1) Shockley diode is a unidirectional device with two terminals

2) SCR is a unidirectional device with three terminals

3) Diac is a bidirectional device with two terminals
4) Triac is a bidirectional device with three terminals.
5) SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier) can be switched off by either anode current interruption
or forced commutation.
6) Triac is used to control average power to a load by the method of Phase control (which
changes the angle during which the circuit conducts current. For example: if the conduction
angle is set to 180o instead of 360o, the circuit only conducts for 50% of the time)
7) BJT has two p-n junctions which is why it is called Bi-polar Junction Transistor. BJT’s are
current controlled transistors.
8) FET’s are voltage controlled transistors. Two common types of FET are JFET and MOSFET
9) MOSFET can be operated in either depletion mode or enhancement mode.

10) For an RC (resistor capacitor) circuit, the time constant is calculated by multiplying R with
C.
Example: IF R=10 ohms and C=100mF, then RC time constant is equal to (10)*(.1) =
1second.
1Farad = 1000 mF = 1000,000 uF
11) For an RL circuit, the time constant is calculated by dividing L by R (L/R)
 Example: If R=10ohms and L=100mH (H=henry), then time constant is equal to (0.1)/10 =
0.01second.
12) Forward voltage drop of a normal diode is around 0.7 Volts. Schottky diode has a forward
voltage drop of around 0.2V to 0.3V. Schotkky diode has a metal-semiconductor junction
unlike a normal diode which has semiconductor-semiconductor junction.
13) Zener diode is used for voltage regulation in reverse biasing. When it is forward biased, it
works like a normal diode giving 0.7V voltage drop.
14) Zener diode has two regions in reverse biasing: Zener breakdown and Avalanche
breakdown. Voltage regulation takes place in the Zener breakdown region. Avalanche
breakdown is abnormal mode of operation and hence not used.

15) IGBT (Insulated Gate bipolar transistor) is a combination of MOSFET transistor and BJT.
16) Common Emitter amplifier has both voltage gain and current gain
17) Common Collector amplifier has only current gain. CC amplifier is also known as Emitter
Follower.
18) Common Base amplifier has only voltage gain.
19) Common Emitter amplifier has a phase inversion between input and output signals whereas
input and output signals of Common collector and common base amplifiers are in phase.
20) Shockley diode, SCR, Diac and triac are 4 layer devices
21) BJT is a three layer device.
22) In MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), the gate and channel of
the transistor are separated by a thin layer of SiO2 (silicon di oxide)
23) In either RC or RL circuit, after one time constant the value will rise (or fall) by 63.2%.
HINT: (1- e-1)
And after five time constants, the value will rise (or fall) by approximately 100%.HINT: (1-
e-5)
24) RC and RL circuits are characterized by First order differential equations which is why they
are also called First Order circuits.
25) RLC circuits are characterized by Second Order differential equations which is why they are
also called Second Order Circuits.
26) A step up transformer increases voltage and decreases current
27) A step down transformer decreases voltage and increases current
28) Motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Generator is a
machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
29) Voltage or current ratio in a transformer can be calculated by turns ratio which is the ratio of
primary windings and secondary windings (Np/Ns)
30) Power in a circuit can be calculated by using three formulas.
P=V*I, P=V2/R and P=I2R
31) Ohmic power loss is calculated by using only P=I2R.
32) In a capacitor circuit driven by AC source, the current leads the voltage by 90o
33) In an inductor circuit driven by AC source, the voltage leads the current by 90o
[Trick to remember this is the word “CIVIL” C= capacitor, I = current, V= voltage and
L=Inductor. Therefore, for a capacitor, I comes before V hence current leads voltage. For an
inductor V comes before I hence voltage leads current.]
34) Impedance is a combination of resistance and reactance
35) Z = sqrt( (R^2) + (X^2) ), where Z=impedance, R=resistance and X=reactance.
(For an inductor, reactance equal 2πfL and for a capacitor, reactance equals 1/2πfC)
36) For a DC circuit, impedance is equal to resistance because the reactance of the circuit is
zero.
37) For a lossless AC circuit, impedance is equal to reactance because the resistance of the
circuit is zero since the circuit is lossless.
38) In an RLC circuit, if the time response is oscillating, the response is called underdamped.
If it is fast and has no oscillations, the response is called critically damped. If it is sluggish
(or slow), the response is called over damped.

39) If damping ratio of a differential equation is between 0 and 1, the system is underdamped. If
damping ratio is equal to 1, the system is critically damped. If damping ratio is greater than
1, the system is over damped.
40) 555 timer uses charging and discharging of RC circuits. 555 have three modes of
operation:astable, monostable and bistable.
41) Common collector amplifier is also known as emitter follower.
42) In class A amplifier, output current flows for the full cycle of the input. (i.e. conduction
angle = 360o )
43) In class B amplifier, conduction angle = 180o
44) In class AB amplifier, conduction angle is between 180o and 360o
45) In class C amplifier, conduction angle is less than 180o

46) Microwave frequencies have a range between 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
47) Radio frequencies have a range between 3 KHz to 300GHz.
48) A flip flop is a binary storage device. It can store a binary digit; either 0 or 1.
49) A flip flop can also be considered a memory device because it can store and retain binary
information even if the input is removed.
50) Static RAM (SRAM) uses flip flop to store each bit of memory whereas Dynamic RAM
(DRAM) uses transistor and a capacitor to store a bit of memory and has to be refreshed
many times a second to recharge the capacitor.
51) Flip flop and Latch are both memory devices but the difference is that latch is an
asynchronous memory device whereas Flip flop is edge-triggered.
52) D-Flip flops are also used in shift registers which are memory element of many electronic
devices.
53) Difference between combinational circuit and sequential circuit is that combinational circuit
uses only input to compute its output, whereas sequential circuit uses both input and
previous input (state) to compute its output.
54) A capacitor is used to block DC current and inductor is used to block AC current.
55) Current in a parallel circuit divides while voltage remains the same.
56) Voltage in a series circuit divides while current remains the same.
57) A differential amplifier amplifies the difference of voltages between the two inputs.
58) Intermediate frequency for AM receivers is 455 KHz and for FM receivers is 10.7 MHz
59) Crossover Distortion takes place in class B amplifiers.
60) Doping of a semiconductor increases conductivity. Majority carriers in N-type
semiconductor are electrons. Majority carriers in P-type semiconductor are holes.
61) Closed loop voltage gain of a voltage follower is nearly equal to 1. Voltage follower is also
known as Unity gain amplifier and Buffer amplifier.
62) The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages. This is known as Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
63) The emf induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked with it, is called self-
induction or self-induced emf.
64) The opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a magnetic field
is called Reluctance (Similar to Resistance in electric circuit which is opposition to the
establishment of electric current).
65) A diode can be used a rectifier (i.e to convert AC into DC)
66) In a transistor, the emitter current is slightly more than the collector current.
67) Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor
68) As a result of diffusion (which is caused by doping), a region is formed around the p-n
junction, called depletion region.
69) The most common language used for PLC programming is Ladder logic. Other languages
include Function block diagram (FBD), Structured text and Instruction List.
70) A ladder rung is true when there is logical continuity (not electrical continuity)
71) Passive filters are based on the combination of Resistor, Inductor and capacitor and do not
contain any active component such as transistor.
72) Active filters are based on the combination of passive components (such as resistor, inductor
and capacitor) and active components such as transistor and op amp.
73) Continuous time differential equations can be analyzed using the s-plane method (or using
the laplace transform)
74) Discrete time difference equations can be analyzed using the z-plane method (or using the z-
transform)
75) If two resistors have a resistance R, then what will be the equivalent resistance in (i) series
and (ii) parallel? Answer: (i) 2R (ii) R/2 [Please do some examples of equivalent parallel
resistance if this is unclear to you]
76) Temperature can be measured using Thermistor, RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
and Thermocouples. Thermistor and RTD are passive sensors requiring a power source
whereas Thermocouple is an active sensor which can work without a power source.
77) RTD’s have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance, which means resistance
increases with increasing temperature. Thermistors are of two types: one with positive
temperature coefficient where resistance increases with increasing temperature like RTD,
and the second type of Thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, which means
resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
78) RTD can be used to measure temperature in a wheat-stone bridge arrangement.
79) Most common type of RTD used is Pt-100 (platinum-100 which means resistance is 100
ohms at 0oC)
80) Working principle of a Thermocouple is seebeck effect.
81) Common thermocouples include: T type, J type and K type in increasing order according to
their temperature ratings.
82) Thermistor is highly sensitive and highly non-linear. RTD is moderately sensitive and highly
linear. Thermocouples are the least sensitive and moderately linear, but have the highest
temperature range.
83) Industrial standard for electronic information signal is 4-20mA in current and 1-5V in
voltage.
84) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure (Pabs= Patm+Pg)
85) Pressure = Force/Area and it has many units like: Newton/m2, PSI, mm of H2O, inches of
H2O, mm of mercury, inches of mercury, Bar, Pascals.
86) Tunnel diode, PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor) and UJT (Unijunction
Transistor) have a negative resistance region on their curve and that’s why can be used in
oscillator circuits.
87) VCO is a voltage controlled oscillator where frequency of the oscillations is controlled by
voltage. One application of a VCO is in Frequency Modulation circuits where it makes a
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
88) In band pass and band stop filters; the central frequency is equal to the geometric mean of
the lower cutoff frequency and upper cutoff frequency. fc =√(fL* fU)
89) Transistor has three regions of operation: cutoff, active and saturation. If cutoff and
saturation regions are used, the transistor can be used as a switch. In the active region of
operation, transistor can be used as an amplifier.

90) In the cutoff region, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse biased.
91) In the saturation region, both base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward biased.
92) In the active region, base-emitter is forward biased and base-collector is reverse biased.
93) Gate current in JFET transistor is approximately equal to zero and in MOSFET, it is equal to
zero.
94) Superposition theorem states that the value of current and voltage in a circuit with many
sources is equal to the sum of current and voltage produced by the individual sources
independently.
95) Thevenin theorem states that a complex circuit can be simplified to an equivalent circuit with
just one voltage source and one equivalent resistance in series.
96) Norton theorem states that a complex circuit can be simplified to an equivalent circuit with
just one current source and one equivalent resistance in parallel.
97) If all roots of an equation lie in the left half plane of the s-plane, the system is considered to
be stable. If even a single root lies in the right half plane, the system is unstable. If all roots
lie in the left half plane and at least one root on the imaginary axis, the system is called
critically stable.

98) If all roots of an equation lie inside the unit circle of the z-plane, the system is considered to
be stable. If even a single root lies outside the unit circle, the system is unstable. If all roots
lie inside the unit circle and at least one root on the unit circle, the system is called critically
stable.

XXX____________________________________GOOD LUCK ____________________________________________XXX

99) RPM of a motor can be found using this formula:
N=120*f / P [Remember this formula]
Where, N=speed in rpm, f=frequency, P= number of poles (i.e number of north and
south). If f=60HZ and P=2, then N=120*60/2 = 3600RPM

1) If number of poles in a motor is increased, the RPM (revolution per minute) is decreased,
if the frequency is kept constant.
2) Reflected load (or reflected impedance) in a transformer is calculated by multiplying
turns ratio with the secondary load. Zref = a2 ZL
3) In synchronous motors, the rotor always rotates at a speed equal to its synchronous speed,
and that speed is always calculated by N=120*f/P
4) In induction motors, the rotor always rotates at a speed less than its synchronous speed.
[Synchronous speed is the speed of rotating magnetic field inside the stator].
5) In induction motors, the difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called
slip speed. Another term is called slip, which is defined as: slip speed /
synchronous speed.
6) Open loop gain of an ideal op amp is infinite.
7) Input impedance of an ideal op amp is infinite and output impedance of an ideal op amp
is zero
8) dial tone is a continuous tone having frequencies of 350 and 440 Hz at a level of −13
dBm
9) Ideal voltage source has zero resistance and an ideal current source has infinite resistance.
10) When current is decreased by a factor of 2, power decreases by a factor of 4 because of
the relation I2R.
It can be seen from the formula; P=(I/2)2R, P=(I/4)R. When Current is reduced by a
factor of 2, power is reduced by a factor of 4.
11) The sampling frequency fs must be greater than twice the highest frequency component of
the signal.This frequency is often referred to as the Nyquist frequency, fN.
12) Natural frequency in the system represents the frequency at which a system will oscillate
if the system is un-damped (or the damping ratio is zero).
13) Schering bridge is used to measure the capacitance.
14) Hay bridge is used to measure the inductance.
15) JFET is always operated with the gate-source pn junction reverse biased.
16) JFET and MOSFET are often referred to as square lawdevices.
17) Standard telephone system has a frequency bandwidth of approximately 300Hz to
3400Hz.
18) DCE’s (Data Communication Equipment) basic function is to modulate and demodulate,
that is why it is also called a MODEM.
19) The AM band consists of carrier frequencies from 540 KHz to 1640 KHz
20) The FM band consists of carrier frequencies from 88 MHz to 108 MHz
21) Frequency modulation is a type of Angle Modulation.In frequency modulation, the
frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the “information signal”. The
other type of Angle modulation is “Phase Modulation” in which phase of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the “information signal”.
22) Gain of a non-inverting operational amplifier is

23) Gain of an inverting operational amplifier is

24) Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate a periodic waveform without the necessity
of an input signal. (i.e., oscillators can generate and sustain oscillations without any
external input). Two main types of oscillators are FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS and
RELAXATION OSCILLATORS.
 Feedback oscillators work on the principle of positive feedback, which is taking
portion of an output signal and feeding it back to the input resulting in the
reinforcement of the output signal.
(For start-up of oscillations, the closed loop gain of the oscillator should be >> 1 so
 that amplitude of the output signal can reach the desired level. But once amplitude
reaches the desired level, closed loop gain should be set equal to 1 so that amplitude
is neither increased nor decreased.

 Relaxation oscillators make use of an RC timing circuit to generate a waveform that

is generally a square wave or other non-sinusoidal waveform.
25) In RS-232 serial line interface, a High (1) is represented by a negative voltage; anywhere
between -3 to -25Volts while a Low (0) is represented by a positive voltage, anywhere
between +3 to +25Volts. The High state is known as Mark and Low state is known as
Space.
26) The form factor of an alternating current waveform (signal) is the ratio of the RMS (root
mean square) value to the average value.
27) The peak factor of an alternating current waveform is the ratio of peak value to the RMS
value.
28) The ratio of the duration of the positive-amplitude part of a square wave to that of the
negative-amplitude part is known as Mark-Space ratio.
29) Average value of a triangular waveform is 0.5Vpp and its RMS value is 1/√3. √3=1.73
30) Bandwidth of a resonant circuit is equal to R/L and Quality Factor is equal to wL/R. Or
Bandwith= ⌂w and Quality factor = wo/⌂w
31) Average value of a sine wave is 0.637xVp and RMS is 0.707xVp
32) In series resonance circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage magnification of the circuit,
whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current magnification.
33) Voltage regulation= (Vnl-Vfl)/Vfl OR (Vnl/Vfl) – 1
34) Series wound motors have higher starting torque and Shunt wound motors have better
speed regulation.
35) Nuclear power plants (base load) have the highest capacity factor.
36) Base load power plants have high capacity factors and peaking power plants have low.
37) Renewable energy power plants (wind, solar and hydropower) have low capacity factors
and high availability factor.
General Knowledge:

1) United nation was established on 24th October, 1945

2) World War 1 period was July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918
3) World War 2 period was Sep 1, 1939 to Sep 2, 1945
4) All India Muslim league was founded on 30 December, 1906
5) All india national congress was founded on 28 December, 1885
6) Quaid e azam joined congress in 1906 and muslim league in 1913. He left congress in 1920
7) Aga khan was the first president of all india muslim league
8) viqarulmulk, khawajasalimullah and aga khan were founder of all indiamuslim league
9) Tarbela dam is situated on Indus river, mangla dam on Jhelum river, warsak on Kabul river
and hub on hub river.
10) Tarbela dam is the largest dam in Pakistan.
11) National animal of Pakistan is markhor and national bird is chakor/chukar.
12) Brazil is the largest producer of sugar cane in the world.
13) Little Venice is popular name of London
14) Olympics are held every four years.
15) First Nobel Prize was given in 1901.
16) Wilhelm Röntgen' won the first Nobel prize.
17) Quaid rejected Nehru report and gave his 14 points on 28th March, 1929
18) Marco polo travelled to central asia, india and china in 13th Century.
19) Rehbar-I was the first rocket launched by Pakistan.
20) The punishment for robbery in Islam is cutting hands.
21) Which of the following Rukn-e-Islam is called a shield? Answer: Fasting
22) What is the literal meaning of word Qiblah? Answer: In front of/ direction
23) Northern end of Pakistan is occupied by western range of which of following? Answer: Himalayan
range.
24) The ancient name of IRAN is Persia
25) Sharjah is in? UAE
26) Against Nehru’s Report Qaid-e-Azam proposed a solution of how many points? Answer: 14 points
27) Wimbledon Tournament is played on Lawn Tennis
28) The entire northern end of Pakistan is occupied by western ranges of the “Himalayan Range”
29) Washington DC is called ____ (City of Magnificent Distance)
30) On 6th September 1965, India attacked Lahore
31) Mount Everest is located on the border between Nepal and Tibet. It is the largest mountain in the
world and situated in Himalayan Range.
32) K2 is situated in Karakoram Range and is the second largest mountain in the world.
33) Capital of Indonesia is Jakarta and capital of Malaysia is Kualalampur.
34) Pakistan’s national sport is hockey and national flower is Jasmine.
35) National mosque of Pakistan is Faisal Mosque.
36) Karakoram pass connects Kashmir with China.
37) Fida Muhammad Khan is the founder of PML(N)
38) China lies to the north of Pakistan.
39) Smallest province of Pakistan in terms of area is KPK.
40) Pakistan has a dark green and white rectangular flag in the proportion of length to width 3-2.
41) In the State of Jammu and Kashmir on 1 January 1949, a cease-fire line is established.
Copied and Pasted from a Forum

1. Low resistance is measured by 1. Kelvin bridge 2.wheat stone bride

Answer:1
2. A motor shunt resistance is 85 ohm at 22 degree Celsius. When resistance is 100 ohm find
temp? Coefficient is 0.004 at 0 degree per Celsius.
3. For an alternator when the power factor of the load is unity
A) the armature flux will have square waveform
(B) the armature flux will be demagnetizing
(C) the armature flux will be cross-magnetising
(D) the armature flux will reduce to zero.
Answer: C
4. a 100 volt bulb having resistance of 500 ohm. The number of hours it can work for every
KWH of energy consumed will be
a)20 b)40 c)50 d)60
5. stepper motor sequence 0110 1001 1010 0101
6. LTI system can be characterized entirely by a single function called the system's impulse
response.
7. short time approach is a)underdamped b)overdamped c)critically damped d)undamped
8. Schottky diode, Zener diode, avalanche diode (there were questions about them)
9. 16 bit 8086 does not have a)16 bit register b)16 bit alu c)16 bit instruction set d) 16 bit flag
10. Distribution transformers are usually designed to have maximum efficiency
at 50 % of full load.
at 75 % of full load.
near full load.
cu loss= iron loss
11.
a)Maxell equation b)continuity equation
12. Oscillator which is controlled by dc variable voltage is called a) crystal oscillator b) voltage
controlled oscillator
13. oscillator is used for a)accuracy b)reliability c)high frequency
14. open loop gain(Av )of ideal op amplifier a)0 b)1 c)infinity
15.without input signal gives input a)oscillator b)amplifier
16.copy command a)mov b)copy
Answer: copy
17.poles tells about a)overshoot b)peak time c)settling time
18.in under damped response a)damping ratio=1 b) 0<damping ratio<1 c)damping ratio>1 etc
19. questions about time division multiplex and frequency modulation
20. 8086 main registers AX, BX, CX, DX 8086 index registers BP, SI, DI, SP (I don’t remember
the exact question)