, they usually find better understanding from
conveying physical images, conversation and interviews between people from
electronic media. They are especially well suited to attract viewers’ attention and
arouse their emotions.
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES
Primary sources provide a first-hand account of an event or time period and are
considered to be authoritative. They represent original thinking, reports on
discoveries or events, or they can share new information. Often these sources are
created at the time the events occurred but they can also include sources that are
created later. They are usually the first formal appearance of original research.
Secondary sources involve analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of
primary sources. They often attempt to describe or explain primary sources. Scholarly
journals, although generally considered to be secondary sources, often contain
articles on very specific subjects and may be the primary source of information on
new developments.
Primary and secondary categories are often not fixed and depend on the study or
research you are undertaking. For example, newspaper editorial/opinion pieces can
be both primary and secondary. If exploring how an event affected people at a certain
time, this type of source would be considered a primary source. If exploring the event,
then the opinion piece would be responding to the event and therefore is considered
to be a secondary source.
Primary sources
Examples of primary resources include:
 diaries, correspondence, ships' logs
 original documents e.g. birth certificates, trial transcripts
 biographies, autobiographies, manuscripts
 interviews, speeches, oral histories
 case law, legislation, regulations, constitutions
 government documents, statistical data, research reports
 a journal article reporting NEW research or findings
 creative art works, literature
 newspaper advertisements and reportage and editorial/opinion pieces
Primary sources can be found using:
 Library collection
 Databases - choose type Primary Source from the All Database
Types drop down list
 Primary sources for history subject guide
Secondary sources
Secondary sources offer an analysis, interpretation or a restatement of primary
sources and are considered to be persuasive. They often involve generalisation,
synthesis, interpretation, commentary or evaluation in an attempt to convince the
reader of the creator's argument. They often attempt to describe or explain primary
sources.
Examples of secondary sources include:
 journal articles that comment on or analyse research
 textbooks
 dictionaries and encyclopaedias
 books that interpret, analyse
 political commentary
 biographies
 dissertations
 newspaper editorial/opinion pieces
 criticism of literature, art works or music
CODE OF ETHICS IN MEDIA
The code of ethics in media was created by a suggestion from the 1947 Hutchins
Commission. They suggested that newspapers, broadcasters and journalists had
started to become more responsible for journalism and thought they should be held
accountable.
Original Guidelines
The guidelines were set up around two important ideas. The first guideline is that
"whoever enjoys a special measure of freedom, like a professional journalist, has an
obligation to society to use their freedoms and powers responsibly." (Straubhaar,
LaRose & Davenport, Pg 477) This guideline is useful so that people in power are
able to be held liable in case their actions are not professional. People that have high
media attention should not abuse the power. The second guideline that was
established is "society's welfare is paramount, more important than individual careers
or even individual rights." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 477) Again, holding
people responsible for their actions and stating that society is more important due to
the vast number of people that could be affected by poor behavior.
The Hutchins Commission added another five guidelines specifically for the press.
1. "Present meaningful news, accurate and separated from opinion".
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 477)
2. "Serve as a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism and to
expand access to diverse points of view." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 477)
3. "Project "a representative picture of the constituent groups in society" by
avoiding stereotypes by including minority groups." (Straubhaar, LaRose
& Davenport, Pg 477)
4. "Clarify the goals and values of society; implicit was an appeal to avoid
pandering to the lowest common denominator." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 477)
5. "Give broad coverage of what was known about society". (Straubhaar,
LaRose & Davenport, Pg 477)
All of these guidelines are important because the press is needed to maintain a neutral
viewpoint, providing the basic facts and allowing for readers to come up with their
own opinions from the news that they report.
These guidelines inspired Society of Professional Journalists which is the current
version of media ethics that were adopted in 1996.
SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS
The Society of Professional Journalists created a code of ethics that are in effect
today. The main mantra of the code is "Seek truth and Report it!" (Straubhaar,
LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478) The code also states that: "Journalists should be
honest, fair, and courageous in gathering, reporting, and interpreting information.
Journalists should: "
 "Test the accuracy of information from all sources and exercise care to
avoid inadvertent error. Deliberate distortion is never permissible."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Diligently seek out subjects of news stories to give them the
opportunity to respond to allegations of wrongdoing." (Straubhaar,
LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Identify sources whenever feasible. The public is entitled to as much
information as possible on sources' reliability." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Always question sources' motives before promising anonymity. Clarify
conditions attached to any promise made in exchange for information.
Keep promises." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Make certain that headlines, news teases, and promotional material,
photos, video, audio, graphics, sound bites, and quotations do not
misrepresent. They should not oversimplify or highlight incidents out of
context." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Never distort the content of news photos or video. Image enhancement
for technical clarity is always permissible. Label montages and photo
illustrations." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Avoid misleading reenactments or staged news events. If reenactment
is necessary to tell a story, label it." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport,
Pg 478)
 "Avoid undercover or other surreptitious methods of gathering
information except when traditional open methods will not yield
information vital to the public. Use of such methods should be explained
as part of the story." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Never plagiarize." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Tell the story of the diversity and magnitude of the human experience
boldly, even, when it is unpopular to do so." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Examine their own cultural values and avoid imposing on those values
on others." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Avoid stereotyping by race, gender, age, religion, ethnicity, geography,
sexual orientation, disability, physical appearance, or social status."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Support the open exchange of views, even views they find repugnant."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Give voice to the voiceless; official and unofficial sources of
information can be equally valid." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg
478)
 "Distinguish between advocacy and news reporting. Analysis and
commentary should be labeled and not misrepresent fact or content."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
  "Distinguish news from advertising, and shun hybrids that blur the lines
between the two." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Recognize and special obligation to ensure that the public's business is
conducted in the open and that government records are open to
inspection." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
Minimize Harm "Ethical journalists treat sources, subjects, and colleagues as
human beings deserving of respect. Journalists should: " (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 478)
LEGAL, ETHICAL AND SOCIETAL ISSUES IN MEDIA AND
INFORMATION LITERACY
 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into your
own papers or websites.
 Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted music
as part of the soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another composition.
 Online fights using electronic messages with angry and vulgar language.

 "Show compassion for those who may be affected adversely by news NETIQUETTE
coverage. Use special sensitivity when dealing with children and  mood swings or irritability when you are not allowed to spend as much time on
inexperienced sources or subjects." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, the computer as you would like to or if your computer time is interrupted
Pg 478)
 telling yourself that you will get off the computer at a certain time and then
 "Be sensitive when seeking or using interviews or photographs of those spending more time than you committed
affected by tragedy or guilt." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 Books
 "Recognize that gathering and reporting information may cause harm or
 Music
discomfort. Pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)  Paintings
 "Recognize that private people have a greater right to control  Sculptures
information about themselves that do public officials and others who
seek power, influence, or attention. Only an overriding public need can INFRINGEMENT
justify intrusion into anyone's privacy." (Straubhaar, LaRose & is the violation of a copyright.
Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Show good taste. Avoid pandering to lurid curiosity." (Straubhaar, FAIR USE
LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478) is a defense against a claim of copyright infringement.
 "Be cautious of identifying juvenile suspects or victims of sex crimes." PUBLIC DOMAIN
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 are creative materials that are not protected by intellectual property laws such
 "Be judicious about naming criminal suspects before the formal filing of as copyright, trademark, or patent laws.
charges." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)  Ideas
 "Balance a criminal suspect's fair trial rights with the public's right to be  Reproduce the work
informed." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)  Prepare "derivative works" (other works based on the original work)
 Distribute copies of the work by sale, lease, or other transfer of ownership
Act Independently "Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other
than the public's right to know. Journalists should: " (Straubhaar, LaRose & THE TOP 10 GOLDEN RULE
Davenport, Pg 478) A person's exclusive right to reproduce, publish, or sell his or her original work of
authorship (as a literary, musical, dramatic, artistic, or architectural work).
A form of intellectual property protection provided by the international laws.
 "Avoid conflict of interest, real or perceived." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Remain free of associations and activities that may compromise
integrity or damage credibility." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg
478)
 "Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel, and special treatment, and shun
secondary employment, political involvement, public office, and service
in community organizations if they compromise journalistic integrity."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 478)
 "Disclose unavoidable conflicts." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg
479)
 "Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power
accountable." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Deny favored treatment to advertisers and special interests and resist
their pressure to influence news coverage." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Be wary of sources offering information for favors or money; avoid
bidding for news." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)

Be Accountable "Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers,

and each other. Journalists should: " (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)

 "Clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public
over journalistic conduct." (Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Encourage the public to voice grievances against the news media."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Admit mistakes and correct them promptly." (Straubhaar, LaRose &
Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Expose unethical practices of journalists and the news media."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)
 "Abide by the same high standards to which they hold others."
(Straubhaar, LaRose & Davenport, Pg 479)

All of these guidelines are for the betterment of society and regulation of media.
 WHAT IS FAIR USE?
In its most general sense, a fair use is any copying of copyrighted material done for
a limited and “transformative” purpose, such as to comment upon, criticize, or parody
a copyrighted work. Such uses can be done without permission from the copyright
owner. In other words, fair use is a defense against a claim of copyright infringement.
If your use qualifies as a fair use, then it would not be considered an infringement.
So what is a “transformative” use? If this definition seems ambiguous or vague, be
aware that millions of dollars in legal fees have been spent attempting to define what
qualifies as a fair use. There are no hard-and-fast rules, only general guidelines and
varied court decisions, because the judges and lawmakers who created the fair use
exception did not want to limit its definition. Like free speech, they wanted it to have
an expansive meaning that could be open to interpretation.
Most fair use analysis falls into two categories: (1) commentary and criticism, or (2)
parody.
Commentary and Criticism
If you are commenting upon or critiquing a copyrighted work—for instance, writing
a book review—fair use principles allow you to reproduce some of the work to
achieve your purposes. Some examples of commentary and criticism include:
 quoting a few lines from a Bob Dylan song in a music review
 summarizing and quoting from a medical article on prostate cancer in a
news report
 copying a few paragraphs from a news article for use by a teacher or
student in a lesson, or
 copying a portion of a Sports Illustrated magazine article for use in a
related court case.
The underlying rationale of this rule is that the public reaps benefits from your
review, which is enhanced by including some of the copyrighted material. Additional
examples of commentary or criticism are provided in the examples of fair use cases.
Parody
A parody is a work that ridicules another, usually well-known work, by imitating it
in a comic way. Judges understand that, by its nature, parody demands some taking
from the original work being parodied. Unlike other forms of fair use, a fairly
extensive use of the original work is permitted in a parody in order to “conjure up”
the original.
Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors
Unfortunately, the only way to get a definitive answer on whether a particular use is
a fair use is to have it resolved in federal court. Judges use four factors to resolve fair
use disputes, as discussed in detail below. It’s important to understand that these
factors are only guidelines that courts are free to adapt to particular situations on a
case-by-case basis. In other words, a judge has a great deal of freedom when making
a fair use determination, so the outcome in any given case can be hard to predict.
The four factors judges consider are:
 the purpose and character of your use
 the nature of the copyrighted work
 the amount and substantiality of the portion taken, and
 the effect of the use upon the potential market.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design
rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, and in
some jurisdictions trade secrets. There are also more specialized or derived varieties
of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights
in the US) and supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products
(after expiry of a patent protecting them) and database rights (in European law). The
term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large subset of intellectual
property rights including patents, trademarks, industrial designs, utility models,
service marks, trade names, and geographical indications.
PATENTS
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their
successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using,
selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in
exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a
specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally
has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs
to be an industrial applicability. To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate
innovation, it is an obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information
about their inventions to the public.
Copyright
A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a
limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic
forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only
the form or manner in which they are expressed.
Industrial design rights
An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right" or design patent) protects
the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design
consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color,
or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic
value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce
a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is what makes
a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the commercial value of goods.
Plant varieties
Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new
variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for
registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is considered.
TRADEMARKS
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which
distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from similar products or
services of other traders.
Trade dress
Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual
and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a
building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.[39]
Trade secrets
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or
compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably
ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over
competitors and customers. There is no formal government protection granted; each
business must take measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft
drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
A patent is a form of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to
exclude others from making, using, selling and importing an invention for a limited
period of years, in exchange for publishing an enabling public disclosure of the
invention.
A trademark (also written trade mark or trade-mark) is a type of intellectual
property consisting of a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies
products or services of a particular source from those of others, although trademarks
used to identify services are usually called service marks.
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
Many people think of plagiarism as copying another's work or borrowing someone
else's original ideas. But terms like "copying" and "borrowing" can disguise the
seriousness of the offense:
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing
source
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's
work and lying about it afterward.
But can words and ideas really be stolen?
According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is
considered intellectual property and is protected by copyright laws, just like original
inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright protection as long as
they are recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).
All of the following are considered plagiarism:
 turning in someone else's work as your own
 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
  changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without  How sophisticated is the usage: mere access, retrieval, interactivity,
giving credit intensive and extensive in usage, innovative contributions, et Cetra.
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the  To what does the subject connect: fixed or mobile, Internet or telephone,
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on digital TV, broadband, et Cetra.
"fair use" rules) Example
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply
acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed and providing your audience Digital divide is a term that refers to the gap between demographics and regions
with the information necessary to find that source is usually enough to prevent that have access to modern information and communications technology, and those
plagiarism. See our section on citation for more information on how to cite sources
that don't or have restricted access. This technology can include the telephone,
properly.
television, personal computers and the Internet.
What about images, videos, and music?
Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced without WHAT IS A VIRTUAL SELF?
receiving proper permission or providing appropriate citation is plagiarism. The
following activities are very common in today’s society. Despite their popularity, An avatar is a movable image that people design to represent themselves
they still count as plagiarism. in virtual reality environments or in cyberspace. "For some reason, I always pick
 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into really short people," says Stanford undergraduate student and avid video gamer
your own papers or websites. Oliver Castaneda.
 Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted
music as part of the soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another
composition.
Certainly, these media pose situations in which it can be challenging to determine
whether or not the copyrights of a work are being violated. For example:
 A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using a
photograph of a book cover to represent that book on one’s website)
 Recording audio or video in which copyrighted music or video is playing
in the background.
 Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example: shooting a
photograph that uses the same composition and subject matter as someone
else’s photograph)
 Re-creating a visual work in a different medium (for example: making a
painting that closely resembles another person’s photograph).
 Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if done so
in an original way.
The legality of these situations, and others, would be dependent upon the intent and
context within which they are produced. The two safest approaches to take in regards
to these situations is:
1) Avoid them altogether or
2) Confirm the works’ usage permissions and cite them properly.

WHAT IS CYBERCRIME?

Cybercrime is a bigger threat than ever before, now that more and more people are
connected to the Internet via laptops, smartphones and tablets, and is one of the most
profitable ways to make money in the criminal world. There are a wide variety of
cybercrimes, which can broadly be placed into two categories: one-off crimes, such
as installing a virus that steals your personal data; and ongoing crimes such as
cyberbullying, extortion, distributing child pornography or organizing terrorist
attacks.

CYBERLIBEL

Cyberlibel is a term used to describe defamation that takes place in cyberspace,

meaning through the Internet. This includes false and damaging statements made
about another person through e-mail, message boards, blogs, chatrooms, on Web
sites, or any other Internet-based communication medium.

DIGITAL DIVIDE

A digital divide is any uneven distribution in the access to, use of, or impact
of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) between any number of
distinct groups. These groups may be defined based on social, geographical,
or geopolitical criteria, or otherwise. Because of ICT high cost, its adoption and
utilization is highly uneven across the globe.
The term digital divide describes a gap in terms of access to and usage of information
and communication technology. It was traditionally considered to be a question of
having or not having access, but with a global mobile phone penetration of over 95%,
it is becoming a relative inequality between those who have more and less
bandwidth and more or fewer skills.
The description of conceptualizations of Digital Divide is as "who, with which
characteristics, connects how to what":
 Who is the subject that connects: individuals, organizations, enterprises,
schools, hospitals, countries, et Cetra.
 Which characteristics or attributes are distinguished to describe the
divide: income, education, age, geographic location, motivation, reason
not to use, et Cetra.