Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169

www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Deformation history of the NW salient of the Eastern Ghats

Mobile Belt, India
T.K. Biswal*, Suspa Sinha
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
Received 1 March 2002; revised 6 August 2002; accepted 15 August 2002

Abstract
The Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt of India displays fold-thrust belt structure with a prominent salient on its NW margin. The salient consists
of Lathore nappe and Turekela klippe that have overthrust the craton to NW. The rocks of the nappes have undergone granulite facies
metamorphism and multiple phases of folding corresponding to the Eastern Ghats orogeny, prior to thrusting. As a result the granulites along
the thrust are retrograded to amphibolites and the axial traces of the folds have been truncated against the thrust plane. The basal decollement
of the fold-thrust belt is represented by the Terrane Boundary Shear Zone that defines the tectonic margin between the craton and the mobile
belt. It occurs as a ductile thrust affecting the cratonic basement as well as the mobile belt suggesting that the basement did not behave as a
rigid body during thrusting. Thus the study area is comparable with the Caledonide fold-thrust belt. Further, two large lateral ramps namely
Khariar and Paikamal lateral ramps have been developed on the decollement at the lithological contact between tonalite – trondhjemite
gneisses/granite gneisses and the latetectonic potassic granites of the craton. Fault-bend folds associate with these ramps too. It is suggested
that the salient structure of the fold-thrust belt is the combined result of (1) lateral ramps on the decollement and (2) differential displacement
along the sole thrust due to lateral variation in detachment strength.
q 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Proterozoic fold-thrust belt; Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt; Nappe; Lateral ramp; Rheological contrast

1. Introduction the thrust planes. This results in thickening and a large

Fold-thrust belts (FTB) are characteristic features of
convergent mobile belts. Though they are commonly
reported from Phanerozoic mobile belts like the Himalayas
(Valdiya, 1984), Alps (Dewey et al., 1973), Zagros (Bird,
1978) and Taiwan fold belts (Davis et al., 1983), they have
also been observed in Proterozoic mobile belts like
Grenville (Davidson, 2001), Broken Hill (White et al.,
1995) and Churchill province (Gibb, 1978). The FTBs
consist of stack of enechelonly arranged nappes showing
vergence towards the foreland. The frontal thrust marks the
sole thrust or decollement that forms the leading imbricate
structure with the splay thrusts behind (Ramsay and Huber,
1987). The thrusts are normally listric in nature and adopt a
ramp-flat geometry while cutting across different rock types
in the stratigraphic section. The hanging wall rocks produce
fault-bend folds over such ramp-flat parts while gliding over
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tkbiswal@geos.iitb.ac.in (T.K. Biswal).
1367-9120/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00182-7
amount of shortening of the thrust wedge leading to the
development of parallel folds and axial planar cleavage.
Hence the thrust structure guides the structural style of the
overriding block (Fig. 1(a)) (McClay and Coward, 1981;
Suppe, 1983). However, the basement remains undeformed.
Contrary to this, another model postulates that thrusting
takes place much after folding and metamorphism of the
cover rocks and the thrusts cut across the preexisting
structures of the nappes. Moreover, the basement is
deformed along with the cover (Fig. 1(b)) (Fischer and
Coward, 1982; Ramsay, 1997). The FTBs on the map
display a curvilinear geometry because of the salient and
recess structures (Marshak and Tabor, 1989; Macedo and
Marshak, 1999; Spraggins and Dunne, 2002).
In this paper we describe the FTB structure from the
northwestern margin of the Proterozoic Eastern Ghats
Mobile Belt of India (Fig. 2). The sole thrust is exposed at
the surface as a well defined ductile shear zone that
demarcates the terrane margin between a low grade
cratonic foreland and a highly deformed granulitic mobile
158 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169

Fig. 1. (a) Fold-thrust belt model of the Nanlio anticline, southern Taiwan (modified from Suppe, 1983). The structure of the overriding block is guided by the
geometry of the basal thrust. (b) Fold-thrust belt model (schematic) of the Caledonides, Loch Eriboll region (modified after, Ramsay, 1997). The folds are
truncated by the late thrust.

belt. A prominent salient structure is observed on the
northwestern part of the mobile belt, which has been
investigated in this paper with regard to the structural
geology, and a model has been proposed to explain
its origin.
2. Regional geological setting
The Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB, Fig. 2 inset) of
the east coast of India represents a regional granulite belt
belonging to a wide spread of ages from Archaean to Upper
Proterozoic (Sarkar and Paul, 1998 for review; Rickers et al.,
2001). Continental collision between India and Antarctica
during Mesoproterozoic time, however, marks the most
significant event in the evolution of the belt. The belt
comprises a host of granulitic supracrustals such
as khondalites (garnet – sillimanite – graphite gneiss),
charnockitic gneisses, calc granulites, quartzites and banded
iron formations that have been intruded by mantle derived
intrusive suites such as charnockites, basic granulites,
enderbytes, I type of granites, anorthosites and alkali
granites and rocks derived from the partial melting of the
supracrustals such as leptynites, S-type granites and
migmatites. These rocks have been grouped into four
zones namely the western basic charnockite zone, the
western khondalite zone, the central migmatite and
charnockite zone and the eastern khondalite zone (Fig. 2)
(Ramakrishnan et al., 1998). A linear transition zone
consisting of amphibolite facies rocks occurs along the
western margin of the belt, derived from the retrogression of
the granulites. The rocks of the EGMB show polyphase
folding (Natarajan and Nanda, 1981; Halden et al., 1982;
Bhattacharya et al., 1994; Mahalik, 1994; Nash et al., 1996;
Biswal et al., 1998a,b; Biswal and Sahoo, 1998) and
metamorphic history (Grew and Manton, 1986; Lal et al.,
1987; Dasgupta, 1995). Ductile and brittle shear zones have
been reported from the length and breadth of the belt
(Chetty and Murty, 1994; Biswal et al., 2000, 2002). The
most prominent ductile shear zone lies at the western and
northern margin of the EGMB, demarcating the terrane
margin with the surrounding cratons (Fig. 2). Designated as
Terrane Boundary Shear Zone (TBSZ, Biswal et al., 2000),
it shows a curvilinear geometry with a WNW –ESE strike
and a strike –slip character in the north, and NNE – SSW
strike with a thrust character in the west. However, it shows
dip towards the mobile belt. The surrounding cratons
namely Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum cratons consist
 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169 159

Fig. 2. Index map and geological map of the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (modified after Ramakrishnan et al., 1998). The salient is present on the NW corner of
the belt. The Transition zone and the Western basic charnockite zone terminate near the salient.

of greenstone belts, granulites, tonalite – trondhjemite
gneisses and a suite of intrusive rocks that include
latetectonic potassic granites, riebeckite granites, dolerite,
albitite, microsyenite and micromonzonites (Ramakrishnan,
1990; Nanda et al., 1998). The craton shows a prolonged
history of cratonization ranging in age from 4.0 to 2.5 Ga
(Sarkar et al., 1993). Platform sequences known as Puranas
belonging to Cuddapah, Bastar and Chhattishgarh basins
(Fig. 2 inset) and ranging in age from 1.6 Ga (Cuddapah,
Meijerink et al., 1984) to 0.7 Ga (Chhattishgarh, Kreuzer
et al., 1977) unconformably overlie the craton. The craton is
very low in gravity compared to the mobile belt. A sharp
rise from 2 80 to 2 10 mGal is witnessed across 60 km
width of the TBSZ. Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) study
reveals three seismic reflectors in the EGMB crust, of which
the uppermost one at 8 km depth marks a sharp change in
velocity from 6 to 8 km. This is attributed to a marked
change in composition as well as state from brittle to ductile.
The shear zones including the TBSZ bend downward in a
listric nature and merge with the above reflectors forming a
detachment or decollement in the EGMB crust (Nayak et al.,
1998). Therefore the TBSZ is considered in this paper as a
decollement between the cratonic foreland and the EGMB,
at least in the NW part of the belt.
A series of alkali rocks have been emplaced into the
TBSZ (Leelanandam, 1993). These intrusive rocks bear
a magmatic fabric consistent with the shear fabric of the
TBSZ, thus suggesting the synkinematic nature of their
intrusion with thrusting (Biswal et al., 2000). The age of
these intrusive bodies has been estimated to be 1.5 Ga
(Sarkar et al., 1989; Aftalion et al., 2000), which, thus, is
taken to be the age of thrusting. However, the northern part
has been reactivated subsequently during Grenville and
Pan African orogeny by means of strike – slip faults
(Mahalik, 1994; Nash et al., 1996; Crowe et al., 2001).
The TBSZ in the southern part is very ambiguous because
of its splaying nature and presence of large scale rigid
blocks between the splays.
The study area lies in the NW part of the mobile belt
where the TBSZ shows an arcuate pattern with convexity
towards the Bastar craton (Figs. 2 and 3). The TBSZ is
nearly 2 km wide and dips southeasterly towards the
EGMB. Based on the geophysical interpretation (Nayak
et al., 1998) the TBSZ is considered to become gentler
downward. Consistent with this explanation, the structural
data from the southern part of the TBSZ, west of
Dharamgarh (Fig. 3) where the deeper levels of the Eastern
Ghats crust is exposed, reveals the gentle nature of the
mylonitic foliation (Biswal et al., 2002). The EGMB rocks
are further split by the Turekela thrust into two nappes that
are characterized by distinct lithological assemblages and
deformational history. On the basis of this structural
160 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169

Fig. 3. Generalized geological map of the NW salient showing various nappes and lateral ramps (modified after Biswal et al., 2002).

configuration, the study area was described to be a fold-
thrust belt of the EGMB (Biswal, 2000; Biswal et al., 2001)
similar to the model given by Ramsay (1997) and the TBSZ
was said to demarcate the decollement between the cratonic
basement and the overlying Eastern Ghats rocks (Fig. 4).
The convexity in the NW front is referred to be a salient
structure in the fold-thrust belt (Fig. 2).
the geology of the cratons extensively (Ramakrishnan, 1990
and references therein), the description in this paper is
restricted to the area adjoining the TBSZ. Granite gneisses
and tonalite –trondhjemite gneisses dominate both Bastar
and Singhbhum cratons. However, the craton near the apex

3. Geological setting of the craton in the foreland

Fig. 5(a) and (b), respectively, show the False Colour

Composite and generalized geological map of the NW salient
of the FTB (Fig. 5(b) is to be compared with Fig. 3 for
detailed geology). The Bastar and Singhbhum cratons lie
Fig. 4. Schematic profile view of the fold-thrust belt of the EGMB showing
to the west and north, respectively. The salient has a flat Lathore nappe and Turekela klippe overthrusting the craton. The fold axial
convex outline with broad apex and nearly orthogonal end traces truncate against the thrust. This is comparable with Caledonide
points (EP in Fig. 5(b)). As many authors have dealt with model.
 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
Fig. 5. (a) False Colour composite (FCC) of the salient. (b) Structural interpreted map of the salient.
is dominated with latetectonic potassic granites, which occur
as intrusive into the above mentioned gneisses (Fig. 3).
3.1. Granite gneisses and tonalite – trondhjemite gneisses
These are medium to coarse grained rock carrying a
coarse gneissic foliation. The foliation is defined by
metamorphic banding with thick quartzo – feldspathic
layers alternating with thin biotite – hornblende rich layers.
The granite gneisses sporadically enclose pockets and
slivers of schists, amphibolites and metabasics which have
been concordantly folded. The schists and amphibolites
share a migmatitic front with the host rock. Petrographic
study reveals that the minerals are medium to coarse
grained exhibiting strong preferred orientation defining the
gneissosity in the rock. The minerals show the effect of
postcrystalline strain as indicated by the undulose
extinction in quartz and kinks in the plagioclase. Biotites
and amphibole in many instances are kinked with
sweeping extinction. Feldspars are more dominating than
quartz in the rock. While tonalite – trondhjemite gneisses
carry more plagioclase feldspars, potash feldspars
dominate the granite gneisses.
3.2. Latetectonic potassic granites and dykes
The latetectonic potassic granites occur as intrusive
inside the gneisses. Compared to the host gneisses, the
granites are very coarse grained to pegmatoidal and are
relatively rich in quartz. The rock shows a homophanous
texture, completely devoid of deformational fabric. Under
161
microscope they show xenomorphic to hypidiomorphic
granular textures with K-feldspar phenocrysts showing
porphyritic texture. Graphic and myrmekitic intergrowth
are very common in the rock. The craton is cut by a set of
NNW –SSE to N –S trending dolerite and diorite dykes that
truncate against the TBSZ in the east (Fig. 5(b)).
3.3. Purana rocks
Isolated outcrops of platform deposits belonging to the
Chhattishgarh Group occur unconformably on the craton
surrounding the Eastern Ghats front. These deposits are
horizontally bedded and comprise alternate sequence of
shale, sandstone and rarely carbonate rocks without any
folding. The EGMB terrane is devoid of such Purana
outcrops.
3.4. Structure
The granite gneisses and tonalite –trondhjemite gneisses
show the presence of gneissosity resulting from
synkinematic deformation and metamorphism. The mineral
assemblage and the migmatitic structures suggest an upper
amphibolite facies of metamorphism for the rocks.
However, the fold related to peak metamorphism is not
identified. The gneissosity is involved in multiple
generations of latefolding that include open to tight folds,
kinks and chevron folds. However, no significant recrys-
tallization is associated with them. Mesoscopic ductile shear
zones are observed along the limbs of the minor folds. In
many instances pinch-and-swell and boudin structures
162 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
are prominently developed in the concordant amphibolite
bands. The gneissosity shows variable strikes due to
multiple folding. However, they are oriented NNE –SSW
in the south (west of Dharamgarh) and E –W in the north
(Singhbhum craton) near the TBSZ due to dragging effect of
the thrust (Fig. 3). In contrast to this the latetectonic potassic
granites lack deformational fabric, suggesting that the
granites have intruded latekinematically with respect to
the main deformation in the craton. Further, the folding in
the EGMB has not even influenced the granites and gneisses
which leads to the inference that the craton behaved as a
stable land during Eastern Ghats orogeny. However, the
TBSZ which has juxtaposed the EGMB against the craton
has affected both the terranes. Further, late stage brittle
conjugate strike-slip fractures and faults have dissected the
craton as well as the EGMB in two predominant directions,
Fig. 6. Synoptic diagrams of various structural elements. (a).12 conjugate
fractures from the craton, s1(þ ), s2 ( £ ), s3 (D) axes; (b) 473 mylonitic
foliations of the TBSZ, Contours: 1 –3–6–9– 12–15% of 1% area; (c) 298
stretching lineations of the TBSZ, Contours: 1–3– 6–9–12–15% of 1%
area; (d) stress directions of 15 microfaults, s1(þ ), s2 (D), s3 ( £ ) axes;
(e). 195 F1 and F2 fold axes and intersection lineations of Lathore nappe,
Contours: 0.1–0.5 –1.0–5.0 –10–15%; (f) 251 F1 and F2 fold axes and
intersection lineations of Turekela nappe, Contours: 0.5–1.0 –2.0–3.0 –
5.0%.
NW –SE and NE – SW. The stress pattern of these fractures
varies considerably, though the line of intersection between
them always remains steep (Fig. 6(a)).
4. Structure of the TBSZ, the decollement
The deformation structures of the TBSZ have been
described in reference to apex and end points of the salient
(Figs. 3 and 6).
The TBSZ in the apex part shows a thrust character. It
has a width of nearly 2 km and shows linear geometry with
NNE– SSW strike. The dip varies from 45 to 608 towards SE
(Fig. 6(b)). In an overall listric geometry of the decollement,
the above high dip corresponds to the frontal ramp of the
decollement. The thrust is marked by quartzofeldspathic
mylonites, showing a down-dip stretching lineation
(Fig. 6(c)) and various simple shear strain fabric like S – C
fabric (Fig. 7(a)), sigmoidal porphyroclasts and mica fishes
which unequivocally point to the overthrusting of the
mobile belt on the craton. The thrust has placed higher grade
assemblages of the mobile belt on the low grade rocks of the
craton. Biswal et al. (2000) calculated nearly 4.7 km of
displacement along the thrust based on the S – C angle
(Ramsay and Huber, 1987). Further, the strain in the
mylonites is more at the center of the thrust and drops
gradually towards the margin. As a result the mylonites and
latetectonic potassic granites share a gradational contact to
the west. This leads to the inference that the cratonic
granites, by and large, have served as the protolith of the
mylonites and the basement behaved in a ductile manner
during thrusting. However, a thin edge of the TBSZ occurs
inside the EGMB where amphibolites are developed from
the retrogression of basic granulites during thrusting. Hence,
the TBSZ is considered to be a retrograde shear zone.
Microfaults are an important microfabric in the mylo-
nites of the apex part (Fig. 7(b)). These are developed in
conjugate fashion in the feldspar rich layers. The dominant
set lies subparallel to the S- fabric. It has fractured the
feldspar grains into several rectangular clasts, called ‘shear
microlithons’. The fractures are independent of the
orientation of the mineral cleavage. The microlithons have
assumed elliptical shape and formed winged porphyroclasts
with progressive shearing. When these microfaults occur as
brittle faults inside the feldspar porphyroclasts, the acute
angle remains horizontal and where they occur as ductile
faults (Fig. 7(c)) in the quartz ribbons the obtuse angle is
horizontal. Hence, a clear refraction is observed in their
trend. From the equal-angle plot of such conjugate
microfaults from the edge of the shear zone where the
rotation of the porphyroclasts is to be the least, it has been
deduced that the s1 is subhorizontal and directed in
WNW – ESE direction (Fig. 6(d)). This is parallel to
the azimuth of the slip line of the main thrust. Considering
the shearing and fracturing to have taken place in a
single event, an orthogonal convergence between the craton
 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169 163

Fig. 7. (a) S– C fabric seen on the vertical section of the mylonites, east of Lakhna. Scale is parallel to the C-fabric and pencil, parallel to S-. The sense of shear
is top-to-NW. (b) Photomicrograph of the conjugate microfractures seen on the vertical section of the mylonites of the TBSZ, arrows indicate the direction of
compression (s1) which is at high angle to C-fabric. (c) Photomicrograph of the mylonite showing ductile fault in quartz ribbon (Ramsay and Lisle, 2000). (d)
Photomicrograph of mylonite fabric in the granite gneiss near the Khariar lateral ramp. The gneiss shows a preexisting fabric defined by elongated quartz,
feldspar and amphibole grains. The shear fabric related to thrusting along TBSZ is superimposed on it along certain zones. The earlier fabric is dragged towards
the shear direction. This is in contrast to the overwhelming asymmetric fabric seen in the mylonites of the apex region (Fig. 7(a)–(c)).

and the mobile belt is inferred from the above parallelism
(Ramsay and Lisle, 2000). However, the strain ellipse for
the above stress does not coincide with the strain ellipse of
the bulk simple shear as indicated by the S –C fabric in the
quartz ribbons. Probably this is due to strain partitioning
into pure shear and simple shear between the feldspar and
quartz rich layers, respectively, during same stage of
deformation (Goodwin and Tikoff, 2002).
The deformation pattern changes near the end point of
the salient. The TBSZ assumes an E– W trend, transverse to
that of the apex (Fig. 3). Moreover, the sense of shear
changes from thrust to strike – slip. These transverse
structures show the features of lateral ramps and not merely
of a normal- or strike – slip fault (Biswal and Jena, 1999).
These are named as Khariar lateral ramp in the south and
Paikamal lateral ramp in the north. The important features
of the ramps are
(i) Most importantly, they join the end points of two
segments of the TBSZ. Therefore, in three dimensions
164 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169

they work a link between two segments of the frontal

ramp.
(ii) The strike of the lateral ramps is parallel to the
thrusting direction of the apex part.
(iii) The slip direction changes from strike –slip to thrust –
slip gradually from lateral ramp to the apex.
(iv) Rocks of different structural levels are juxtaposed
against the lateral ramp. The gabbro – norite-basic
granulite suite of the western basic charnockite zone
that constitutes the lower crustal rocks of EGMB is
exposed to the south of Khariar lateral ramp (Fig. 3).

Unlike the apex part, the TBSZ at the ramp is developed

on the tonalite –trondhjemite gneisses, granite gneisses and
other supracrustals of the craton. As a result, the mylonites
vary from quartzofeldspathic to amphibolite to calcareous in
composition. Further, the TBSZ in these zones branches into
a number of synthetic shear zones enclosing rigid
amphibolite enclaves, thus making the mapping of the
entire width of the shear zone difficult. In addition to these,
the simple shear strain is superimposed over the pre-existing
strain of the granite gneisses and therefore, the strain fabric
in the mylonites differs much from the simple shear fabric of
the apex part. The pre-existing planar fabric defined by the
preferred orientation of the quartz, feldspar and amphibole
grains is deflected along the small-scale shear planes
(C band) (Fig. 7(d)). This is in contrast to the mylonites of
the apex part where the rock is differentiated into alternate
layers of ductile quartz ribbon and brittle feldspars; the
quartz ribbons carry grain shape fabric corresponding to Fig. 8. (a) The graph showing the nature of strain in Lathore nappe,
simple shear strain (Figs. 7(a) and 8(a)) and the feldspars Turekela klippe and the TBSZ, calculated from the measurement of the
carry the microfractures (Fig. 7(b)). recrystallized quartz grains. (b) The sketch shows the schuppen structures,
asymmetric folds, S –C fabric and internal boudinage inside the Turekela
thrust. The sketch is taken from a mine section west of Turekela, looking to
NE. The fabric shows NW vergence.
5. Structure of the Lathore nappe
The granulite metamorphism is synkinematic to the F1
Immediately overlying the decollement, the Lathore
folding. This is borne out by the cross cutting relationship
nappe occurs as a huge tectonic slab occupying 80% of the
between the bedding plane (S0) and the gneissosity (S1) at
area of the salient (Fig. 4). The charnockitic gneiss is the
the hinge of the F1 fold. Thin section study of the
main rock type in the nappe (Fig. 3) followed by basic
charnockitic gneisses reveals the presence of highly
granulites, khondalites (near Gandhmardan Hill) and calc
flattened quartz grains producing ribbon structure parallel
granulites which carry the signature of multiple generations
to the gneissosity. Size measurement of these quartz grains
of folding. The folds include coaxial F1 and F2 that are
developed along NNE –SSW axes. These folds are classified indicates flattening strain in the rock (Fig. 8(a)). Dome-and-
as parallel to highly flattened parallel folds having all basin structures are produced due to the interference of F2
attributes of buckling origin. These have been transformed folds with F3 folds. The Lathore nappe close to the TBSZ
into sheath folds at many places due to axial planar displays realignment of the folds parallel to the shear
inhomogeneous flow. Detailed structural analysis of the direction of the TBSZ. Furthermore, the granulites have
closed outcrop of garnetiferous quartzite to the east of been retrograded into amphibolites. The amphiboles have
Lathore has indicated the presence of map scale sheath grown parallel to the XY plane of the strain ellipsoid. This
fold in the area (Biswal et al., 1998a). The fold axes of clearly proves thrusting post dated folding and granulite
these folds remain strewn over a great circle coinciding metamorphism. In and around the Khariar lateral ramp,
with the axial plane of the F2 fold (Fig. 6(e)). Mullion, many alkali granite dykes have been emplaced into the
boudin and pinch-and-swell structures are associated with granulites synkinematic to thrusting.
F1 and F2 folds and developed prominently in the quartz The granulites of the Lathore nappe are prominently
and pegmatite veins emplaced in the calc granulites. marked by gneissosity fabric which strikes NE –SW in
 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
the major part of the area (Fig. 3). However, towards the end
point, it takes a swing to the E –W direction. The above
swing is more uniform in the northern end point (Paikamal
lateral ramp) as the structural trend inside the nappe remains
parallel to the TBSZ. Contrarily, a sharp kink is observed
over the Khariar lateral ramp in the south. These broad
warps and kinks are in fact fault bend folds (Suppe, 1983)
produced during thrusting of the EGMB rocks over lateral
ramp of the decollement. The Lathore nappe is affected by
brittle deformation in the form of sinistral NE –SW and
dextral NW – SE faults. Traced towards east, the NE –SW
faults cut across the Turekela thrust. This suggests two
generations of growth of faults (Biswal and Sahoo, 1998)
6. Structure of the Turekela thrust
The Turekela thrust underlies the Turekela nappe (Fig. 4).
The thrust in the western margin dips gently to SE and
shows NW vergence. The Turekela nappe in the study area
is extremely eroded and has been left out as a klippe. Similar
to Turekela klippe there could be few other klippes in the
area tectonically resting over the Lathore nappe. These are
yet to be mapped. The Turekela thrust is very conspicuous at
Dholmandal where the khondalites of the Turekela klippe
are extremely sheared and show close spaced mylonite
foliation and down dip stretching lineation. The leptynite
veins are sheared into lensoidal patches, which are arranged
in enechelon manner resembling small scale schuppen
structure (Fig. 8(b)). Narrow mylonite zone is invariably
present between the lenses. The fold and the gneissosity on
either side of the thrust show gradual realignment towards
the shear direction as one moves from the core of the nappe
to the thrust plane. The calc granulites of the Lathore nappe,
which are otherwise steeply dipping to SE, become
gradually gentler near the thrust. Similarly the NE –SW
intersection lineations of the Turekela Group become down
dip and TF1 folds are modified into sheath folds.
7. Structure of the Turekela nappe
The Turekela nappe represents the top most nappe in the
NW salient. It occurs as a klippe surrounded by the rock of
the Lathore nappe (Fig. 3). The root zone of the klippe lies
further towards east. The klippe is dominated by khondalites
followed by calc granulites. Mineralogically khondalites
consist of sillimanite, graphite, feldspar, garnet and quartz.
Leptynite veins derived from the melting of the above
assemblage occur concordantly in the khondalites. Turekela
nappe exhibits multiple stages of folding consisting of
coaxial folding between first three folds namely F10 , F1 and
F2 along NNE –SSW axis. These are followed by NW – SE
trending F3 folds which have produced mirror image
structures in interference with F2 fold. These structures
are observed from small to map scale in the area. A large
165
scale mirror image structure is observed in the calc silicate
outcrop to the east of Turekela (Jena, 2000). The plot of the
fold axes and the intersection lineation of such large-scale
interference pattern shows a small circle distribution of the
early fold axes (Fig. 6(f)). The gneissosity in the Turekela
klippe shows overall trend in NE –SW direction (Fig. 3).
Thin sections of the khondalites show the preferred
orientation of sillimanite, garnets and quartz parallel to
such gneissosity. Quartz grains are distinctly lensoidal and
the size analysis of these grains shows constrictional type of
strain in the Turekela klippe (Fig. 8(a)). The Turekela klippe
has been traversed by many close spaced NW –SE trending
brittle dextral faults, which cut across the Turekela thrust
and the Lathore nappe.
8. Mechanism of formation of the salient
The formation of the salient is to be discussed in light
of the FTB structure of the EGMB. It has been
mentioned earlier that the thrusting took place subsequent
to folding and granulite metamorphism which happened
during Eastern Ghats orogeny in Mesoproterozoic period
(Ramakrishnan et al., 1998). Thrusting juxtaposed the
mobile belt against the craton forming FTB on the NW
front, subsequent to the orogeny. The TBSZ acted as the
decollement for the Eastern Ghats rocks which have been
split up into Lathore nappe and Turekela klippe by the
Turekela thrust. Hence the TBSZ, Lathore nappe,
Turekela klippe and Turekela thrust constitute the main
architecture of the FTB.
Various tectonic models have been suggested for the
development of the salient structure in an FTB (Macedo and
Marshak, 1999). These are (1) when the sediment thickness
varies in a basin along strike due to basement highs, the
thicker part gets displaced more towards the foreland
compared to the thinner part (Fig. 9(a)) as for example in
the Rocky and Appalachian mountains (Marshak and
Wilkerson, 1992; Boyer, 1995); (2) when the thrusting
occurs in front of a hinterland indenter, as in case of the
Himalayas (Fig. 9(b)) (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976);
(3) When the frontal thrust is dissected by late transverse
strike – slip faults (Fig. 9(c)) as in Sevier fold-thrust belt
(Paulsen and Marshak, 1997); and (4) when the strength of
the glide horizon varies laterally along strike as in the case
of salt bed pinching out (Fig. 9(d)) in the Franklin mountain
of NW Canada (Davis and Engelder, 1985).
The FTB in the study area is developed in a highly
metamorphosed and deformed terrane of the EGMB and
hence variation in basin thickness as a cause for differential
displacement along the sole thrust does not arise. Secondly,
the composition of the nappes in the salient part is similar to
the other part of the mobile belts and the hinterland is not
observed. Thirdly, the study area shows the presence of
ramp structures. These are not late structures as required
(Fig. 9(c)) to develop a curved outline on the frontal thrust.
166 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
Fig. 9. Various models for the development of salient in a fold-thrust belt.
Modified (a,b,c,d) after Macedo and Marshak (1999), (b) Tapponnier and
Molnar (1976); (e) Simony and Carr (1997).
However, the lateral ramps could produce a curved outline
as they connect the two segments of the TBSZ occurring at
two different structural levels. In light of this, it would be
more significant to discuss the mechanism of the develop-
ment TBSZ at two different structural levels. Further, the
fourth option that the gliding horizon varies in strength
along the strike is to be evaluated.
The lateral ramps are developed at the contact between
latetectonic granites and the granite gneisses/tonalite –
trondhjemite gneisses. It has been mentioned earlier that
the foreland adjoining the apex is composed of latetec-
tonic potassic granites which are massive and lack
deformational fabric. These are very coarse grained with
the minerals showing straight grain margin and no
intracrystalline deformation. As against this, granite
gneisses/tonalite –trondhjemite gneisses contain various
strain fabrics including gneissosity, folds and small scale
ductile shear zones. The gneissosity is defined by
metamorphic banding with quartz-feldspar rich layers
alternating with biotite-amphibole rich layer. The minerals
exhibit preferred orientation defining the gneissosity in the
rock. The minerals show the effect of postcrystalline strain
as indicated by the undulose extinction in quartz and
kinks in the plagioclase. Biotites and amphibole in many
instances are kinked with sweeping extinction. The above
difference in the rock fabric is believed to have brought
variation in the strength of the rock because of the
following reasons.
1. The granite gneisses and tonalite – trondhjemite
gneisses including the metamorphic enclaves have
been dehydrated during amphibolite facies of meta-
morphism and repeated deformation. However, the late
tectonic granites are likely to contain water rich fluid.
Therefore quartz behaves as a stronger phase in
gneisses compared to that of the latetectonic granites.
Rocks attaining strain hardening with deformation and
metamorphism have been advocated by Schweickert
et al. (1984) and Naha et al. (1987).
2. Further, latetectonic granites are comparatively rich in
quartz than the granite gneisses and tonalite – trondhje-
mite gneisses. Quartz in the presence of water could
provide extreme ductility to the rock (Goodwin and
Tikoff, 2002). Therefore, the mylonites in the apex part
carry very large quartz ribbons even at the lowest
strain while the gneisses do not contain such structure.
3. During ductile deformation the grains develop
dislocations, which pile up to produce strain hardening
and resist further strain. If the stress was withdrawn at
this position, the material would require higher stress
to undertake ductile deformation further (Dieter, 1961).
The gneisses exhibit umpteen evidences of such strain
hardening like undulose extinction and deformation
lamellae in quartz. These features indicate post-crystal-
line deformation. Furthermore, the rocks are not
annealed to free those dislocations. As a result, the
gneisses would act as rheologically stronger rock than
the latetectonic granites. There exists experimental
study of granites to show the strain hardening effect at
certain temperature and pressure ranges (Griggs et al.,
1960). Further, the granite gneisses/tonalite– trondhje-
mite gneisses are characterized by crystallographic
fabric. If a rock deforms by ductile flow and develops a
crystallographic fabric, this can also cause hardening
and transition to brittle deformation without a change
in external condition (Passchier and Trouw, 1996).
4. The granite gneisses/tonalite – trondhjemite gneisses
show metamorphic banding, which varies in orientation
due to repeated folding. The orientation of the fabric
will influence the nature of late deformation to a great
extent (Dieter, 1961; Donath, 1961). However, this is
not the case with latetectonic granites.
5. The granite gneisses and tonalite – trondhjemite
gneisses carry inclusion of amphibolite and metabasic
pockets which act as rigid bodies during thrusting
(Passchier and Trouw, 1996) and contribute to
increased strength.
 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
Variation in rheological property of the basement
causing variation in the structure of the frontal shear zone
is emphasized by Simony and Carr (1997). They have
interpreted the formation of Valkyr shear zone at different
level of the crust due to the contrast in the rheological
property of the granites belonging to different ages
(Fig. 9(e)). They explain that if a shear zone encounters
harder rocks laterally it shifts its position to a higher
structural level. The shear zones at different levels join up
by lateral ramps. As the latetectonic granites and the granite
gneisses/tonalite –trondhjemite gneisses pose dissimilarities
in the rheological properties it is likely that the basal
decollement of the EGMB-FTB has developed at different
levels of the crust and the Khariar and Paikamal lateral
ramps have been developed as links between them (Fig. 10).
The thrust at the apex part corresponds to a lower structural
level while the thrusts to the north and south of it belong to
the higher structural levels.
Contrast in lithological associations on either side of the
Khariar lateral ramp supports the above interpretation of a
difference in structural level (Biswal and Jena, 1999). To the
south of the northerly inclined Khariar lateral ramp the lower
crustal rocks of EGMB such as gabbro-norite-basic
granulite suite (western basic charnockite zone) are
exposed. This zone is evidently very thin in the apex part.
Further, the gentle dip of the thrust in the southern segment
has contributed to the larger outcrop width of the
formations.
Based on this contrast in rheological property, the
strength of the mylonites of the TBSZ is to be assessed,
which could bring variation in amount of displacement. If
the gliding horizon encounters a soft bed like clay or halite
that pinches out laterally, the transportation is enhanced
over the soft bed. Since the study area represents a
metamorphic terrane, association of above mentioned
rocks do not arise. However, the mylonites in the apex
part might be more ductile due to the presence of more
quartz and water. This has facilitated more transportation.
Mylonites in the gneisses would resist shear due to dry
condition and presence of rigid amphiboilte and metabasic
Fig. 10. 3D model of the NW salient of the EGMB showing lateral ramps on
the decollement. The ramps are developed at the contact between massive
granite and gneisses. At the present level of erosion, the EGMB rocks
would overlie the southern ramp, while the basement would be exposed in
the northern ramp.
167
enclaves. Though the amount of transportation is not
calculated for the granite gneisses/tonalite – trondhjemite
gneisses due to preexisting strain, the displacement
(minimum value) is about 4.7 km over the mylonites of
the latetectonic granites.
Hence at this stage it is not possible to distinguish the
effect of two tier development of thrust from the unequal
displacement along it. It is quite likely that both the
phenomenon have occurred together. Therefore it is
suggested that the NW salient of the EGMB-FTB is a
combined product of two-tier development of the sole thrust
as well as difference in displacement.
9. Conclusion
The NW salient of the EGMB is characterized by
episodic deformational history largely belonging to two
distinct events. While the earlier phase is marked by
polyphase folding (F1, F2 and F3) and synkinematic
granulite metamorphism the later includes thrusting, thrust
related folding and retrogression of granulites into amphi-
bolites. The folds noticed in both the nappes, as part of the
earlier phase of deformation, are attributed to a buckling
origin which is obviously the result of subhorizontal
compression during Eastern Ghats orogeny. That, the
granulite metamorphism has occurred in a compressional
setting, is borne out from its synkinematic nature with F1
folding. However, granulite metamorphism in extensional
setting has been reported from some part of the EGMB
(Dasgupta, 1995). This leads to the interpretation that the
tectonic setting of the granulite metamorphism varies both
temporally and spatially across the EGMB. Similar
variation is also observed in the strain pattern as indicated
by flattening type of strain in Lathore nappe and constric-
tional type of strain in Turekela nappe. All these features are
suggestive of extreme heterogeneity in the EGMB.
The second phase of deformation in the EGMB is
dominated by thrusting which has produced FTB on its
foreland margin like that of Grenville belt. The granulites
have been sliced off by these thrusts into nappes and have
been thrusted over the craton. The TBSZ serves as the
basal decollement of the FTB. At the present level of
erosion the TBSZ shows moderate to steep dip correspond-
ing to the frontal ramp part of the decollement. The sole
thrust is predominantly quartzofeldspathic in composition
as a wider part of the sole thrust is developed on the
basement granites and the mylonites possess a transitional
margin with the granites of the craton. Hence it is believed
that the foreland did not behave as a rigid body during
thrusting. It deformed in a ductile manner producing
mylonites and other ductile fabrics. As the shear strain is as
low as 6.0, the deformation could not penetrate deeper into
the basement, but is confined to the contact between the
craton and the mobile belt. However, the pre-existing large
scale folds of the EGMB are truncated by the thrust plane
168 T.K. Biswal, S. Sinha / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 22 (2003) 157–169
and the granulites have been retrograded to amphibolites.
From the above discussion it is obvious that the major
structural features such as fold pattern and gneissosity in
the nappes are controlled by the early phase of deformation
in the EGMB and not guided by the thrusts. Therefore, the
FTB of the EGMB is comparable with Caledonide FTB as
reported by Ramsay (1997) (Fig. 1(b)). Hence the model
given by Suppe (1983) where the structures in the
overriding plate are guided by the thrust (Fig. 1(a)) does
not hold good for the study area. However, the thrusting
has produced broad fault bend folds on the granulites
which are manifested as large open warps at the end points
of the salient (Fig. 3).
Large lateral ramps are developed on the basal
decollement as a result of the rheological contrast between
granite gneisses/tonalite – trondhjemite gneisses and the
latetectonic granites of the craton (Fig. 10). The FTB
shows a salient structure on the NW front of the EGMB.
Various models have been proposed for the development of
salient structures. However, one that involves the variation
in the rheological properties of the basement seems to be
valid for the study area as the foreland shows variation in
rock types from massive granite at the apex to granite
gneisses/tonalite – trondhjemite gneisses at the end points.
The lateral ramps have developed exactly where the
lithological contrast appears (Fig. 10). The variation in the
rheological property has either induced the decollement to
develop at two structural levels or produced variation in the
amount of displacement along the thrust. Hence it is
concluded that the NW front of EGMB represents the salient
part of a FTB that resembles Caledonide type of fold-thrust
belt where the thrusting is post tectonic to folding and
metamorphism of the cover rocks and the basement has
deformed in ductile manner during thrusting.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to DST and CSIR for sponsoring
the research work. Review by the anonymous referees helped
in improving the early version of the manuscript. Personal
communication with Profs J.G. Ramsay, B. Tikoff, J. Suppe,
A. Kronenberg and C. Merguerian while revising the
manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. Discussion with
Profs B.P. Kashyap and K. Narasimhan of Dep. Metallurgy,
IIT Bombay helped greatly in revision. Miss Arpita Mandal
helped during preparation of the manuscript.
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