CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

THE S.I. SYSTEM

1 TRANSFORMER OPERATION
Brief Early History of the Transformer
Principle of Operation
The e.m.f. Equation
The Transformer on No Load
Primary phasor diagram
Secondary phasor diagram
Combined phasor diagram
Voltage and turns relationship
The Transformer on Load
On-load phasor diagram
On-load voltage diagram
Referred Values of Resistance, Reactance and Impedance
Transformer Efficiency
Efficiency

2 THE TRANSFORMER (TESTING AND EFFICIENCY)

The Combined Phasor Diagram
The Equivalent Circuit
Voltage Regulation
 Internal Voltage-Drop Formula (For Approximation)
Transformer Testing
The open-circuit test
The short-circuit test
Direct-Loading Test (Sumpner’s Test)
Percentage Resistance, Reactance and Impedance
Efficiency
Conditions for maximum efficiency
Conditions for all-day efficiency

3 THE TRANSFORMER APPLICATIONS

Instrument Transformers
The current transformer (C.T.)
The voltage transformer (V.T.)
The Auto-Transformer
Fixed ratio type
Variable ratio type
Three-phase transformation
Methods of connection
The Saturable Reactor
The transductor
The magnetic amplifier
Solid-State Transformers

4 D.C. MACHINES
Testing of D.C. Machines
Output
Efficiency
Losses
Testing methods
D.C. Generators in Parallel
 Parallel operation
Load sharing
Commutation and Armature Reaction
Commutation
Armature reaction
Special D.C. Machines
The rotary transformer
The rotary converter
The rotating amplifier

5 D.C. RECTIFICATION
Electromagnetic Induction
Inductance
The Direct Current LR Circuit
Growth of current
Decay of current
The field switch and discharge resistor
The Direct Current CR Circuit
Growth of current
Discharge conditions
The Alternating Currents LR and CR Circuit
Current asymmetry
Rectification
Terms
Rectifier arrangements
Battery charging by rectifier

6 THE A.C. GENERATOR

The A.C. Generator
Rotating-armature type
Rotating-field type
 Excitation Arrangements
Rotary excitation systems
Static excitation systems
The Speed-Frequency Equation
E.M.F. equation
Waveform of generated e.m.f.
Stator Windings
Types of windings
The Alternator on Load

7 THE MARINE ALTERNATOR

The Rotating Magnetic Field
Armature reaction
The phasor diagram (continued)
Prediction of voltage regulation
Synchronising torque

8 THE INDUCTION MOTOR

Principle of Operation
Rotor to stator relationships
Relation between rotor loss, rotor input power and rotor output
Torque conditions
The phasor diagram
The Circle Diagram
Explanation of the circle diagram
Testing procedure
Construction of the circle diagram

9 A.C. MACHINES – OPERATION

A.C. Generators
A.C. generators in parallel
 The synchroscope
Parallel operation
Load sharing
The Synchronous Motor
Operating action
Starting
Induction Motors
Starting
Speed and torque control
Speed adjustment

10 ELECTRONIC EMISSION PROCESSES AND DEVICES

Electron Emission
Thermionic Emission
The Vacuum Diode
Static characteristics
Dynamic characteristics – load line
The Vacuum Triode
Static characteristics
Valve parameters
Parameter relationships
Ionisation
The hot-cathode discharge lamp (low pressure)
The hot-cathode discharge lamp (high pressure)
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Image intensifiers
Image intensifier device operation

11 SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS: THE DIODE

Semiconductors
Basic theory
 Conduction control
The P-N Junction
The junction diode
Rectifier operation
Rectifier Circuits
Half-wave
Full-wave
Filter Circuit
Voltage Doubler Circuit
Stabilised power supplies
The zener diode
Series Stabilisation

12 SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS: THE TRANSISTOR

The Transistor
The junction transistor
Transistor characteristics
Load lines
Leakage current
The practical amplifier
The transistor as a switch
The thyristor

13 ELECTRONIC AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Radar
Maritime radar applications
Maximum Detection Range (MDR) and Radar Cross Section
(RCS)
Antennas
Signal Processing
Clutter
 Noise
Environmental effects
Lasers
Lasers for marine applications
Stimulated emission
Laser safety
Laser range finding and maintaining ships’ proximity in RAS
Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA)
Electronic Chart Displays
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS)
War-fighting ECDIS
Radio Navigation Aids
Interference-based navigation-related sensors
LORAN-C
Limitations of LORAN
Global Positioning Systems
NAVSTAR
GLONASS
GALILEO
Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS)
Automatic Identification System (AIS)
Emergency Beacons
How a typical beacon operates
Activation
Hydrostatic Release Unit
GPS beacon operation
High-precision registered beacon operation
Non-GPS Doppler location
Satellites
Search and rescue response
14 DISPLAY DEVICES
Cathode Ray Tube
Production of displays
Oscilloscope CRTs
CRT advantages
CRT disadvantages
Liquid Crystal Displays
A brief history of liquid crystals
Liquid crystal phases
Switching speeds
Liquid crystal alignment
Liquid crystal technology
The Plasma Display Device
History
Plasma display advantages
Plasma display disadvantages
Screen burn-out
ElectroLuminescent Displays
History
Material fabrication technologies
Polymer Light Emitting Diodes
Phosphorescent materials
Device structure: Bottom or top emission?
Fabrication
OLED advantages
OLED disadvantages
Outdoor performance
Power consumption
Holographic Displays
SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES

SELECTION OF TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

eCopyright
PREFACE
This book is companion to Volume 6 (Basic Electrotechnology for
Engineers) and covers aspects of theory lying outside the scope of
Volume 6. The syllabus covers fully the Department of Trade and
Maritime and Coastguard Agency syllabuses’ requirements in
Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers, and beyond, and provides
practical applications and illustrations to Coastguard, Merchant and
Naval students, whether studying for engineering qualifications and
certificates, or not.

In common with Volume 7 in this series, numerous fully worked

problems are included in the text. In addition, test examples and
typical examination questions are provided – with solutions, for the
students to attempt on their own. As for Volume 6, the subject matter
has been treated in the order and in the manner in which it would
likely be taught in a maritime college and this book should be viewed
as complementary to any lecture notes that should be taken,
combined with the use of modern multimedia approaches. It is also
for this reason that A.C. and D.C. theories are progressed side by
side, with new technology introduced in as chronological sequence
as possible.

Volume 7 attempts to balance the tension between A.C. and D.C.

machines – a tension having its roots in early electrical history. At the
close of the 19th century, electricity had revolutionised everyday life,
with Thomas Edison’s development of cheap electrical lighting
accelerating this transformation. Edison’s initial monopoly of D.C.
electrical generation and lighting was soon challenged by millionaire
George Westinghouse, who had developed a compressed air
system that ensured every railway car in a train would brake
simultaneously. Westinghouse believed he could develop a system
using A.C. rather than Edison’s D.C. system. However, A.C.
technology was then (as now) more complex and little understood,
and only progressed significantly after Westinghouse enlisted the
creative genius of Nikola Tesla, who had parted company with
Edison on less than amicable terms. It is worth considering that A.C.
and D.C. provide suitable alternative solutions to electrical
transmission and operational device problems, and that a D.C. signal
is after all, only an A.C. signal whose frequency is 0 Hz!

The creative genius of engineers and inventors like Nikola Tesla is

not a product of accident, there is a pattern that may be traced back
to the dawn of the industrial revolution. Thomas Newcomen, another
such early genius, came from Dartmouth, England (home of
Britannia Royal Naval College and of Samuel Lake who pioneered
Britain’s first steam trawlers). Newcomen (1663/4–1729) was the first
to drive a piston through the agency of steam and created the
world’s first steam engine, which from 1717 pumped water from
mines and so enabled what we now know as the industrial revolution
to start. Newcomen was a committed non-conformist Christian and
pastor whose creative ability and life rose above the narrow
conventional mindset of his day, and was not well treated at this
time. Unfortunately today’s climate of political correctness pervades
every area of society, an effective mechanism to prevent individuals
expressing genuine diversity of views from the state’s sanctioned
prevailing ‘correct model’. Social orthodoxy and conformity rarely
provide innovation and avenues of new thought and invention. On
the other hand those of strong moral conviction, often committed
Christians, provide safeguards to society against otherwise ethic-
less application of science. If not for the moral and ethical integrity of
Sir Michael Faraday who refused to develop chemical weapons for
the then battlefields of the Crimea (1853–1856), terrible weapons of
the 20th century may otherwise have made their first appearance
some 50 years earlier (incidentally on the flood preventing
embankment of modern Dartmouth first promoted by Samuel Lake
sit several Imperial Canons seized from an otherwise ill-fated Crimea
Campaign).
Future wars over energy and natural resources may by the mid-21st
century dominate the military and political landscape unless suitable
energy sources can be found. It is to the innovative engineers and
physicists that we look to provide a lead in this quest. Unless Hot or
Cold Fusion, the ‘holy grail’ of energy physicists, is achieved we
must consider other alternative energy sources which abound in the
form of: solar power, wind, geothermal energy, and marine
renewables from tidal devices. Such technologies are being explored
extensively by Plymouth University, the leading Maritime University
in the South West of England, which is providing a pivotal role in this
endeavour with large-scale investment in enterprise and research,
and as such is at the forefront of future ‘green’ marine global energy
provision.

You can never cross the ocean until you have the courage to
lose sight of the shore.
Christopher Columbus
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my wife Anne and family for their ongoing
support while completing this Volume, which has taken over 2 years
to complete, sometimes subject to the phenomenon of the ‘moving
goalpost’. I would also like to express my profound gratitude for
those who have mentored and encouraged me in my work over the
past 30 years, especially Professor Roy Sambles FRS, who as my
Ph.D. supervisor and more recently as president-elect of the Institute
of Physics (president from 2015), has profoundly influenced my
interest in practical physics and engineering applications generally.
Having worked with many physics models it is a rare event to find
one that works well, but it is a rarer event indeed to find those we
might ourselves wish to model or imitate in part, demonstrating that it
is possible to be both a Christian and a scientist in the 21st century
without sacrificing academic credibility. Thanks for the example Roy.

He stilled the storm to a whisper; the waves of the sea were

hushed.
Psalm 107.29
THE S.I. SYSTEM

Prefixes, Symbols, Multiples and

Submultiples
Prefix Symbol Units multiplying factor
tera T × 1012
giga G × 109
mega M × 106
kilo k × 103
milli m × 10–3
micro μ × 10–6
nano n × 10–9
pico p × 10–12

Examples:

1 megawatt (MW) = 1 × 103 kilowatts (kW)

= 1 × 106 watts (W)

1 kilovolt (kV) = 1 × 103 volts (V)

1 milliampere (mA) = 1 × 10–3 ampere (A)

1 microfarad (μF) = 1 × 10–6 farad (F)

Physical Quantities (Electrical),

Symbols and Units
The table has been compiled from recommendations in B.S. 1991
and the List of Symbols and Abbreviations issued by the I.E.E.
 The transformer, ‘the heart of the alternating current system’.
William Stanley Jr

A brief introduction to the static transformer principle was made in

Volume 6, Chapter 6, but it is vital to stress the importance of
understanding its operating principle and applications as these
devices are of practical use to marine engineers. This device in its
various forms and its applications will be discussed in some detail in
the next three chapters. A transformer is an essential piece of
equipment providing electrical energy in an A.C. current form, and it
is often classed as a machine because, although it has no moving
parts, it is capable of converting energy. However, unlike a generator,
it receives the energy in an electrical and not a mechanical form;
nevertheless energy conversion takes place, in that, electrical energy
is given out at a higher or lower voltage than that in which it is
received. If the output voltage is greater than the input voltage it is
considered to be a step-up transformer. A transformer whose output
voltage is less than its input voltage is known as a step-down
transformer. Not wanting to state the obvious the transformer,
although using Faraday’s laws raises or lowers A.C. voltage it cannot
increase power, so that if voltage is raised, the current is
proportionally lowered and vice versa.

Since operation does not involve rotation of any armature, field

system or commutator, rotational and windage losses do not occur
and its efficiency is thus high. For electrical ‘power’ purposes, i.e.
transformers operating at 50 or 60 Hz, iron cores are essential and
iron losses will occur. Winding copper losses are also present when
current is supplied, nonetheless the transformer is the most efficient
of electrical machines and a full-load efficiency of 95.5% for units of 5
kVA and 97.5% for units up to 1 MVA may be achieved.

Brief Early History of the

Transformer
The property of induction was discovered in the 1830s and
demonstrated by early engineers such as Michael Faraday, but it was
not until 1886 that William Stanley working for Westinghouse built the
first mass-produced affordable commercial transformer. William
Stanley, Jr (1858–1916) was an American physicist born in Brooklyn,
New York, who over his long career with Westinghouse obtained 129
patents covering a variety of electric devices.

The need for the transformer arose out of the problems that were
being encountered at this time in terms of transmission of power. D.C.
power was mainly used in the 1880s and it was difficult to achieve
over any great distance because of either practical safety issues
using high voltages on thin wires or low voltages on very thick ones.
However, with A.C. systems you can use a high voltage to transmit
the electrical current down very long wires and then use a device (the
transformer) to drop or step the voltage down to more manageable
voltage levels. In reality, power can be stepped down several times
on power distribution systems. Stanley first demonstrated a full A.C.
power distribution system using both step-up and step-down
transformers in 1886 in Great Barrington, MA, followed by
development of the first three-phase transformer in Germany by
Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky in 1889, two
essential factors of electrical distribution systems used to this day, in
land, sea and air applications.

Principle of Operation
We begin our discussion with the ‘traditional’ view of the transformer,
introducing the ‘phasor’ approach before finishing our discussion with
modern versions of the device once the basic principle of operation is
understood.

Since the transformer functions using the principle of mutual

induction, it is beneficial to revise briefly some of the earlier
theoretical aspects. When an A.C. current passes through a solenoid,
an A.C. flux is produced which is in phase with the current, i.e. if the
former varies sinusoidally then the flux will also vary sinusoidally. This
relationship applies specifically if the solenoid is air-cored; however,
in order to use the magnetising ampere-turns to maximum
advantage, an iron core is needed. Provided the iron is not worked at
too high a flux density, i.e. does not saturate, working conditions are
similar to those for air. In basic theory, a condition of flux-linkages
exists, and as the current varies in a sinusoidal manner the flux-
linkages will vary similarly and an e.m.f. will be induced through self-
induction. The e.m.f. magnitude and direction will be in accordance
with the laws of electromagnetic induction, which will be used later to
develop a formula applicable to transformer operation. Of course the
effect of mutual inductance is to cause the primary coil to take more
power from the electrical supply in response to an increased load on
the secondary.

Consider next a second coil, isolated from the first but wound on the
same iron core. The first or primary coil of insulated wire, when
carrying an A.C. current, produces the accompanying flux which now
links with the secondary or second coil of insulated wire. Since the
flux varies, not only the flux-linkages associated with the primary, but
also those associated with the secondary vary and again an e.m.f. is
induced through mutual induction. As for the primary, the e.m.f.
magnitude and direction can be deduced from first principles as
shown in Volume 6. The transformer can be considered to be an
arrangement of two or more coils, electrically separated but linked by
the common thread of a magnetic circuit. If an A.C. voltage is applied
to the primary causing an A.C. current to flow, by mutual induction an
A.C. voltage is generated across the secondary. If the secondary
circuit is completed, a current will flow and energy will transfer from
the primary to the secondary.

Figure 1.1 illustrates the basic arrangement of the primary and

secondary windings and the iron core. Although this diagram is used
for explanatory purposes, it is noted that this is an impractical
arrangement. For efficient working, primary and secondary are never
placed on separate limbs of the core. The ‘ideal’ transformer of
course neglects losses due to resistive heating – the primary coil
assumes perfect (unity) coupling to the secondary (i.e. no magnetic
losses), factors which of course are not really true!

Although practical transformer design and construction are best dealt

with in specialist books on the subject, an illustration of a single-
phase, air-cooled, marine-type transformer is given, with the main
parts labelled (figure 1.2).

▲ Figure 1.1
▲ Figure 1.2

▲ Figure 1.3

In accordance with the operating principle already described, the

conditions now considered are those which occur when the primary
winding is ‘energised’ by connection to the supply voltage V1. The
secondary winding is neglected for present. Let I be the resulting
current which sets up a flux Φ, of maximum value Φm. Figure 1.3
illustrates the waveform relationships for the conditions considered. I
and Φ are shown in phase as discussed earlier and an induced e.m.f.
E1 lags the flux by 90° in accordance with Faraday’s law which states
that the value of induced e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of
flux-linkages. Since the maximum rate of change of flux occurs when
the wave passes through its zero value, the maximum value of
induced e.m.f. will occur at this instant. According to Lenz’s law the
induced e.m.f. E1 must at all times be equal yet opposite to the
applied voltage V1 which produces the magnetising current I and the
resulting flux Φ.
The voltage waveform phases are shown and approximate phasors
drawn to produce a phasor diagram with the flux used as the
reference. The diagram shows I and Φ in phase, with E1 lagging Φ by
90°. V1 is 180° out of phase with E1 or 90° ahead of Φ.

The e.m.f. Equation

Let the frequency of the applied voltage be f hertz and of r.m.s. value
V1 volts. Let N1 be the number of turns of the primary winding and N2
the number of turns of the secondary winding. Φ is the flux linking
these windings, the maximum value of which is Φm.

In a quarter of a cycle or seconds, the flux falls from a value of Φm

weber to zero.

From Faraday’s law, the average e.m.f. induced value per turn = the
rate of change of flux-linkages = volts.

Similarly the average value for N1 turns is Eav = 4ΦmfN1 volts. As

sine-wave conditions are considered it is known that the r.m.s. value
is 1.11 times the average value, so the r.m.s. e.m.f. induced in N1
turns for a sine-wave voltage is: E1 = 4.44Φm fN1 volts.

Again since the induced e.m.f. is equal and opposite to the supply
voltage then:

E1 = V1 = 4.44 Φm fN1 volts.

The same flux is associated with the secondary winding so that by

similar reasoning, it can be shown that the e.m.f. induced in this
winding is given by:

E2 = 4.44 Φm fN2 volts.

An approach to some proofs using calculus was made in Volume 6.

Experience has shown that some students prefer this method and the
transformer equation can be derived in this alternative manner.

If flux variation is assumed to be sinusoidal, it can be shown that φ =

Φm sin ωt.

From Faraday’s law (Reference – Volume 6, Chapter 6.)

The e.m.f. induced in the primary winding (Lenz’s law) is expressed

as:

The – ve sign indicates that the self-induced e.m.f. opposes the

change of current and flux.

After the required differentiation: e1 = – N1 ω Φm cos ωt volts or e1 =

N1 ωΦm sin(ωt – 90°). Thus the induced e.m.f. takes the form of a
sine wave lagging behind the flux wave by 90°.
The maximum value of e occurs when cos ωt = 1 and this condition
can be written as:

Em1 = 2π fN1Φm

Remembering that ω = 2πf and the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is

, then:

Example 1.1. The core of a single-phase, 6600/440 V, 50 Hz

transformer is of square cross-section, each side being 160 mm. If
the maximum flux density in the core iron does not exceed 1.4 T, find
the number of turns required for each winding.

Since = Flux density × Area

Flux
Flux = 1.4 × 160 × 10–3 × 160 × 10–3
= 1.4 × 25 600 × 10–6 = 1.4 × 2.56 × 10–2 = 3.584 × 10–
2 weber.

To avoid saturation of the iron, the Φm value must not exceed 0.03584
Wb or 35.85 mWb.

Thus for the primary winding at V1:

For the secondary winding at V2:

As a check it can be deduced that:

The Transformer on No Load

The conditions of working on no load, i.e. with the secondary circuit
‘open’, can be investigated if suitable instruments are connected in
the circuit. Since a temperature rise of the iron core will be noted
soon after energising the primary, it is clear some electrical energy is
taken from the supply and lost (converted into heat). A wattmeter
should be included in the test circuit together with a voltmeter and an
ammeter. Figure 1.4 shows the arrangement.

▲ Figure 1.4

Primary phasor diagram

The transformer phasor diagram has been introduced and the test
instruments’ readings are used to explain the diagram. The no-load
current will be the ammeter reading I0 and the wattmeter reading
indicates the power input P0 = V1I0 cosφ0. From such readings it is
deduced that the no-load current I0 is resolved into a power
component I0 cosφ0 (the working component), i.e. responsible for the
unwanted heat, and regarded as a loss.

I0 cosφ0 is denoted by Iw, the power component in the phasor

diagram, which is in phase with the voltage. The no-load phasor
diagram is given in figure 1.5 and is considered separately for primary
and secondary windings.

The primary phasor diagram also shows the other component of the
no-load current I0. This component will be I0 sinφ0, i.e. a reactive or
wattless component, which, being at right angles to the voltage, and
in phase with the flux Φ, can be regarded as producing the latter.
Thus I0 sinφ0 is denoted by Im and termed the magnetising
component. The following can be deduced:
.

▲ Figure 1.5

We also have V1I0 cosφ0 = V1Iw = heat loss due to the iron loss in the
core + a small copper loss in the primary.

It is noted that as the no-load current is so small and the resistance of

the winding so low, copper loss can be neglected and the input power
taken as a measure of the iron loss which remains constant over the
transformer’s load range (assuming a constant V1 and ƒ at any load),
which in turn ensures a constant B value of flux density.
 Secondary phasor diagram

The illustrations of figure 1.5 show two phasor diagrams. The first is
for the primary winding, that is for E1 drawn dotted (because it is
usual to omit this). The second diagram of figure 1.5 is for the
secondary winding and the induced e.m.f. E2 drawn at right angles to
the common core flux Φ. Unlike the primary since no supply voltage is
applied, no anti-phase voltage phasor is drawn, i.e. there is no phasor
corresponding to V1. When the secondary circuit is completed, the
induced e.m.f. becomes an active voltage responsible for the current
through the connected load and may be expressed as V2 (the
secondary terminal voltage). Thus on no-load V2 = E2.

Example 1.2. For the no-load test on a transformer, an ammeter was

found to read 0.18 A and a wattmeter 12 W. The reading on the
primary voltmeter was 400 V and that on the secondary voltmeter 240
V. Calculate the magnetising component of the no-load current (2
decimal places), the iron loss component (3 decimal places) and the
transformation ratio.

Combined phasor diagram

From the secondary diagram it is observed there is a 180° phase shift
between the primary supply voltage V1 and the secondary induced
e.m.f. E2 (the secondary terminal voltage V2). The phasor E1, though
explaining the transformer’s action, is not essential to the phasor
diagram and if omitted, can be replaced by E2. The primary and
secondary diagrams are thus combined with flux, Φ being used as the
reference phasor to show the primary and secondary phase
relationships. This arrangement is better, as it will be seen later that
any effects in one winding will affect the other. Figure 1.6 shows the
combined phasor diagram for a transformer with a 2:1 turns ratio. The
phasor for voltage V2 is thus drawn half the length of the phasor for
voltage V1.

▲ Figure 1.6

Voltage and turns relationship

Since the induced e.m.f.s in the primary and secondary windings are
in accordance with the e.m.f. equation then:

E1 = 4.44 Φm fN1 and E2 = 4.44 Φm fN2

Since E1 = V1 and E2 can be written as V2 then:

Attention was drawn to this relationship earlier but is repeated here
because of its similarity to a current relationship, shortly deduced.

Example 1.3. A 440 V transformer has 3000 turns on the primary. If a

tapping is to be made available for 400 V, find its position on the
winding. If one secondary winding suitable for 200, 220 and 240 V is
also to be provided, find the number of turns and the tapping
positions.

Since voltage is proportional to turns then:

The tapping should be 3000 – 2727 or 273 turns from the end which
is remote from that made common for 440 and 400 V. Figure 1.7
shows the arrangement.

▲ Figure 1.7

Thus 1500 turns will give a voltage of 220 V.

For 200 V, the turns required will be half that is needed for

Thus 1500 – 1364 = 136 turns, making a difference of 20 V.

The turns required for 240 V will be 1500 + 136 = 1636, for a fully
tapped secondary.

The secondary consists of 1636 turns with tappings at 136 and 272
turns from the end which is remote from that made common for 240,
220 and 200 V.

The Transformer on Load

This condition occurs when the secondary transformer circuit is
completed and current flows. As the secondary now acts as a
generator, the secondary current magnitude will be decided by the
supplied load impedance. Assume a current of I2 is to be produced by
the terminal voltage V2. The passage of I2 through the secondary
winding turns constitutes demagnetising ampere-turns which result in
the flux, shown in figure 1.8 as ΦL2.

This secondary flux links with the primary and by Lenz’s law produces
a demagnetising effect which results in the core flux Φ reducing. Flux
reduction through the primary results in a small reduction of the
primary induced e.m.f. E1. The effect of the supply voltage V1 then
produces a larger primary current, most of which counters the
secondary current’s demagnetising effect. The increase in I1 due to I2
flowing, caused by the greater difference between V1 and E1, is made
up of an extra primary-current component I1 which will add to the no-
load current I0 which continues to flow to produce the components Im
and Iw. The new primary current I1 consists of and I0, and a phasor
summation is shown.
▲ Figure 1.8

Returning to the demagnetising effect of the secondary flux ΦL2, it is

remembered that the core flux value Φ is constant, and decided by
the expression:

V1 = 4.44 Φm fN1

If V1, ƒ and N1 are constant, Φm and Φ must be constant, so any

secondary demagnetising effect of I2N2 must be offset by the
magnetising effect of the extra primary current. The resulting primary
magnetising ampere-turns I1N1 restore the main flux to its original
value by producing an extra primary flux ΦL2. Since ΦL1 must equal
ΦL2 then must equal or = I2N2

The full representation of the flux conditions is shown in figure 1.8,

but an explanation of the phases of these fluxes is needed to show
the complete action. Fluxes ΦL1 and ΦL2 are equal in magnitude and
as they nullify the effects of each other on the non-related windings, it
follows that they must be in anti-phase and oppose each other in the
main iron core. They are thus forced out into the air, as shown, for
most of their magnetic circuit paths and are called Leakage Fluxes,
hence the suffix L1 and L2 as used for ΦL1 and ΦL2. Also since the
magnetic circuits’ reluctances are due mainly to air paths, fluxes are
proportional to the energising currents and in phase with them, as
shown on the on-load phasor diagram.

On-load phasor diagram

To follow the development of the diagram it is essential to understand
the theory of transformer working. It is worth summarising transformer
action by considering its similarity to that of a D.C. motor-generator
set. If the generator is loaded the motor will immediately draw more
current from the supply, and as load is applied the speed falls. The
motor’s back e.m.f. falls accordingly, and the supply voltage ensures
more current is supplied until a condition is attained when, the power
put in is sufficient to provide the output power plus the power required
to overcome any losses. For the transformer, the output current
causes a demagnetising effect on the core which lowers the primary’s
back e.m.f. Here the supply voltage ensures that extra current is
supplied until the balance condition is attained, when input power
equals the output power plus the power required to overcome the
losses.

Although complex, the phasor in figure 1.9 represents the conditions

occurring when an inductive load is supplied, which is the most
common case. Assume a secondary current of I2 for a load operating
at a P.F. of cos φ2. On the diagram for the secondary side, I2 is drawn
lagging V2 by an angle φ2 and, as before, a transformation ratio of
2:1 is assumed. On the primary side, the original no-load current
conditions are shown but in addition we have , which is in anti-
phase with I2, lagging V1 by an angle equal to φ2. It is drawn half the
size of I2 because of the transformation ratio. It is seen that I1 is the
phasor sum of I0 and but I0 is drawn larger than it would be for an
actual practical transformer. Although N = I2N2, for purposes of
approximation, we write I1N1 = I2N2 because the no-load current I0 is
small enough to be neglected when the transformer is on load. The
assumption of I1 = is acceptable for practical purposes and I0 will be
omitted from most phasor diagrams from now on. The current/turns
relationship deduced shortly is made on this basis.
▲ Figure 1.9

Phasor diagram shows ΦL2 drawn in phase with I2 and ΦL1 in phase
with I1. Both ΦL2 and ΦL1 are small in comparison to Φ because,
although they are produced by currents of load magnitudes compared
to the very small value of Im, the magnetic circuits are through air,
while Φ is through iron. Leakage fluxes can be drawn in phase with
the energising currents but in the case of the primary, and I1 are
assumed identical, I0 being neglected, no error is introduced if ΦL2, is
assumed to be caused by I1 and drawn in phase with it.

THE CURRENT AND TURNS RELATIONSHIP. Theory of operation

shows that the demagnetising ampere-turns of the secondary are
equal and cancel the magnetising ampere-turns produced by the
primary. Thus I2N2 = N1

Since I1 is assumed equal to – I0 being neglected, the usual

accepted expression is:
Inversion of the proportionality is noted, i.e. unlike that for voltage
where

Example 1.4. A single-phase transformer with a ratio of 440/200 V

takes a no-load current of 8 A at 0.25 P.F. (lagging). If the secondary
supplies a current of 220 A at 0.8 P.F. (lagging), estimate the current
taken by the primary from the supply (1 decimal place).

Load component of primary current

Resolving and I0 into horizontal and vertical component the

resultant is obtained with the accepted phasor summation method:

THE kVA RELATIONSHIP. The deductions from the voltage, current

and turns relationships are combined to produce the following:
This can be written as:

Primary volt-amperes = Secondary volt-amperes

Thus there is only one kVA transformer rating, applicable to both

primary and secondary.

Example 1.5. If the transformer iron core of example 1.1 is used for
50 kVA operation, estimate the wire area used for primary and
secondary windings. The wire should not work at a current density
above 2.33 A mm2, to ensure a safe working temperature in mm2 (2
decimal places).

Data already known about this transformer from example 1.1.

Primary voltage 6600 V Turns 830 Secondary voltage 440 V Turns 55

 On-load voltage diagram

Since the diagram involves voltage phasors it will be incomplete

unless all e.m.f. or voltage drop sources are accounted for. Any
voltage drops are ‘internal’ as their effect is only evident when a
transformer is on load, due to the normal causes of A.C. circuit
current limitation: namely, resistance and reactance. Their existence
and effects on transformer operation are now examined.

INTERNAL VOLTAGE DROPS: RESISTANCE. The primary and

secondary windings’ ohmic resistances are independent of each
other and determined by length, area and the wires’ specific
resistance. Since currents passing through these windings are also
dissimilar in value, the primary and secondary voltage drops should
be considered separately first and then co-related if a suitable
relationship can be found.

A transformer is represented as an idealised unit with all winding

resistances contained in external units R1 and R2 as shown. Figures
1.10 and 1.11 show the arrangement and phasor diagram discussed
respectively.

▲ Figure 1.10
▲ Figure 1.11

Passage of a load current causes voltage drops I1R1 and I2R2 which,
being due to resistance, are in phase with the current. These voltage
drops, if considered with the primary and secondary terminal
voltages, are like the armature voltage drops in a motor-generator
introduced to understand transformer working. Thus for a generator
or secondary of a transformer, as terminal voltage is less than the
generated voltage by an internal voltage drop, it follows that the latter
must be subtracted from the generated voltage. For the transformer a
construction is involved, the generated or induced e.m.f.
is V2 and the voltage-drop phasor I2R2 drawn in phase with the
current. Note the slight phase displacement of terminal-voltage
phasor V2 from the original no-load position V2.

Similarly for the primary, as for a motor, the supply voltage V1 must
overcome the induced e.m.f. V1 and armature internal resistance or,
in this case, the primary winding. Here and an allowance
is made for phasor construction, I1R1 is drawn in phase with I1.

INTERNAL VOLTAGE DROPS: REACTANCE. When the secondary

circuit is completed and current flows, the demagnetising secondary
ampere-turns I2N2 are countered by the magnetising primary ampere-
turns I1N1. This was described earlier, where the 2 ampere-turn
effects or m.m.f.s set up fluxes which oppose each other and take the
path shown in figure 1.11. These fluxes are termed ‘leakage fluxes’
and being mainly through air are in phase with the currents producing
them. Fluxes cut the coils which produce them and being alternating,
result in self-induced e.m.f.s in quadrature with the fluxes or
energising currents. An A.C. current, through the medium of flux,
produces a back e.m.f. proportional to the current. This e.m.f. is
written as Eb ∝ I or Eb =IX. Thus no error is introduced in crediting the
winding with a current limiting factor added to the resistance and
responsible for the voltage drop. This factor or quantity is the leakage
reactance and, provided the phase of its voltage drop with respect to
the producing current is given, the terms reactance, resistance and
impedance can be used for primary and secondary.

The on-load diagrams (figures 1.12 and 1.13) take into account both
resistance and reactance voltage drops. Points to note are:

(1) The secondary can be viewed as a generator and the internal

voltage drop treated by phasors to give the terminal voltage on
load. Thus where V2 is the open-circuit induced
voltage, I2R2 is the resistance voltage drop in phase with I2, I2X2 is
the leakage reactance voltage drop in quadrature with I2, and V2
the resulting terminal voltage.

The shaded triangle is called the secondary impedance triangle and

the phasor is the secondary voltage drop given by I2Z2 where
.

(2) The primary is viewed as a motor whose supply voltage V1 must

overcome all internal voltage drops which add as phasors. Thus
. On no-load V1 coincides with but on load there
are internal voltage drops due to resistance I1R1 in phase with I1
and the leakage reactance I1X1 in quadrature with I1. These are
 added as phasors to the primary induced voltage produced by
the main flux Φ.

▲ Figure 1.12
▲ Figure 1.13

The shaded triangle is the primary impedance triangle and is

the impedance voltage drop: I1Z1, where

There exists a practical range of resistance for operation of a

transformer to achieve maximum output power. With too large a load
drawn from the secondary the primary coil can heat up considerably,
sometimes denoted by an increased audible ‘hum’ from the
transformer (which is of course further wasted energy).

Referred Values of Resistance,

Reactance and Impedance
Since the voltages at the primary and secondary are related by the
turns ratio, any secondary voltage drop can be considered in terms of
the primary side if the turns ratio is applied. The same reasoning may
be applied to a primary voltage drop if referred to the secondary. It is
convenient here to deduce the equivalent resistance and equivalent
reactance for one winding in terms of the other winding.

Consider the resistance voltage drop in the primary given by I1R1.

Then if the turns ratio is applied this gives an equivalent voltage drop
in the secondary namely:

But so the primary voltage drop in secondary terms is

written as The secondary voltage drop due to the secondary

current and resistance is given by: I2R2 Thus the total resistance
voltage drop of the primary referred to the secondary is:

The primary is regarded as having no resistance and the secondary

as having resistance: . This total resistance value is

called the Equivalent Resistance written R2

The transformer’s Equivalent Resistance, referred to the secondary

is:

Similarly the Equivalent Resistance referred to the primary side is:

By considering the reactance voltage drops, a similar deduction for
Equivalent Reactance is produced. Thus for the primary, the
reactance voltage drop is I1X1, equivalent to a voltage drop on the

secondary side given by

But . So the primary voltage drop becomes if

referred to the secondary.

However, there exists a secondary reactance voltage drop I2X2 so the

total reactance voltage drop, referred to the secondary is

As for resistance, the transformer primary can be regarded as having

no reactance and the secondary to have reactance value:

. This expression gives X2, the Equivalent Reactance, a reactance

value referred to the secondary. So the Equivalent Reactance of the

transformer referred to the secondary side is: and, a

similar expression derived for the primary side.

Equivalent Reactance referred to the primary side is

The expression for the Equivalent Impedance is

Example 1.6. A marine, dry-type, 17.5 kVA, 460/115 V, single-phase,
50/60 Hz transformer has primary and secondary resistances of 0.36
and 0.02 Ω respectively and winding leakage reactances of the
windings are 0.82 and 0.06 Ω respectively. Determine the voltage
applied to the primary to obtain full-load current with the secondary
winding short-circuited. Neglect the magnetising current (1 decimal
place).

Voltage to be applied to the primary = I1Z1

Z1 = 38 ×1.905 - 72.4 V

Transformer Efficiency
Only a basic treatment is made here regarding losses and efficiency.
Since a transformer is a static device, the only losses which occur
are: (1) iron losses and (2) copper losses.

IRON LOSSES (PFe). These consist of hysteresis and eddy-current

losses in the iron core. These are affected by flux density and
frequency as shown in Volume 6. At a constant applied voltage and
frequency, core flux is unaltered by the load current. Iron losses PFe
can thus be assumed constant and load independent.
COPPER LOSSES (PCu). It is known that this is proportional to
current2 and resistance.

It is already known that so total copper loss referred

to the secondary

In a similar manner the total copper loss can be shown to be .

Thus or

Efficiency

The expression for efficiency is developed from first principles thus:

Introducing the appropriate units the above equation is expressed as:

where PFe is the iron loss in kW and PCu is the copper loss in kW, or

The maximum efficiency of a transformer occurs when the copper

loss = the iron loss.

Example 1.7. The primary resistance of a 440/110 V, single-phase

transformer is 0.28 Ω and the secondary resistance is 0.018 Ω. If iron
loss is 160 W when the correct primary voltage is applied, find the kW
loading to give maximum efficiency at unity P.F. (3 significant figures).

For maximum efficiency, copper loss equals the iron loss so:
then ‘loading’ for maximum efficiency = 7.43 kW.

Example 1.8. The core of a single-phase transformer has a cross-

sectional area of 15 000 mm2 and the windings are chosen to operate
the iron at a maximum flux density of 1.1 T from a 50 Hz supply. If the
secondary winding consists of 66 turns, estimate the kVA output if the
winding is connected to a load of 4 Ω impedance value (2 decimal
places).

Since area = 15 000 × 10–6 and Bm = 1.1 T

Φm = 150 × 10–4 × 1.1 = 165 × 10–4Wb

Substituting in the e.m.f. equation:

Practice Examples
1.1 A single-phase transformer is designed to operate at 2 V per turn
and a turns ratio of 3:1. If the secondary winding is to supply a load
of 8 kVA at 80 V, determine: (a) the primary supply voltage, (b) the
number of turns on each winding and (c) the current in each
winding (all 3 significant figures).
1.2 A 25 kVA, 440/110 V, 50 Hz, single-phase, marine-type, step-
down, ‘engine room’ transformer is designed to work with 1.5 V per
turn with a flux density not exceeding 1.35 T. Calculate: (a) the
required number of turns on the primary and secondary windings
respectively, (b) the cross-sectional area of the iron core (4
significant figures) and (c) the secondary current (2 decimal
places).
1.3 A single-phase, marine-type, step-down transformer has the
following particulars: Turns ratio 4:1; no-load current 5.0 A at 0.3 at
0.3 P.F. (lagging); secondary voltage 110 V; secondary load 10 kVA
at 0.8 P.F. (lagging). Calculate: (a) the primary voltage, neglecting
the internal voltage drop (3 significant figures), (b) the secondary
current on load (3 significant figures), (c) the primary current (1
decimal place) and (d) the primary P.F. (3 decimal places).
1.4 A 6.6 kV, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer with a transformation
ratio of 1:0.06 takes a no-load current of 0.7 A and a full-load
current of 7.827 A when the secondary is loaded to 120 A at 0.8
P.F. (lagging). What is the no-load P.F. (2 decimal places)?
1.5 A 1 kVA, single-phase transformer has an iron loss = 15 W and a
full-load copper loss of 30 W. Calculate its efficiency on full-load
output at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) (2 decimal places).
1.6 A single-phase power transformer supplies a load of 20 kVA at a
power-factor of 0.81 (lagging). The iron loss of the transformer is
200 W and the copper loss at this load is 180 W. Calculate: (a) the
efficiency (1 decimal place), (b) if the load is now changed to 30
kVA at a power-factor of 0.91 (lagging) and (c) calculate the new
efficiency (1 decimal place).
1.7 A 20 kVA, 2000/220 V, single-phase transformer has a primary
resistance of 2.5 Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.028 Ω.
Corresponding leakage reactances are 2.8 Ω and 0.028 Ω. If the
secondary terminals were accidentally short-circuited, estimate the
 current which would flow in the primary circuit (3 significant
figures).
1.8 The resistances of the primary and secondary windings of a 27.5
kVA, 450/112 V, single-phase, marine-type transformer are 0.055
and 0.00325 Ω respectively. At the rated supply voltage iron loss is
170 W. Calculate for this transformer: (a) the full-load efficiency at
0.8 P.F. (lagging), (b) the kVA output at which efficiency is a
maximum at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) and (c) the value of maximum
efficiency at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) (all 2 decimal places).
1.9 A three-phase, marine, dry-type transformer is used to step down
the voltage of a three-phase, star-connected alternator to provide
the supply for 120 V lighting. The transformer has a 4:1 phase
turns ratio and is delta connected on the primary side and star
connected on the secondary side. If the lighting is supplied at the
line voltage of the transformer, what must be the phase voltage of
the star-connected alternator (3 significant figures)?
1.10 A 200 kVA, 6600/415 V, three-phase transformer connected in
delta/star supplies a 120 kW, 415 V, 50 Hz three-phase motor
whose P.F. and efficiency are 0.8 (lagging) and 83% respectively.
Neglecting transformer losses, calculate the current in each
transformer winding (Primary 2 decimal places, Secondary 1
decimal place).
 Machine Efficiency – getting the most output for the least
input.
Chris Lavers

The operating principle of the transformer, with and without load, was
introduced in Chapter 1 and developed until the causes of internal
voltage drop were considered. Phasor diagrams were added to help
visualise the vector quantities and attention given to the fact that
secondary effects can be seen to be reflected in the primary side,
provided they are equated, using the turns ratio. Thus a step-down
transformer with a 2:1 turns ratio (Primary:Secondary) and a 3 V drop
in the secondary is equivalent to a voltage drop of 6 V in the primary.
It is possible to equate the secondary phasor diagram with
corresponding primary conditions provided the turns ratio relationship
is used now that the phasor method is understood. This technique is
here explored further for a better marine engineer’s understanding of
how transformer efficiency, percentage resistance, reactance and
impedance are obtained. It is unlikely that most of those reading this
volume will have to make all these measurements and perform the
consequent calculations to find the values, but it is a part of the
STCW Code that as a marine engineer criteria exists for evaluating
your competence in the isolation, dismantling and re-assembly of
plant and equipment in accordance with accepted practice.

The Combined Phasor Diagram

Since the primary and secondary currents are drawn in anti-phase,
the following procedure is possible if a primary current I1 is used as
the reference phasor (drawn horizontally), and the no-load current I0
neglected. Figures 2.1a and 2.1b show the 2 stages of the operation.
The secondary diagram is rotated through 180°, so current I2 lines up
with the reference phasor I1. The secondary voltage-drop triangle
stands upright and the overall secondary diagram (figure 2.1b) is
similar to the primary (figure 2.1a) and can be matched to the primary
if the secondary voltages are adjusted to the primary conditions
multiplied by the turns ratio, i.e. is scaled up to equal if
multiplied by . The secondary voltages and voltage drops must

be multiplied by the turns ratio, and the current-turn relationship,

since
▲ Figure 2.1

Figures 2.2a and 2.2b now take the form shown. It is seen that the

secondary resistance voltage drop (originally I2R2) becomes

referred to the primary, and thus expressed completely in

primary current and voltage terms. Similarly the secondary reactance

voltage drop I2X2 becomes referred to the primary.

▲ Figure 2.2

The next step is to draw the combined diagram with the in-phase
voltage components added, to give the total resistance and reactance
voltage drops.

The total resistance voltage drop is: an

expression deduced in connection with the Equivalent Resistance R1.

Thus: and is the equivalent resistance referred to the

primary side, i.e. the total resistance of the windings is considered to

be in the primary only.

The diagrams show the reactance voltage drops given by

an expression deduced in Chapter 1 regarding

Equivalent Reactance X1. Thus and is the equivalent

reactance referred to the primary side, i.e. the total reactance of the
windings is now considered to be in the primary only.

The equivalent impedance Z1 follows the usual relation, thus:

A simplified combined phasor is shown in figure 2.3. Note ,
since all voltage drops are now accounted for on the primary side.
▲ Figure 2.3

The above deductions may be made by referring the primary diagram

to the secondary, in which case it may be shown that:

Example 2.1. A 660/220 V, single-phase transformer has a primary

resistance of 0.29 Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.025 Ω.
Corresponding reactance values are 0.44 and 0.04 Ω. Estimate the
primary current flowing if a short-circuit occurs across the secondary
terminals (1 decimal place).

Also
Similarly

And

The short-circuit (S.C.) current in the primary will be A.

This is hard to calculate any other way except by referring the

secondary to the primary!

The Equivalent Circuit

In Chapter 1, the phasor diagram of a transformer (figure 1.10) was
developed to illustrate the conditions. Similarly figure 2.4 should be
referred to when considering the development of the equivalent
circuit. The first illustration of figure 2.4 shows the primary and
secondary resistances and reactance values as separate
components outside the windings. The second illustration shows how
these values can be transferred from one winding to the other, in line
with the concepts outlined.

Since the turns ratio is taken into account when referring the voltages
and resistance and reactance values from one winding to the other,
the transformer can be omitted from the third equivalent circuit
illustration. The fourth and final illustration shows how the equivalent
circuit is modified to allow for the load, resulting from the iron loss and
magnetising magneto-motive force.
▲ Figure 2.4

A constant no-load current I0 will flow when the primary winding is

energised, irrespective of the secondary load, like the current in a
parallel circuit. Since I0 is made up from Im (a magnetising
component) and Iw (a power component), respectively in quadrature
and in phase with the applied voltage, the parallel circuit is treated as
a resistor and a pure inductor.

The equivalent circuit in the last illustration shows all aspects of

transformer working, and is used for complex problems. However, for
practical considerations, as the no-load current is omitted from the
phasor diagram, the equivalent circuit parallel section can be omitted.
The circuit is often used in its simplest form (figure 2.5), after the
phasor diagram of figure 2.3.
▲ Figure 2.5

Figure 2.3 shows the transformer phasor diagram associated with the
simplified equivalent circuit. Although treatment up to now has shown
all resistance and reactance referred to the primary side, it can be
referred to the secondary side. The simplified equivalent circuit and
phasor diagram are shown in figure 2.6 with = V1, as all voltage
drops are accounted for on the secondary side so that:

Voltage Regulation
This expression refers to the ‘sitting down’ of terminal voltage on
load, and is expressed as a percentage (%) or per-unit value. It is the
ratio of change in secondary terminal voltage between no-load and
full-load to the no-load terminal voltage, for a constant primary input
voltage.
▲ Figure 2.6

Thus:

Voltage regulation (per unit) = or in

terms of the secondary as a percentage:

It is noted that a numerical difference and not a phasor difference is

involved.

Since the definition for regulation is given in terms of the secondary

then:

Percentage regulation = which is also:

If R2 and X2 are known, then the regulation for any load current can
be estimated if the transformer Open-Circuit (O.C.) terminal voltage is
known.

Example 2.2. A 660/220 V, single-phase transformer has a primary

resistance of 0.29 Ω and secondary resistance of 0.025 Ω. The
corresponding reactance values are 0.44 and 0.04 Ω. Estimate the
percentage regulation for a 50 A secondary load current at 0.8 P.F.
lagging (2 decimal places).

also

Substituting we have:
Thus V22 + 9.9V2 – 48 400 + 27.92 = 0

giving the quadratic equation V22 + 9.9V2 – 48 372 = 0

Although the estimation method for regulation is simple, it requires a

tedious mathematical solution. For this reason an approximation
formula for evaluating the internal voltage drop was developed. This
formula gives a result very close to the method above, and is
invariably used. The explanation of how the formula is deduced is
now given and used to show its accuracy. Since the difference
between the no-load voltage and the load voltage is due to the
causes of internal voltage drops in both windings, it follows that, if this
voltage drop can be estimated then:
The approximation formula deduced for this internal voltage drop is
given by I2(R2 cosφ2± X2 sinφ2) and

Substituting the values obtained for the previous example:

The formula uses a plus or minus sign and with the latter, a negative
regulation results. With a capacitive load, secondary voltage rises
with increased load, resulting in a –ve regulation value or regulation
‘UP’. Sitting down of terminal voltage means a +ve regulation value or
regulation ‘DOWN’. Loading conditions, influenced by the P.F., are
shown in figure 2.7.

From condition 2.7(c), it is seen that the on-load terminal voltage

phasor V2 is longer than the induced e.m.f. or O.C. voltage condition
. Thus a rise of terminal voltage with load is evident and a – ve or
Regulation ‘UP’ figure can occur.

Transformer internal voltage drop and regulation can be determined

from the primary side, and with the aid of a phasor (figure 2.3), the
treatment for obtaining a regulation expression can be repeated.
▲ Figure 2.7

or since all causes of voltage drop considered on the primary

side,

To calculate proceed as before using the expression:

It is convenient to use regulation expressions in this form, i.e. referred

to the primary, as data are often given as R1 and X1. Data may also
be obtained from O.C. and S.C. tests, described shortly. An
expression for the internal voltage drop (approximate value) can be
deduced for the primary side. Its application is illustrated by example
2.3, which uses the figures for the transformer from the secondary
side. The formula for the approximate voltage drop is yet to be
deduced, but in ‘primary form’ is written as:

Voltage drop (referred to primary) = I1(R1 cosφ1 ± X1 sinφ1)

Example 2.3. A 660/220 V, single-phase transformer has a primary

resistance of 0.29 Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.025 Ω. The
corresponding reactance values are 0.44 and 0.04 Ω. Estimate the
percentage regulation for a 50 A secondary load current and 0.8 P.F.
(lagging) (2 decimal places).

Primary current will be

This is the same value as that obtained by applying the formula to the
secondary side.
 Internal Voltage-Drop Formula
(For Approximation)
The reasoning for this expression is based on the phasor diagram of
figure 2.3. It is assumed that the transformer internal voltage-drop

triangle is small, and far from point O so that phasors V1 and

are parallel.

Figures 2.8a and 2.8b show this triangle and the phasors referred to,
drawn parallel and designated OA and OB (added constructions are
shown by the dotted lines). Since the numerical difference between
the no-load and the on-load terminal voltages is equal to the internal
voltage drop, then on the phasor diagram, it is the difference in
lengths of V1 and (the lines OA and OB) a difference given by

length AD (figure 2.8b).

Now DA = DE + EA = BF + EA or BCcosφ1 + ACsinφ1

So the voltage drop = I1R1 cosφ1 + I1X1 sinφ1

For a capacitive load( figures 2.8c and 2.8d), the voltage drop is =

, or the length of the lines OA and OB. As OA is shorter,

this difference is given by the length – AD.

Now – AD = – (AE – DE) = DE – AE

= FC – AE = BCcosφ1 – ACsinφ1

Voltage drop = I1R1 cosφ1 + I1X1 sinφ1

Example 2.4. A 20 kVA, 2000/220 V, single-phase transformer has a
primary resistance of 2.1 Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.026 Ω.
The corresponding leakage reactances are 2.5 and 0.03 Ω. Estimate
the regulation at full load under P.F. conditions of (a) unity, (b) 0.5
lagging and (c) 0.5 leading (all 2 decimal places).
▲ Figure 2.8

Full-load secondary current

(a) Voltage regulation at unity P.F. (cos φ2 = 1)

(b) Regulation at 0.5 P.F. (lagging) (cos φ2 = 0.5)

(c) Regulation at 0.5 P.F. (leading)

Transformer Testing
As for all electrical machines, transformer testing is central to
checking overall performance. As direct loading involves wasted
energy, methods enabling the design specification to be checked by
assessment are used if possible. Such methods determine the size of
losses, overall efficiency, regulation and, for a transformer, involve 2
complementary tests. These are (1) the Open-Circuit Test (O.C.) and
(2) the Short-Circuit Test (S.C.). The technique measures iron and
copper losses separately and the results are applied to appropriate
formulae. Similar tests are used for other A.C. machines such as the
alternator and induction motor. Variations of the basic O.C. and S.C.
tests help to obtain further information where appropriate.
 The open-circuit test

Mention of this test was made in Chapter 1 when the conditions of

working on no-load were investigated. One winding is connected to a
normal voltage supply and frequency while the other is left Open-
Circuited (O.C.). Figure 2.9 shows the circuit with appropriate
instruments. Input power P0 (in watts) is measured by a wattmeter
used on low P.F. circuits. A low-range ammeter measures the no-load
current I0 and suitable voltmeters measure the primary and
secondary voltages. As the iron core’s temperature rises when the
winding is energised, clearly some energy is drawn from the supply
and converted into heat. Unwanted heat is a ‘loss’ due to the cyclic
magnetisation of the iron core and to copper losses in the energised
winding. As winding resistance is very small and the no-load current
is usually less than a tenth of the full-load value, the copper loss,
under this condition, less than a hundredth of the full-load value can
be neglected. Thus input power is assumed to be due to the iron
losses, PFe, only. Furthermore, since applied voltage and frequency
are assumed constant under all loading conditions then, the flux
density remains fixed and iron losses, measured by the O.C. test, are
considered constant for all loads.

▲ Figure 2.9

In the introduction to transformer efficiency, mention was made of the

iron losses component that is the hysteresis loss (PHY), and the eddy-
current loss (PEC). Usually it is not necessary to know their relative
magnitudes; however, mention is made of a technique used for
determining these if needed.
SEPARATION OF IRON LOSSES. From Volume 6, Chapter 6 (pp.
150–154), the iron loss, PFe= PH + PEC. If flux density Bm is held
constant during testing, the expression can be written: PFe = HN +
EN2 for a machine or PFe = Hf+EP2 for a transformer. The quantity Hf
is the hysteresis loss and Ef2 is the eddy-current loss at that
frequency. If the test is made at a particular frequency and repeated
at another frequency – preferably a multiple or sub-multiple of the
frequency, enough information is obtained to determine the
constituent losses at these frequencies. The next example shows the
application of this technique.

Example 2.5. When an O.C. test is made on the primary of a

transformer at 440 V and 50 Hz, the iron loss is 2.5 kW. When the
test is repeated at 220 V and 25 Hz, the corresponding loss is
measured to be 850 W. Determine the hysteresis and eddy-current
loss at normal voltage and frequency (1 and 2 significant figures
respectively).

At 50 Hz we can write 2500 = Hf + Ef2 (a)

(b)
At 25 Hz we can write

Solving by multiplying (b) by 4, we have:

2500 = Hf + Ef2 ... ... (a)

and 3400 = 2Hf + Ef2 ... ...
(c)

Subtracting (c) – (a):

– 900 = – Hf
Thus the hysteresis loss = 900 W at 50 Hz
and so the eddy-current loss = 2500 – 900
=1600 W at 50 Hz.
 The short-circuit test

Figure 2.10 shows the test circuit. One winding is short-circuited

(S.C.) through an ammeter and a reduced voltage is applied to the
other winding. The applied voltage is just sufficient to circulate full-
load current through the S.C. winding, and, since the only current-
limiting factor is the transformer impedance (the resistance of the
instruments being negligible), then the applied voltage will be very
low. Under this test condition, the core flux, being proportional to
applied voltage, is small and iron losses may be ignored. The
wattmeter reading (PSC) indicates the copper losses. An ammeter
and voltmeter are included in the energising circuit and readings are
used to estimate efficiency and regulation.

The procedure for using the O.C. and S.C. test results for calculation
purposes is illustrated in the next example, with reference to phasor
diagram (figure 2.11).

Consider figure 2.11, since the secondary terminal voltage is zero (on
S.C.), the applied voltage is used to drive current through the
transformer’s equivalent impedance referred to the primary. Thus
point B of figure 2.8 coincides with point O and:

▲ Figure 2.10
▲ Figure 2.11

The results of these expressions are in the appropriate efficiency and

regulation formulae.

Example 2.6. The following results were obtained in tests on a 50

kVA, single-phase, 3300/400 V transformer.

O.C. Test Primary voltage 3300 V, second voltage 400 V, input power
430 W.

S.C. Test Reduced voltage on primary to give full secondary current

was 124 V, primary current 15.3 A, input power 525 W.

Calculate:

(a) The efficiency at full load and 1/2 full load both at 0.707 P.F.
(lagging).
(b) The regulation at full load for 0.707 P.F. (lagging and leading).
(c) Full-load terminal voltage under the condition of 0.707 P.F.
(lagging).

(All 1 decimal place.)

From O.C. Test. Iron loss = 430 W

From S.C Test. Copper loss = 525 W

Also

Also

Therefore:

(a) Efficiency at full load, 0.707 P.F. (lagging)

and

Note that on 1/2 full load, current is halved and copper loss α I2 is
quartered.

η½FL = Efficiency(half full load) = 96.9%

(b) Voltage regulation, 0.707 P.F. (lagging)

Voltage regulation, 0.707 P.F. (leading)

(c) Terminal voltage = O.C. voltage – voltage drop

or using the percentage regulation expression:

Direct-Loading Test (Sumpner’s Test)

The disadvantages of the O.C. and the S.C. tests lie in the fact that
iron and copper losses do not occur at the same time and so the
temperature rise of a transformer cannot be checked by tests alone. If
more than one unit is available, to avoid waste of power by direct
loading, a back-to-back test may be used. Sumpner’s test is
performed with 2 transformers which should be identical (but may be
similarly rated units provided the turns ratios are the same). If the
copper loss of one unit where PCu is the reading of one wattmeter

then the efficiency of a transformer can be calculated from the

expression:

Since both transformers are loaded a temperature rise can be found

with a minimum power loss.
 Percentage Resistance,
Reactance and Impedance
It is convenient to express these values as a percentage voltage drop
in the O.C. voltage. Here the treatment is made in terms of the
primary. Thus:

Similarly,

and,

A further useful relationship used by transformer manufacturers is

derived from:

Percentage voltage regulation = percentage resistance × cos φ ±

percentage resistance
× sin φ

Note also that since percentage resistance:

or Percentage resistance = Percentage copper loss of full load.

Example 2.7. A 50 kVA, 3.3 kV/230 V, single-phase transformer has

an impedance of 4.2% and a copper loss of 1.8% at full load.
Calculate the percentage reactance and ohmic resistance, with
reactance and impedance referred to the primary side (all 1 decimal
place). Estimate the primary S.C. current assuming the supply
voltage is maintained constant (3 significant figures).

Since Percentage impedance =

Percentage resistance = Percentage full-load copper loss = 1.8%

Percentage reactance can be obtained in 2 ways:

Then percentage reactance =

Under S.C. conditions, the transformer’s impedance will limit the

current. Therefore:

Efficiency
The efficiency curve is shown, in figure 2.12a, with the effect of the
power factor. The earlier statement that maximum efficiency occurs
when copper loss = iron losses can now be proved (figure 2.12b).
▲ Figure 2.12

Conditions for maximum efficiency

Maximum efficiency occurs when is a minimum.

Now

Substituting current and voltage symbols and referring to the

secondary side then:
Now differentiating with respect to I2 the load current, then:

The above expression is zero when

and the minimum value of obtained.

If therefore by simplification

A minimum value of or maximum value of η occurs when the

copper loss = the iron losses. Thus for a given kW output at constant
terminal voltage, since then

Now copper loss so copper loss or .

Thus as the P.F. falls, copper loss rises and since η is adversely
affected by losses, the efficiency falls as the load P.F. falls below unity
(figure 2.12a). Figure 2.12b illustrates the condition of maximum
efficiency from loss curves plotted against load.

Conditions for all-day efficiency

It is usual for a transformer’s primary to be connected permanently to

the supply voltage and for load switching to be carried out in the
secondary circuit. Since the copper loss varies with load but iron
losses are constant and continuous, it is clear that the efficiency
depends on loading and losses, which varies throughout the day. For
units continuously excited but supplying loads intermittently, a low
iron loss is desired but a low copper loss is important where the load
factor is high. For a transformer working on full load most of the day,
maximum efficiency is arranged to occur around the full-load value
but for a transformer unit whose full-load value may be supplied for
as little as ¼ of the day and only lightly loaded the rest of the time, it
is desired to arrange maximum efficiency to occur at about ½ of the
full-load value.

Consideration of such factors indicates that transformer efficiency is

best estimated on an energy rather than a power ratio and leads to
the term ‘all-day efficiency’ defined as:

Example 2.8. A lighting transformer rated at 10 kVA has a full-load

loss of 0.3 kW, made up equally from iron and copper losses. The
duty cycle consists of full load for 3 hours, half full-load for 4 hours
and no-load for the remainder of a 24-hour period. If the load
operates at unity P.F., calculate the all-day efficiency (2 decimal
places).

Energy output at full load 10 kW for 3 hours = 30 kWh

Energy output at half-load 5 kW for 4 hours = 20 kWh

Total energy output = 30 + 20 = 50 kWh

Energy input = Output + Losses = 50 kWh + Energy wasted in losses

and,

Energy wasted in losses = Iron losses + Copper losses

Iron loss energy = 0.15 kW for 24 hours = 3.6 kWh

Copper loss energy = 0.15 kW for 3 hours + kilowatts for 4 hours

= 0.45 + 0.15 = 0.6 kWh

Energy wasted in losses = 3.6 + 0.6 = 4.2 kWh

All-day efficiency = = 0.9225 or 92.25%

Since copper loss is proportional to current2, then for ½ load, current

will be halved and copper loss quartered; hence the figure kW
for 4 hours.

Practice Examples
2.1 On open-circuit, a single-phase, marine, dry-type transformer
gives 115 V at its secondary terminals when the primary winding is
supplied with 460 V. The resistance and leakage reactance of the
primary windings are 0.36 and 0.83 Ω respectively while those of
the secondary windings are 0.02 and 0.06 Ω respectively. If the
secondary terminals are accidently short-circuited while the
transformer is connected to the supply, what would be the value of
current flowing in the primary winding (3 significant figures)?
 Assume that the supply voltage is maintained at 460 V and the
magnetising current value can be neglected.
2.2 For a 25 kVA, 450/121 V, single-phase transformer, the iron and
full-load copper losses are respectively 165 and 280 W. Calculate
(a) the efficiency at full load, unity P.F. and at half-full load 0.8 P.F.
lagging (2 decimal places); (b) and the load at which efficiency is
maximum in kVA (1 decimal place).
2.3 A marine, dry-type, 17.5 kVA, 450/121 V, 50/60 Hz, single-phase
transformer gave the following data on test:
O.C. Test 450 V, 1.5 A, 115 W at 50 Hz
S.C. Test 15.75 V, 38.9 A, 312 W at 50 Hz
Estimate (a) efficiency of the transformer and (b) the voltage of the
secondary terminals (both 1 decimal place) and when supplying
full-load current, at 0.8 P.F. (lagging), from the secondary side.
Assume the input voltage is maintained at 450 V, 50 Hz.
2.4 A single unit of the 3 units making up a three-phase, marine, dry-
type transformer, was subjected to a short-circuited test and the
following results were obtained:
Voltage applied to the H.V. side: 14.3 V at 60 Hz
Current supplied: 55.6 A
Power taken: 316 W
The unit is rated at 25 kVA, 450/121 V, 60 Hz.
Determine the approximate value of the secondary terminal voltage
(3 decimal places) when the transformer is operating at full-load,
0.8 P.F. (lagging) and 0.8 P.F. (leading).
2.5 The resistances of the primary and secondary windings of a 27.5
kVA, 450/121 V, single-phase, marine, dry-type transformer are
0.055 and 0.00325 Ω respectively. The iron loss is 170 W. (a) At
0.8 P.F. (lagging), calculate the full-load efficiency (1 decimal
place). (b) At 0.8 P.F. (lagging), calculate the kVA output (2 decimal
places) at which efficiency is a maximum and find the maximum
efficiency value (2 decimal places).
2.6 A 50 kVA, 440/110 V, single-phase transformer has an iron loss =
250 W. With the secondary windings short-circuited, full-load
 currents flow in the windings when 25 V is applied to the primary,
power input being 500 W. For this transformer determine (a) the
percentage voltage regulation at full-load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging) (2
decimal places) and (b) the fraction of full load at which the
efficiency is a maximum (3 decimal places).
2.7 A 10 kVA, 440/110 V, single-phase, marine, dry-type transformer
was tested and gave the following results:
O.C. Test – Primary applied voltage 440 V, power input 75 W.
S.C. Test – Primary applied voltage 30 V for full-load current, power
input 135 W.
Draw the equivalent primary circuit indicating the values of the
circuit constants, but neglecting no-load conditions, and then
calculate (a) the secondary terminal voltage when the transformer
is operating at full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging) with the rated voltage
applied to the primary, (b) transformer efficiency for (a) above (both
1 decimal place).
2.8 A 50 kVA, 440/230 V, marine, lighting-transformer has primary
resistance and reactance of 0.09 and 0.19 Ω respectively and
secondary resistance and reactance of 0.015 and 0.042 Ω
respectively. Calculate the secondary terminal voltage (3 significant
figures) when the transformer is supplying full-load current at 0.8
P.F. (lagging). If the secondary terminals were accidently short-
circuited, what would be the current taken by the primary winding,
assuming the primary supply voltage remained constant at 440 V
(4 significant figures)?
2.9 A 17.5 kVA, 460/115 V, 60 Hz, single-phase transformer has
primary and secondary resistances of 0.125 and 0.008 Ω
respectively and primary and secondary leakage reactances 0.39
and 0.025 Ω respectively. The iron loss, when normal voltage is
applied to the primary winding, is 300 W. Draw the equivalent
circuit and calculate (a) for the full-load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging) condition,
the voltage at the secondary terminals (3 significant figures) and (b)
the efficiency of the transformer (1 decimal place). Neglect the no-
load current.
2.10 A marine, dry-type, 50 kVA, 440/110 V, single-phase transformer
gave the following data on test:
O.C. Test – Primary applied voltage 440 V, secondary voltage 110
V, power input to primary 250 W.
S.C. Test – Primary applied voltage 25 V, primary current 113.6 A,
power input at primary 500 W.
Calculate (a) the efficiency at half full-load, 0.7 P.F. lagging (1
decimal place) and (b) the voltage regulation at full-load, 0.8 P.F.
lagging (2 decimal places).
 Speculations? I have none. I am resting on certainties.
Michael Faraday

This chapter discusses various transformer types used for special

applications, such as instrument transformers (current and voltage
transformers), auto-transformers (fixed and variable ratios), saturable
reactors, magnetic amplifiers, thyristor controlled devices, as well as
‘solid-state’ transformer devices. Transformer power levels range
from low-power applications such as electronics power supplies to
very high power applications such as power distribution systems. As
treatment is mostly descriptive, several A.C. theory examples are
introduced for revision and further instruction.

Instrument Transformers
This section covers current and voltage transformers: the latter are
sometimes called potential transformers. When current in a circuit is
too high to directly apply measuring instruments a Current
Transformer (C.T.) produces a reduced current, accurately
proportional to the current in the circuit, and also isolates the
measuring instrument from any high voltage in the circuit. Digital
clamp meters use a C.T. for measuring A.C. current. Instrument
transformers may also be used with indicating or recording
instruments, protective equipment, alarms and control gear, and have
several advantages.

1. Indicating and protective instrument movements are standardised,

e.g. 5 A for current coils and 110 V for voltage coils, allowing for a
flexible instrument system which is comparatively inexpensive
using mass produced meters.
2. Indicating and protection equipment may be isolated from the high
or medium voltage sides of the system. The main insulation
between the primary and secondary systems can be built into
instrument transformers, and the meter system takes this
approach. Thus instruments, relays, alarm units, etc., can be small,
with minimal insulation and at a potential to earth considered safe.
3. Connections from the transformer secondaries can be ‘light’,
allowing cheap and neater wiring and control boards, located
conveniently remote from heavy power equipment such as
generators, switchboards, transformers and motors.

In relation to instrument transformers some new terms are introduced

such as burden, class, terminal markings, phase-angle and accuracy.
Since the secondaries feed into systems which are isolated from the
main system, it is clear the total load of such systems must be known
and that transformers must be of a size able to operate the systems
efficiently, accurately and effectively. The transformer ratio is the
prime requirement but its rating must suit the load or burden carried,
a term unique to instrument transformers.

The current transformer (C.T.)

The main C.T. requirements are ratio accuracy, small angle variation
from the 180° phase displacement between the primary and
secondary currents, a sufficient rating to operate the burden, high
insulation strength, mechanical rigidity and an ability to withstand
heavy transient currents. It is seen in figure 3.1 that the primary is
part of the main series circuit. The C.T. is however dissimilar to all
other transformers where the primary is connected across the system
and subject to the supply voltage.

▲ Figure 3.1

Because of the connection method, the primary has a conductor

section which is determined by the main line current’s magnitude and
not by the secondary line current. The ampere-turns, needed for the
magnetic circuit, are decided by this current, and transformers of this
type are shown in figures 3.2a and 3.2b. The former uses a few thick
conductor turns (known as a wound primary), while the latter uses the
main cable or busbar as the primary which itself constitutes a single
turn, an arrangement known as a bar primary. Transformers are
available in variations of these 2 basic construction types and are
usually built by instrument makers or specialists rather than power
transformer manufacturers.

THEORY OF OPERATION. From basic transformer theory it is known

that: I2N2 = I1N1. In practice I2N2 is approximately equal to I1N1.
Reference to the phasor (figure 3.3) shows that this approximation is
acceptable if I0, the no load current, is small. In C.T. design every
attempt is made to minimise I0 (resolved into its components Im and
Iw).
▲ Figure 3.2
▲ Figure 3.3

Iron used in current transformers is chosen for its magnetic

characteristics. Mu-metals are used for their low flux-density values
and high permeability. Mu-metals are a range of Ni-Fe alloys notable
for high magnetic permeability, composed of about 77% nickel, 16%
iron, 5% copper and 2% chromium or molybdenum. Their high
permeabilities make them ideal for shielding against static or low-
frequency magnetic fields. The Mu-metal high permeability also
provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux. Modern technology
has also produced grain-oriented silicon irons (versions of Stalloy)
with excellent characteristics, and if thin laminations of these are
used with insulation between them, iron losses may be minimised so
that Iw is kept small.

For a magnetic circuit Magnetomotive Force = Flux × Reluctance or

ImN (the energising ampere-turns)

Im is decided by the factors shown and for a C.T. working flux density
is typically 1–1.5 × 10–4 T compared with a usual power transformer
figure of 14 × 10–4 T. The iron circuit length is made as short as
possible using high-permeability iron. N may be large, but this is not
possible if a single-turn or ‘bar-primary’ is used. Other construction
features result from the following requirements. Since the iron circuit
must have low reluctance, for the best C.T.s, laminations have the
least number of joints, or are ideally complete rings. Windings are
placed by hand and leakage reactance is reduced by superimposing
or sandwiching windings. The primary circuit is largely unaffected by
insertion of a C.T. The rated secondary current is commonly
standardised to 1 or 5 A. For example, a 2000 5 C.T. provides an
output current of 5 A when the primary passes 2000 A.

PRECAUTIONS. Since the secondary low-voltage system is isolated

from the ‘mains’, it is possible to work on a circuit provided
appropriate precautions are taken, and after appropriate training. One
rule, however, is always observed. Never open the secondary circuit
of a C.T. while the primary is energised. The reason for the rule is
obvious if reference is made to the phasor diagram. With correct
functioning I2N2 = I1N1 the primary ampere-turns are nullified by the
secondary ampere-turns, the main flux being produced by ImN1,
whose design value is kept to an acceptable figure for the reasons
mentioned. Thus Im may be about 500 mA for a C.T. ratio of 500/5.
Assume the secondary develops a terminal voltage of 3 V under
correct loading conditions. If the secondary circuit was opened and
the demagnetising turns removed, the primary magnetising current
will become 500 A or , 1000 times greater than the normal

value. The primary magnetising ampere-turns rise in proportion and,

as the core magnetic material operates at a low flux density, it can
rise appreciably. The core material is chosen for its magnetic
characteristic, i.e. a steep graph and high saturation value.
Transformer flux density rises in proportion with the new ampere-turn
value and the secondary voltage could rise 3000 V in the example
considered.

It is clear that a transformer designed to operate with 3 V across its

output terminals will likely breakdown due to insulation failure. If one
terminal is earthed other parts of the secondary system, also subject
to an unexpectedly high voltage, are likely to be damaged. The
danger to an operator working on this circuit is now considerable –
hence the rule regarding open-circuiting the secondary of a C.T.
Unlike a normal transformer, no danger is introduced if the secondary
is short-circuited since the maximum current flowing is 5 A or less, a
value decided by the relationship: Secondary At = Primary At. Under
emergency conditions it is possible to take an instrument out of a
circuit by shorting the terminals to which a meter is connected,
ensuring the secondary current still flows, so the instrument can be
disconnected, leaving the shorted link in position. Similarly when
inserting a current-coil of a meter into a circuit, it must be connected
across the shorted link and then the latter opened.

It should be clear from this that working on the secondary side of a

C.T. is hazardous and must not be undertaken unless one is
confident of the operation. Marine engineers may have watched
specialist maintainers undertake this operation during ‘setting up’ or
undertake testing procedures and may be tempted to make similar
checks. Proceed with caution, and only if absolutely necessary.

Often a special current-circuit switch, e.g. an ammeter switch, is

provided on switchboards, so a current is noted in the 3 lines of a
three-phase supply. The meter and 3 C.T.s, one in each line, and the
specialist switch shorts out a line C.T. and then disconnects the
instrument. It next connects the ammeter across the shorted link of
the next line and then breaks the latter connection. It thus carries out
the operation described in correct sequence. It is noted that if the
secondary of a C.T. is disconnected from the load while current flows
in the primary, the transformer secondary will try to continue driving
current across effectively infinite impedance. This may produce a
high voltage across the open secondary (up to kV levels) which can
cause arcing, endangering both operators and equipment safety,
potentially damaging the transformer.

BURDEN AND CLASS. The secondary load of a C.T. transformer is

called the burden to distinguish it from the load of a circuit whose
current is being measured. The C.T. burden is the output VA value at
the rated secondary current. Thus for a 15 VA burden at 5 A, terminal
voltage is 3 V and the instrument impedance or relay circuit must not
exceed 0.6 Ω, otherwise errors are introduced into the readings and
operation. The appropriate British Standards (B.S.) specification: BS
EN 60044-1:1999, IEC 60044-1:1996 for Instrument Current
transformers covers C.T.s and sets out the various burden sizes
together with further information. BS EN 60044-1:1999 also sets out
the various C.T. classes. Those used for precision and industrial
instruments are listed, together with the permitted errors for each
class. A study of this specification is advised if more detailed
information about instrument transformers is required. B.S.
publications can be purchased at http://shop.bsigroup.com.

C.T. burdens are typically given as 1.5, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45 and 60
VA. Burden ratings are typically in the form B-0.1, B-0.2, B-0.3, B-0.4,
etc. This means a C.T. with a burden rating of B-0.1 can tolerate up to
0.1 Ω impedance in the metering circuit before its output current is no
longer on a fixed ratio to the primary current (essential for accurate
proportionality). Consequently the knee-point voltage of a C.T. is the
magnitude of the secondary voltage after which output current ceases
to follow linearly the input current. The knee-point is defined as the
voltage at which a 10% increase in applied voltage increases the
magnetising current by 50%, above this point the magnetising current
increases in a rapid non-linear manner even for small voltage
increases across the secondary terminals.

TERMINAL MARKINGS. For simple current meter conditions terminal

markings are unimportant but for measurement of power, power
factor and with three-phase instruments, the correct connection
sequence is vital. To ensure connections are made in accordance
with the instruments’ requirements, a transformer’s primary terminals
are marked P1 and P2 while its secondary terminals are marked S1
and S2. Connections are then such that at the instant when current
flows in the primary from P1 to P2 it also flows in the secondary from
S1 through the external circuit to S2. A colour (red spot) may mark P1
and S1. For switchboard work the S2 side of the secondary is often
connected to earth.
PHASE ANGLE. A phasor diagram shows the secondary current
phasor is almost in anti-phase, i.e. almost at 180° to the primary
current phasor. If the angle was 180°, no phase-angle error would
result. Components Im and Iw cause the angle to be a little less than
180° and methods to minimise these were considered. The angle
between or I2 reversed and I1 is the phase angle. The angle is +ve
if, when reversed, the secondary current leads the primary current.
On a low P.F. circuit, the angle may be –ve.

For current measurement I2 should be a specific fraction of I1 and

phase-angle error is unimportant. For power measurements, current
ratio must be accurate and the secondary current 180° out of phase
with the primary current. As this condition does not exist, a phase-
angle error may introduce an appreciable error into power
measurements if precautions are not taken by the instrument and
transformer makers.

Example 3.1. For the bar-primary type of current transformer (figure

3.1), estimate the secondary turns and the burden if the impedances
of the ammeter, wattmeter and P.F. indicator current-coils are 0.15,
0.3 and 0.3 Ω respectively (2 decimal places).

The transformer ratio is or . If the primary Ats equals the

secondary Ats then:

1 × 3000 = N2 × 5 or N2 = 600 turns (in inverse proportion to the

current ratio). The 600 turns is insulated wire of cross-section able to
carry 5 A.

With 5 A flowing, the voltage drop across the ammeter is 5 × 0.15 =

0.75 V. The meter burden is 5 × 0.75 = 3.75 VA.

The wattmeter and P.F.I. burdens are 5 × 0.3 × 5 = 7.5 VA. The total
burden is then 3.75 + 7.5 + 7.5 = 18.75 VA and a C.T. rating equal or
greater than this is needed. Thus a 30 VA unit is suitable. Instrument
burdens add arithmetically, as they are due mainly to a resistance
load, and any error introduced by this assumption is small.

If a suitably rated unit is not available one should use 2 C.T.s. and 2
independent instrument circuits. Thus an ammeter may be energised
from the first C.T. together with another instrument like an over
current relay, and the second C.T. used for the wattmeter and P.F.
indicator. However, most instrument and protective-gear circuits are
separated rather than mixed. Shapes and sizes vary significantly
depending on the end user, switchgear and manufacturer. C.T.
accuracy is directly related to several other factors besides burden
and class which are rating factor, load, external E.M. fields,
temperature and the physical arrangement. The rating factor, the
factor by which the nominal full load current of a C.T. can be
multiplied to determine its maximum measurable primary current,
depends largely on ambient temperature with most C.T.s rated for
35°C and 55°C working.

The voltage transformer (V.T.)

The theory of the voltage transformer (V.T.) follows that of the power
transformer (P.T.), the main difference being that the secondary
current, referred to the primary, may be of the same order of
magnitude as the no-load current. From phasor theory is to as
the turns ratio, and the desired approximation of V2 to V1 is achieved
if the voltage drops, as mentioned, are reduced.

The following precautions are usually taken in the use and building of
transformers:

1. Copper on the windings is made of larger section than used for a

commercially built P.T. Turns are the same but the area of the wire
is much greater, meaning a reduced ohmic value for R1 and R2.
2. By careful winding distribution, leakage reactances X1 and X2 are
much reduced. This precaution results in a further reduction of
voltage drops.
3. A good quality iron core is used with careful construction and
suitable insulation between laminations. The no-load current
components, Im and Iw are thus reduced and I0 will be much
smaller than that for an equivalent rated P.T.
4. Sensitive instruments are used as they require a smaller operating
current and, if I2 is small, internal voltage drops are reduced.

Unlike the C.T., the primaries are connected across the ‘mains’ and
an S.C. on the secondary will be a short referred to the primary. S.C.
protection is needed and high-rupturing-capacity fuses are fitted in
primary circuits. As this is a high-voltage supply, fuses are insulated
and a specialist tool provided for replacement without switching the
‘mains’ off. A secondary circuit’s mid-point can be earthed so the
maximum voltage to earth on the system is 55 V. As instruments are
in parallel as for the C.T., disconnection or reconnection of a suspect
meter is not difficult. There is no danger of a high induced voltage, as
for the C.T., but short-circuiting of terminals must not be undertaken.

BURDEN AND CLASS. Details are covered under B.S. EN 60044-

2:1999, IEC 60044-2:1997 Instrument transformers. Inductive V.T.s
specify a secondary voltage of 110 V when the rated primary voltage
is applied. A range of primary voltages (110 V to 220 kV line to line) is
specified with the classes and permitted errors. The standard rated
burdens, from 15 to 200 VA, are listed with the duty type for each
class, similar to those mentioned for C.T.s.

TERMINAL MARKINGS. Single-phase. Primary terminals are

marked: A and B or N. Secondary terminals are marked: a and b or n
and the polarity such that, when A is positive with respect to B then a
is +ve with respect to b.

Three Phase. Standard P.T.s are star-connected on the primary and

secondary sides. Neutrals may be added, especially for the
secondary, and for special requirements. Primary terminals are
marked A, B and C while secondaries are marked a, b and c. The
primary neutral (if provided) is N and the secondary neutral is marked
n. Transformer polarity is such that when A is +ve with respect to N, a
is +ve with respect to n.

PHASE ANGLE. Like the C.T., a V.T. can introduce metering errors in
both voltage magnitude and phase. Ratio and phase-angle errors
depend on the impedance voltage drops’ relative sizes, and it was
explained how these can be minimised. Phase-angle error is only
important when power measurement is required.

Example 3.2. If the voltage transformer shown in figure 3.1 is rated at

15 VA, estimate if a frequency meter may be added. A manufacturer
lists the meter burden at 110 V to be 2 VA and that of the voltmeter 4
VA. The wattmeter voltage windings and the P.F. indicator are rated
3.5 VA and 4.5 VA respectively at 110 V.

Total burden of existing instrument voltage windings = 4 + 3.5 + 4.5 =

12 VA

The transformer is suitable for a burden of 15 VA, so an extra 15 – 12

= 3 VA can be added. It is possible to add the frequency meter in the
manner shown. Inductive V.T.s are used for power networks with
insulated or grounded neutral points and variants are used in the
terrestrial electricity generating industry for accurately measuring
voltage on high-voltage power lines.

The Auto-Transformer

Fixed ratio type

The Auto-Transformer (A.T.) employs only one winding tapped to

provide appropriate voltage. From the operational theory discussed
here it is seen there is no electrical difference between the action of a
normal double-wound transformer and an auto-transformer, and so
the related ratio of V and I to the number of turns on the winding is
still true. Since there is only one winding, it is cheaper than a double-
wound unit of the same kVA rating, and it contains less copper, so
copper losses are less, while efficiency is higher.

The A.T. is advantageous for certain applications, the chief being

where output voltage is not dissimilar from input voltage; then it is
operated as a voltage booster and connected into a transmission line
where the load terminal voltage is below an acceptable value. In this
case, its function is to raise voltage to the required value. For marine
work, its main application relates to motor starters. Some starters for
induction motors operate on the principle of lowering the voltage to a
motor, to limit the starting-current surge taken from a ship’s mains. As
a motor runs up to speed, voltage is increased by transformer
tappings, until the full supply is reached when it is switched out of the
circuit. As the transformer is used for only a brief period the unit must
be as cheap as possible and auto-construction satisfies this
requirement. A.T.s are often used to step up or step down voltages on
land in the 110–117–120 V range and in the 220–230–240 V range,
providing 110 V or 120 V (with taps) from a 230 V input allowing
equipment designed for 110 V or 120 V to be used with a 230 V
supply (US and Continental supply voltages).

A.T.s have a disadvantage in that, secondaries are not isolated from

the primaries and the benefits of a 2 V system are not realised. This
applies to marine installations where the main power system is of the
order of 440 V and the small-power system at 110 V. An earth fault on
one line of either system is immediately noticed on the other. Of great
importance is the fact that if a break occurs on the common winding
section, the high voltage will become manifest on the low-voltage
system, as seen, if figure 3.4b is studied and an O.C. imagined at
point X.

THEORY OF OPERATION. Consider figure 3.4a. As for a normal

transformer, if one primary and secondary terminal are joined – with a
pair always of the same polarity as each other – one can find a point
on the primary winding with the same potential as the remaining
secondary terminal. These points may be connected and a secondary
winding removed. Advantage is taken of the fact that I2 and I1 are
practically in phase opposition. If the secondary is formed at 2
tappings on the primary, current flowing away in this section is I2 – I1
and the winding conductor area can be reduced, making a further
cost saving. The extent of the copper saving can now be investigated:

▲ Figure 3.4

SAVING OF COPPER. For both the double-wound and auto-

transformer it is known that

It is deduced that for the double-wound transformer:

Weight of copper in Primary ∝ I1N1 Weight of copper in Secondary ∝

I2N2

Total weight of copper ∝ (I1N1 + I2N2)

For the auto-transformer:

The top section of (N1 – N2) turns carries I1 so weight of copper ∝ I1

(N1 – N2)

Bottom section of N2 turns carries (I2 – I1) so weight of copper ∝ N2

(I2 –I1)
or total weight of copper ∝ I1N1 – I1N2 + I2N2 – I1N2 ∝ I1 (N2 – 2N1) +
I2N2

Dividing top and bottom by I1 N2

(1) If the primary to secondary voltage is 10:9 so the ratio =

The Wt of Cu in auto: Wt of Cu. in double-wound unit = 1:10 or Wt of

Cu in auto = of that of a normal transformer.

(2) If the primary to secondary voltage is 10:1 then and the

ratio =

The Wt of Cu in auto: Wt of Cu in double-wound unit = 9:10

or Wt of Cu in auto is that required for a normal transformer.

Examples (1) and (2) show that saving is effective when k is close to
unity.

Example 3.3. A single-phase, 400/440 V auto-transformer is used to

step up voltage and supply a load of 8.8 kVA, operating at unity P.F.
Neglecting losses and the magnetising current, find the output (2
significant figures) and input currents (2 significant figures), and the
current in the transformer winding’s common section (1 significant
figure).

Load or output current = Input current =

Current in common section = 22 – 20 = 2 A.

Example 3.4. Determine the core area in m2 (3 decimal places),

number of turns and the position of the tapping point for a 500 kVA,
50 Hz, single-phase 6.6/5.0 kV auto-transformer, assuming the
following: e.m.f. per turn = 8 V, maximum flux density = 1.3 T.

Using the transformer e.m.f. equation E = 4.44 Фm fNV

or Φm = . Since Φm = BmA
The winding must be tapped 625 turns from the end, common to
primary and secondary.

Variable ratio type

These are used as automatic voltage regulators and in applications

such as a lighting ‘dimmer’ without the E.M. interference associated
with thyristor-based dimmers. A variable A.T. with a sliding-brush
secondary connection is often called a Variable Transformer or Variac
(the original US General Radio trade name), consisting of one
winding wound on an iron core used for relatively low-voltage designs
and as a variable A.C. transformer. The core is formed into a cylinder,
of annular lamination. Stampings are insulated from each other in
keeping with good transformer practice. The winding consists of
enamelled wire in a toroidal form (figure 3.5). A movable carbon
brush is arranged on a radial arm, making contact with a track formed
on the winding by cleaning off the enamel insulation.

▲ Figure 3.5

One construction weakness is that, full voltage is applied along the

length of the track where the insulation between adjacent turns is a
minimum. In addition, grime and carbon dust can lead to insulation
breakdown between the turns, resulting in turns shorting and burn out
or insulation failure along the whole track length. Modern construction
techniques employ durable synthetic enamel and varnish
impregnation or ‘potting’, together with a carbon brush of suitable
type, grade and shaped tip. Such refinements removed the main
causes of failure, resulting in the A.T. being a reliable electrical item
used in laboratories and electrical factory test-rooms. The A.T. unit is
built in sizes up to 2.5 kVA for 230 V working, and may be arranged in
‘ganged’ form for 440 V working. In the smaller sizes, it is easily
operated by a small sensitive motor and can be built into voltage
regulators.

Example 3.5. A 250/200 V A.T. is rated at 2 kVA. What is the

economy in copper compared with the equivalent double-wound
transformer? Estimate the copper section of the winding (1 decimal
place).

From the deduction made already

Here So ratio =

Therefore A.T. Wt of that of the double-wound unit, a saving =

or 80% in copper required.

Current in common section = 10 – 8 = 2 A

Working on a current density of 1.55 A/mm2 the common conductor
section should be at least 1.29 mm2 (say 1.3 mm2), the top section
should be 4 times this, i.e. 5.2 mm2.

In essence a Variable transformer is a versatile electricity control

device, providing stepless and undistorted A.C. voltage variation,
available in the United Kingdom under the registered trade marks of
‘Regavolt’ and ‘Varatran’.

Three-phase transformation

For high-power applications, three-phase transformers are often

used. There are many different combinations of flux paths linking
windings possible so it is usual to treat three-phase transformers as 3
independent single-phase transformers. Production of a three-phase
output supply from a three-phase input supply of the same frequency
but different voltage value is effected in two ways: (1) by use of a
composite three-phase unit and (2) by interconnecting 3 similar, but
separate single-phase units.

(1) THE THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER. The magnetic circuit for

this unit provides 3 cores on which are wound the primary and
secondary of each phase. Figure 3.6 shows the arrangement. It is
noted that the 3 windings are not wound on a single limb, as the
resultant flux of the 3 primaries would be zero because, being 120°
displaced from each another, fluxes would cancel. The construction
technique is similar to that for the single-phase unit except that
windings for each phase are confined to one core. The usual
arrangement favours connection of either the primary or secondary in
delta to allow passage of harmonic currents. As yet no mention has
been made of transformer harmonic current generation, so the
condition is summarised here.

Assume a sinusoidal applied voltage. Since Ф α V, the flux waveform

will also be sinusoidal but not so the no-load current, which is
distorted for two reasons. (1) Since the B/H curve for the core is not a
straight line a ‘peaked’ current wave results, especially if the iron is
worked near saturation. (2) Due to hysteresis, the B/H curve is
dissimilar on its ascending and descending values so the current
waveform is distorted, being asymmetrical about the maximum value
(figure 3.7).
▲ Figure 3.6

Fourier’s theorem shows that, on analysis, the no-load current

waveform may be treated as made up of a fundamental waveform
and its 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th harmonics (respective odd multiples of
the fundamental frequency). These are present in relatively
decreasing magnitude values and their effects minimised with
appropriate precautions. A delta connection for a three-phase winding
enables the 3rd harmonic e.m.f.s – the most important, produced in
each phase, to circulate 3rd harmonic currents. These currents add to
the fundamental to produce the required sinusoidal flux wave and
resultant sinusoidal induced e.m.f.s.
▲ Figure 3.7

(2) THREE SEPARATE SINGLE-PHASE UNITS. Three similar

transformers are interconnected into the three-phase primary and
secondary lines, an arrangement favoured for marine practice, since
only one spare unit must be carried. By a system of selector
switches, the spare unit can be connected into the circuit if one of the
other units (unit 1 here) fails. The rating of each of the single-phase
unit only needs to be one-third of the total output (figure 3.8.)

▲ Figure 3.8

Methods of connection
1. Star/Star. Figure 3.9a shows the arrangement and connection

diagram. Phase windings must withstand so that less insulation

material is needed, a space saving and a simpler design. Windings
carry the full line current and if one-phase winding fails, the whole
three-phase arrangement will be out of action (failing
catastrophically). For this connection, 3rd harmonic currents do not
flow in the line and distortion of secondary e.m.f. may be expected. If
a neutral line is run from the star point, 3rd harmonic current will flow
along the wire – which is unwanted.
▲ Figure 3.9

2. Delta/Delta. Figure 3.9b shows that with this connection, each

phase winding must be insulated to the full line voltage value but
windings are only designed to carry times line current. In the

event of a winding failure the unit need not be shut down since, by
disconnecting the faulty winding, supply can be maintained at a
reduced output (graceful degradation). This working method, known
as open-delta, is favoured by Continental and American marine
practice. As no neutral point is available, a 3-wire supply is used. Any
3rd harmonic currents, set up by 3rd harmonic e.m.f.s in the phases,
circulates around the closed mesh and won’t flow out into the lines.
The connection avoids distortion of secondary e.m.f. waveform by
internally generated harmonics.

3. Delta/Star or Star/Delta. The Delta-Star (Europe), Delta-Wye

(North America), is a type of three-phase electric power transformer
design employing delta-connected windings on its primary and star-
connected windings on its secondary. These are common in
commercial, industrial and high-density residential areas, to supply
three-phase distribution systems, e.g. for a distribution transformer
with delta primary, running on three 11 kV phases with no neutral or
earth needed, and a star secondary providing a three-phase supply at
400 kV, with the domestic voltage of 230 V available between each
phase and an earthed neutral. Figure 3.9c stresses the important
point that, the transformation ratio is not merely the transformer turns
ratio but involves the connection type. Thus for a Delta/Star
arrangement, transformation ratio where is the

phase-turns ratio.

Irrespective of whether the delta/star or star/delta connection is used,

no trouble is experienced with 3rd harmonic currents as they circulate
around the mesh. A star-point is available if a 4-wire arrangement is
needed for earthing. For marine work, star/delta working provides a
good arrangement as a star-point on alternator is usual and a neutral
introduced if necessary.

For common polyphase transformer connections (figure 3.9), three- to

two-phase and three- to six-phase arrangements are possible for
special applications. For the examples in figure 3.9, variations are
possible where windings per phase are split into 2 sections and
combinations: star/inter-star, star/double-star, delta/double-delta
combinations are used for special purposes. The only marine
application for these is connected with static rectifiers.

Example 3.6. The bow docking-propeller of a large liner is driven by a

600 kW, 3.3 kV, three-phase, 60 Hz delta-connected induction motor
supplied from the ship’s 440 V auxiliary power mains through a step-
up transformer unit, connected in delta, on the L.T. side. Assuming a
full-load efficiency 85% and 0.8 P.F. (lagging) respectively for the
motor and a 98% efficient transformer, find the motor phase and line
currents, and the phase and line currents taken by the transformer’s
primary winding. If the secondary is in star, find the turns ratio and
transformation ratio.
 Motor line current = 154 A Phase current = 88.9 A
Primary line current = 1181 A Phase current = 682 A

The current ratio is given by . Note these are the transformer

phase currents.

The turns ratio is in inverse proportion to the currents, i.e.

i.e. 1:4.43

The transformation ratio is i.e. 1:7.5

Note: delta/star transformers introduce a 30°, 150°, 270°, or 330°

phase shift and cannot be paralleled with delta/delta transformers.

The Saturable Reactor

If the B/H curve of the iron material, used in the reactor core, is
examined (figure 3.10a), it is seen there is a relatively flat portion
where B α H and permeability μ = B/H is large and substantially
constant, the part of the curve used by the design engineer. At higher
values of H as the ‘knee’ of the curve is reached, the characteristic
ceases to be linear and the B/H or μ value varies from point to point
as the graph flattens out. The curve shows the iron core has passed
into saturation, tending towards the horizontal. Thereafter the μ value
decreases rapidly.

Variation of μ is referred to as the incremental permeability and, if

plotted against H, gives figure 3.10b. Now from Volume 6, Chapter 6
– reluctance and so that: or rather L α μ. Thus

for an iron-cored reactor, inductance varies with μ vs H, the curve is

similar to that shown for μ. The flux density a reactor core can carry
into a region is saturated if the energising coil is subject to an over-
voltage. This may occur due to a badly designed transformer or if an
increased no-load current results, accompanied by output voltage
waveform distortion. In both cases, reactance is reduced if
inductance is reduced by saturation, but this may be of benefit if the
incremental permeability μ or inductance can be controlled.

▲ Figure 3.10

Usually saturation is achieved by providing the iron reactor with an

initial biasing flux-density value from an extra winding fed from a D.C.
source. The extra ampere-turns or initial H value results in biasing B,
seen as a movement of the H axis upwards. Irrespective of the D.C.
current polarity or direction, biased flux-density variation allows the
inductance to vary from zero to its maximum value. When the biasing
or control coil current is maximum, inductance will be minimum and
when the former is zero, inductance will have its normal value.
Control is illustrated by the ‘butterfly’ curve (figure 3.11). The two
curves are due to the B/H curve hysteresis, while symmetry about the
μ axis is due to current direction reversal in the D.C. control coil.

▲ Figure 3.11

If a saturable reactor is connected as shown in figure 3.12,

inductance variation by the control winding affects the reactance and
the total impedance (Z) offered to the A.C. supply source. By
changing impedance the control winding produces a load current
change and power variation supplied to the load. The arrangement
was first used to fade theatre lights but unfortunately an A.C. voltage
was induced into the control circuit by the transformer. Early
improvements resulted in a more effective unit known as the
transductor.

▲ Figure 3.12

The transductor
This device was similar in construction to a power transformer. It was
a type of magnetic amplifier used in power systems for compensating
reactive power, consisting of an iron-cored inductor with 2 windings –
a main winding through which an A.C. current flowed from the power
system, and a secondary control winding carrying a small D.C.
current. By varying the small secondary D.C. current, a transductor’s
iron core can be controllably saturated at different levels thus varying
the reactive power absorbed. Transductors were widespread before
the advent of modern solid-state electronics and have largely been
replaced.

The magnetic amplifier

The magnetic amplifier (Mag amp) is an electromagnetic device for

amplifying electrical signals which was invented in the early 20th
century, and used as an alternative to vacuum tube amplifiers when
high-current capacity was needed. World War II Germany perfected
this amplifier in the V-2 rocket, with the Mag amp at its zenith
between 1945 and 1960 for power control and low-frequency signal
applications. After this the transistor started to replace it and is now
largely replaced by transistor-based amplifiers. For the figure 3.13
arrangement, load windings are connected in parallel while control
windings are in series.

▲ Figure 3.13

Load windings are connected in opposition so that on alternate half-

cycles of the supply voltage, the control ampere-turns drive an
opposite core into saturation. Each load winding is designed to
support the full supply voltage when the control current is zero.
Consider core 1. For a given control current condition, for a +ve
supply voltage half-cycle, flux increases until a point is reached when
the core saturates and the winding no longer supports the voltage.
Core 2, at the same time, is driven away from saturation and would
support the supply voltage except for the fact that the core 1 winding
is across it. Since core 1 has saturated, its winding effectively short-
circuits the core to load winding, so the supply voltage is impressed
across the load, resulting in a partial half-cycle of current.

For the –ve supply voltage half-cycle, the operation is repeated. Core
1 comes out of saturation but its winding is short-circuited by core 2
which has gone into saturation. Control is obtained over a full cycle
by the D.C. control winding with its current maintained continuously in
one direction. Control current reversal only changes the order in
which saturation of the cores occurs, and the controlling effect is as it
was before. Figure 3.14 shows the waveforms associated with a
simple mag amp. Output is alternating and pulsed, and may be
converted for D.C. operation with a suitable rectifier.

CURRENT GAIN. This is a measure of the amplifying property of the

arrangement. Under controlled conditions, i.e. when one core is
saturated and the effect of the other offset by short-circuiting its
winding, there is no flux change. Any load ampere-turns increase is
balanced by an equal and opposite increase of control At, so the
resultant core m.m.f. remains the same. As high-quality iron is used
and worked at high permeability, the m.m.f. needed to cause
saturation is small and is neglected. Thus, under saturated
conditions, we write:

IcNc = IN or where Nc = the number of turns of the control

winding and Ic the control current. N = the number of turns of the main
winding and I the load current. The relationship shows the current
gain is proportional to the turns ratio of load and control windings.
▲ Figure 3.14

Since , load current depends on the turns ratio and the control
current, independent of the supply voltages or load resistance, and
the amplifier is regarded as a constant current source. Before leaving
the current waveform (figure 3.14), it is noted that, since the control
current is fed from a D.C. source its value might be assumed
constant (from the control circuit resistance). However, if flux is
constant, IcNc = IN and if I varies, Ic will vary. Thus a reflection of the
load-current peaks is seen in the control current.

When cores are unsaturated, load winding impedance is large and

only a small magnetising current flows, lagging supply voltage by
nearly 90°. When control is ineffective, I is determined by
 , and as we have the relationship I = kIc, the

magnetising current is neglected. The characteristic in figure 3.15 can

be deduced, indicating that a mag amp may operate where a large
load current is varied linearly by a small control current.
▲ Figure 3.15

FEEDBACK. Another way of showing mag amp construction is shown

in figure 3.16. The A.C. windings’ inductance is controlled by a D.C.
winding consisting of 2 sections in series opposition to eliminate
induced A.C. voltages. By proportioning the ratio of D.C. to A.C.
turns, the amplifier has an output practically independent of load
circuit resistance. When D.C. amplification is needed, a rectifier is
placed in series with the A.C. windings. However, the amplifier cannot
discriminate between D.C. input signals’ polarities. To increase device
gain and to make it polarity sensitive, positive feedback is used. A
second winding is placed on the centre limb and connected to the
D.C. terminals of a bridge rectifier in series with the load rectifier.
▲ Figure 3.16

With the input signal in one direction a current through the feedback
winding aids the control winding and increases gain. With a reversed
signal, current through the feedback winding remains in the same
direction and opposes the control current, reducing gain. The new
characteristic is shown in figure 3.17. Current gains of up to 300 and
power gains of 104 are possible with this arrangement. Thus a bias
winding can be added to move the no-signal operating point and if
two amplifiers are used a reversible output with no standing current is
achieved. Amplifiers can also be used in cascade for increased gain.

Magnetic amplifiers have been used in various control schemes for

marine applications, providing early automatic voltage regulating
systems used to monitor large D.C. currents and to protect A.C.
systems. Semiconductor technology device developments such as
the Thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (S.C.R.) were developed
in the 1960s by General Electrics to have characteristics similar to the
mag amp. The semiconductor alternative is now preferred due to its
small size and weight as their production costs are much reduced.
▲ Figure 3.17

Example 3.7. A coil of unknown inductance and resistance is

connected in series with a 25 Ω, non-inductive resistor across 250 V,
50 Hz mains. The p.d. across the resistor is 150 V, and across the
coil 180 V. Calculate the value of coil resistance (3 decimal places),
reactance (1 decimal place) and inductance (3 decimal places). Find
also the P.F. of coil (3 decimal places).

From figure 3.18 the following mathematical solution is possible.

▲ Figure 3.18

Let x = the resistive voltage drop across the coil

y = the reactive voltage drop across the coil

Then x2 + y2 = 1802 (a)

and (x + 150)2 + y2 = 2502 (b)

or, on further simplification and rearranging of (b) and (a), we have

x2 + 300x + 1502 + y2 = 2502

and x2 + y2 = 1802

Then by subtraction 300x + 1502 = 2502 – 1802

or 300x = (250 + 180) (250 – 180) – 1502

giving 300x = 430 × 70 – 1502

So 300x = 30 100 – 22 500 = 7600 or x = = 25.33 V

Then y2 = 1802 – 25.332 = 32 400 – 641.6 = 31 758.4

or

The circuit current =

Resistance of coil =

Reactance of coil =

Inductance of coil =

P.F. of coil cos L = 0.141 (lagging).

Example 3.8. A three-phase, 440 V, 50 Hz, 90 kW ‘circulating water

pump’ motor has an 82% efficiency and operates with 0.8 P.F.
(lagging). Calculate (a) the kVA input to the motor (2 decimal places)
and (b) the load current (2 decimal places). If the motor is connected
to the main switchboard by a 3-core, 95 mm2 cable, 100 m long,
calculate the cable line-voltage drop (2 decimal places). Copper
resistivity = 17 μΩ mm.

Apparent power input =

(a)

(b)
Load current =

The voltage drop in one cable core = 180 × 0.018 = 3.24 V

So cable voltage drop in the three-phase line =

Note the introduction of the when considering the three-phase

conditions.

Example 3.9. While in port a tank-ship obtained its ‘shore-main’

supply from a three-phase, 3300/440 V, delta-star transformer. For
lighting purposes on board ship the voltage is stepped down by three,
440/110 V, single-phase transformers connected in delta/delta. If the
total lighting load, comprised of tungsten filament and fluorescent
lamps, is balanced to 15 kW at 0.85 P.F. (lagging), calculate the
currents in the connecting cables and the phase currents of the
transformer windings. What will be the kVA supplied from the high-
voltage supply? It is assumed the transformer loss is negligible and
only lighting is supplied (2 decimal places).

Lighting transformer.

Secondary line current =

Secondary phase current =

Primary phase current =

Primary line current =

Supply transformer.

Secondary line current = 23.3 A

Secondary phase current = 23.3 A (since the winding are connected

in star)

Primary phase current =

Primary line current =

Assuming no losses

kVA input from supply = kVA output from lighting transformer

Solid-State Transformers
Although hopefully obvious to the reader, the historic context of the
transformer has been in terms of high-power handling transmission
with the power grid delivering A.C. power (for reasons discussed),
with every appliance, from electrical equipment such as vacuum
cleaners and hair dryers, to washing machines, P.C.s, notebooks,
electric motors, batteries, etc. running on D.C. power. It is only
recently that transformer interest has shifted in weighting towards the
lower power ‘personal computing power requirements’ end of the
spectrum, generating developments in computer based Solid-State
Transformer (S.S.T.) applications, an area rather unsuited to the high-
power requirements of the majority of marine and terrestrial electrical
power distribution systems. The term S.S.T. is a little inaccurate
because it is not a transformer in the traditional sense, but an array of
high-power semiconductor silicon solid-state components, control
circuitry and digital software employed to flexibly convert the voltage
and provide control to the power distribution networks, an
arrangement referred to as a smart transformer.

However, things are rapidly changing. Power electronic converter

S.S.T.s have become a focus of recent research. Combined with
high-frequency modulation, the volume and weight of S.S.T.s can be
significantly smaller than a conventional 60 Hz (US) transformer.
Critically S.S.T.s provide active power flow control output for efficient
distribution generation from sources, an essential requirement for
future renewable energy power grids (whether from solar, wind or
otherwise). However, S.S.T.s must have power efficiencies similar to
conventional passive transformers (typically 97.5%). In a distribution
system overall efficiency is comparable to a conventional passive
transformer but until now is still not a power efficient device method,
as individual components are only just over 90% efficient, meaning
10% of the A.C. to D.C. power conversions result in wasted heat
because silicon is too unreliable for large-scale use at high voltages.

The US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

currently supports Project Cree, a project to develop a silicon carbide
(SIC) transistor for use in S.S.T.s capable of meeting the needs of the
emerging smart grid. SICs are different from earlier Si computer
transistors as they can handle high-frequency switching of grid-scale
voltages and are suited to the intermittent nature (e.g. energy derived
from sources such as waves, tide and wind), typical of renewable
energy generation.

Although most work has focused on low-voltage converters (400 V),

exchanging Si for SiC components increases efficiency well above
90%, with some solar inverters reaching 99%, paving the way for
even more efficient, and much smaller, grid transformers. Other
materials such as gallium nitride (GaN) may allow operation at even
higher voltages. Project Cree, run by DARPA and the US Office of
Naval Research (ONR), has built a 10 kV, 100 A power module with
advanced SiC MOSFET. These power modules were integrated into
equipment from General Electrics to operate a 1 MW transformer at
20 kHz. By comparison the Cree transformer (16 inches high,
weighing 75 lb) operates at 250 kVA, while a conventional 330 kVA
transformer (55 inches high, weighing 2700 lb) operates at 60 Hz
only. Project Cree is developing 15 and 20 kV Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors (IGBTs), more advanced than the MOSFET, out of SiC to
provide 50 and 100 kW S.S.T.s. SiC 12 kV IGBTs achieve 4 times the
switching speed and 4 times lower losses than IGBTs fabricated out
of Si. The 20 kV IGBT will provide a ten-fold loss reduction compared
with silicon. Most S.S.T. advantages come through their reduction in
size. Faster scaled-device switching speeds will make it easier to
handle multiple power sources feeding into the grid because you
have many more transformers controlling and fine-tuning power
levels. The high-speed digital software architecture already exists for
these applications, having been demonstrated to great effect in the
control of microwave active phased array radar systems organising
the power output from many thousands of low-power sources.

In this way the ‘Victorian’ power grids of the world can be reorganised
into something more like the Internet for the 21st Century – a network
channelling energy not from just a few centralised power stations but
from any number of sources to a selected destination by the most
efficient routes (as in communications packet switching) balancing
both supply and demand, minimising power plant production waste in
terms of waste power and pollution.

Conventional transformers handle A.C. power relatively well but

require bulky electromechanical switches to redirect energy. Compact
S.S.T.s can process D.C. as well as A.C. signals and can be
electronically controlled to respond almost immediately to fluctuations
in supply and demand. In parallel with the S.S.T. (A.C. to D.C. power
converters and vice versa), A.C. to A.C., and D.C. to D.C. circuits are
being engineered. If applied in urban centres and megacities use of
smart transformers and the smart grid may save many TeraWatt-
hours of energy each year (e.g. New York City consumes about 50
TeraWatt-hours of energy a year) with the real benefits being realised
from innumerable small generators provided from renewable and
sustainable energy sources (such as the Atlantic Ocean Wave Hub).

Practice Examples
3.1 A direct-reading wattmeter with a 5 A current-coil and a 110 V
voltage-coil is used to measure the power in a single-phase, 6.6 kV
circuit, carrying a maximum current = 100 A. State the appropriate
ratios for the instrument transformers (2 decimal places), and
calculate the constant by which the wattmeter reading must be
multiplied to measure the power consumed (2 significant figures).
3.2 A 75 kW, 415 V, three-phase induction motor has 80% full-load
efficiency. The input line current is measured by a C.T. operated
ammeter. Suggest an appropriate ratio for the C.T. if ammeter full-
scale deflection is 5 A (2 decimal places). State the expected
ammeter reading (1 significant figure). The motor P.F. on full load =
0.87 (lagging).
3.3 A single-phase wattmeter with 5 A and 250 V ranges is used in
conjunction with a 25/5 C.T. to measure the power of one phase of
a balanced, three-phase, star-connected load. If the load absorbs
12 kW from a three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz, supply and 0.8 P.F.
(lagging), calculate (a) the wattmeter reading (2 decimal places),
(b) the load’s impedance per phase (2 decimal places) and (c) if a
phase impedance consists of a resistor and reactance in series,
calculate their equivalent phase values (3 decimal places).
3.4 The output power of a 415 V, three-phase alternator supplying a
balanced load is measured by one wattmeter. If the current
transformer has a 25/5 ratio and the wattmeter reading is 7 kW,
what is the total power (3 significant figures)?
3.5 For recording the input to a three-phase, 7.5 kW induction motor,
which is rated to take a line current of 14 A at 415 V, the following
instruments are to be used:
Ammeter 0 to 5 A, of resistance 0.08 Ω.
 Voltmeter 0 to 120 V, of resistance 3636 Ω.
Three-phase wattmeter (two element type): current coils 0 to 5 A,
of resistance 0.1 Ω; voltage coils 0 to 120 V, resistance 4 kΩ.
Estimate the ratio and burden rafting of suitable current and voltage
transformers (1 decimal place).
3.6 The primary and secondary voltages of an auto-transformer are
500 V and 400 V respectively. Find the windings’ current
distribution if the secondary current is 100 A (2 decimal places),
and calculate the possible copper saving percentage (2 significant
figures).
3.7 A double-wound, 6 kVA, 250/150 V, single-phase transformer, is
used as an auto-transformer on 400 V mains, to supply a load of 12
kVA at 250 V. Check the windings’ current load and with a practical
connection method determine the arrangement’s suitability.
3.8 Find the values of the currents flowing in the branches of a three-
phase, star-connected A.T. loaded with 400 kW and 0.8 P.F.
(lagging) with a ratio of 440/550 V (3 significant figures). Neglect
voltage drops, magnetising current and all transformer losses.
3.9 A 440 V, three-phase induction motor started with a delta-
connected A.T. provided with a 70% tapping on each phase
winding. Find the voltage applied across the motor terminals at the
starting stage when the transformer tappings are in the circuit (4
significant figures).
3.10 A three-phase, 440 V, 40 kW induction motor has 82% efficiency
and operates with 0.85 P.F. (lagging). When direct-on started, the
motor takes a current of 6 × full-load current and produces a torque
of 1.5 × full-load torque. Calculate the current taken from the supply
and the ratio of starting to full-load torque if a motor is started
through a star-connected A.T. with a 75% tapping (2 decimal
places).
 For an engineer it is not how full or empty the glass is, but
what design size you require.
Chris Lavers

In Volume 6, the D.C. generator and motor were the subjects of

separate chapters. It was stressed that further work was required to
develop particular aspects of theory. Our electrical study, biased
towards the marine engineer’s requirements, has in recent years been
limited by the scope of the electrical syllabus, to the exclusion of D.C.
systems. Certainly a book devoted to marine electrotechnology must
relate to modern developments and trends. Current practice has seen
considerable change and new electrical equipment installed aboard
ships, but D.C. systems are still present on marine and terrestrial
platforms. It should be remembered that the dynamo was the first
electrical generator to produce D.C. with the advent of the commutator,
and were the first electrical generators able to deliver power for
industry, the foundation upon which other electric-power conversion
devices were based, including the electric motor, alternator and rotary
converter. A commutator-based dynamo has, however, many
disadvantages, while converting A.C. to D.C. with semiconductor power
rectification devices is proven effective and economic. Never before has
such a high standard of electrical knowledge of both A.C. and D.C.
systems been required by the working marine engineer. Automated
engine-rooms (and bridges) are areas for which the engineer is trained
where knowledge of relevant control systems must be based on
correctly learned fundamental concepts.

Testing of D.C. Machines

Before considering test methods, let’s examine briefly the need for, and
test types made by, electrical machine manufacturers. The waveforms
from small marine generators are more erratic compared with their land
counterparts, and often change under load. This chapter looks from an
electrical view point but considerations must be given to fuel
consumption, frequency stability, emissions (NOx, CO) and noise levels
to provide full generator (or motor) characterisation. A wide range of
marine generators exists on the market: Kohler, Mastervolt, Onan, etc.,
and interoperability is an issue, e.g. take frequency stability, this is
critical for ship induction cookers – even a small variation from a
nominal 50 Hz generator output is critical. Small machine development
typically starts with prototype construction, incorporating any desired
features. The machine is subject to a series of direct loading tests, in
accordance with the design team. Results help check design
effectiveness, with machine output measured to obtain overall
efficiency. The final temperature rise, behaviour on load, commutation,
vibration, noise and response to speed and excitation control are
checked. Test results help confirm or amend the empirical design
formulae, and are examined in detail to extract appropriate information.
When the prototype is proven to meet the intended rating and purpose,
planned production may commence. At the earliest production stage,
minor modifications are introduced to speed manufacture and assist
mass production. The first machine for sale is comprehensively tested
to provide guaranteed performance figures and results for tests made
on specimen sample machines as they leave the production line.

The development procedure described applies to mass produced

machines not required for special duties. A machine is considered
special due to size, requirements, dimensions or enclosure which
warrants different to usual construction methods. In such cases
designers rely heavily on experience and skill to building machines to a
customer’s specification. Only limited testing may be possible at the
manufacturer’s works because of the machine size or operating
requirements, and assessment tests are devised. Such tests are made
and results used to check the design before a machine is installed. The
final testing, certification and acceptance tests are then made on site
under the correct operating conditions.

Output

Machine output is measured by direct loading. For motors this is

achieved with a brake, calibrated generator or electrical dynamometer.
For generators, loads can be water resistance tanks or calibrated
variable resistors. Waste energy and its dissipation are key factors if
large machines are tested.

Efficiency

Efficiency of an electrical machine may be expressed as:

Efficiency (η) is usually expressed as a percentage and for a generator

can be written as:

Similarly for a motor:

 Losses

The losses which occur in electrical machines are considered under 2

main headings: (1) Electrical Losses and (2) Mechanical Losses.

(1) ELECTRICAL LOSSES (PE). These comprise the Copper Losses

(PCu) and the Iron Losses (PFe). Copper losses occur in the armature
conductors and connections due to the passage of current through the
material’s ohmic resistance, and are determined from the expression
Ia2Ra. A copper loss also occurs in the field windings and is 30–50% of
the full-load loss. Copper loss is often minimised using the maximum
amount of copper on the machine consistent with commercial design,
and is usually calculated at the working temperature. Iron losses occur
in the armature, pole-tips and other parts of a magnetic circuit, subject
to cyclic magnetisation or flux change, consisting of a Hysteresis Loss
(PHY), and an Eddy-Current Loss (PEC) (dealt with in detail in Volume 6,
pp. 152–154, 352). Hysteresis loss is proportional to flux density to the
power 1.6 and speed or frequency (PHy α Bm1.6N), and, eddy-current
loss is proportional to flux density squared and speed squared, or
frequency squared, i.e. PEC α Bm2N2.

(2) MECHANICAL LOSSES (PM). These comprise Windage and

Friction Losses (bearing and brush) with ventilation needed to reduce
electrical machine temperature rises. Windage loss is a big issue, some
machines have a comparatively smooth armature with little fanning
effect and most of a machine’s heat dissipates through the yoke, the
case for a low-speed machine reliant on radiative heat loss and
basically of ‘open’ construction. High-speed machines have smaller
dimensions and rely on forced ventilation, i.e. an associated fan.
Windage loss is proportional to the cube of speed but is comparatively
small even when a fan is fitted.

Bearing friction is minimised using the correct bearing type for the duty
undertaken by a machine. Small and medium size high-speed
machines are often provided with ball or roller bearings. Low-speed
machines of such sizes use well-lubricated sleeve bearings. In marine
work this bearing is chosen because of its superior vibration
performance. For large machines, special bearing arrangements involve
forced high-pressure lubrication. Rotor weight and speed, drive type,
position and machine mounting are factors which decide the bearing
type. Bearing friction loss is roughly proportional to speed. Brush friction
depends on the friction coefficient, the total pressure and peripheral
commutator speed. It must be appreciated that a specific machine
brush grade should be chosen in accordance with the design
requirements and must not be altered. In summary: Mechanical losses
are proportional to speed and attention will be drawn to this relationship
as required.

Example 4.1. A 220 V shunt motor takes 10.25 A on full load. Armature
resistance is 0.8 Ω and the field resistance is 880 Ω. Losses due to
friction, windage and iron = 150 W. Find the output power and motor
efficiency on full load (3 significant figures).

Motor input on full load = 220 × 10.25 = 2255 W

Field current = Armature current = 10.25 – 0.25 = 10 A

Armature copper loss on full load = 102 × 0.8 = 80 W

Field copper loss = 220 × 0.25 = 55 W Friction, windage and iron loss =
150 W

Total losses = 80 + 55 + 150 = 285 W

Full-load output = input – losses = 2255 – 285 = 1970 W = 1.97 kW

ROTATIONAL AND CONSTANT LOSSES (PR and Pc). The mechanical

losses (friction and windage) are proportional to speed and the iron
losses are proportional to speed (for constant flux density). The term
Rotational Loss (PR) includes both PM and PFe. Another description of
machine losses are the Constant Losses (Pc) and the variable losses.
In this manner the field copper losses are constant for most working
conditions and included with rotational losses (for a constant speed) to
give Pc. Variable losses are the armature copper losses and an
efficiency expression is developed thus:

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY. If field copper loss is

included in the constant loss, the field current is considered negligible
compared with the armature current on load, with the efficiency
expression written as above. Thus for a generator:

Dividing by VIa

If calculus is used and the proof taken in a simple manner, then:

, and differentiating with respect to Ia:

This expression will be zero when and the minimum value of

obtained.

Thus if then by simplifying: and the minimum value of

or maximum value of ηG occurs when: Armature copper loss =

Constant loss.

As , the current at maximum efficiency.

Note: the field copper loss is included in Pc. The same condition for
maximum efficiency can be devised for a motor.

Example 4.2. A 220 V shunt generator is rated to have a full-load

current of 200 A. Its armature resistance is 0.06 Ω and its field
resistance is 55 Ω. Rotational losses, at correct speed and excitation,
are measured to be 3 kW. Find the output power rating of the prime-
mover, and the load current for maximum efficiency (both 4 significant
figures).

Field current = Armature current = 200 + 4 = 204 A 55

Armature copper loss = 2042 × 0.06 = 204 × 12.24 = 2497 W

Field copper loss = 220 × 4 = 880 W Rotational loss = 3000 W

Constant loss = Rotational loss + Field Cu loss ∴PC = 3000 + 880 =

3880 W

Required generator input = Output + Arm. Cu loss + Constant loss

= 220 × 200 + 2497 + 3880 = 50 377 W

Thus prime-mover rating = 50.38 kW

Current for maximum efficiency =

This is Ia, so load current will be 254 – 4 = 250.0 A.

STRAY LOSSES. When machines operate on load, small extra losses

occur, arising from iron loss increases (due to field distortion in the
armature reaction). Usually these are ignored.

Testing methods

Electrical machine efficiency and output are determined by 3 common

methods. Direct-Loading Methods which use various types of brake for
loading I.C. Engines and Turbines. Assessment Tests estimate output
and efficiency. On-load performance cannot be checked because
results are obtained from the no-load running conditions. Regenerative-
Test Methods, so-called ‘back-to-back’ methods, are favoured because
large machine full-load performance can be checked, and testing made
with minimal power waste.

DIRECT LOADING. A brake measures the machine’s output power and

is applied to a motor operated at the correct voltage, speed and load. If
brake measurements are made in newton metres with speed in rev/min,
output power is determined from the expression:

with N in revolutions per minute and T in newton metres.

So Efficiency is obtained from

(1) The Friction Brake. This can be a rope, band or drum type (taking
the form shown in figures 4.1a and 4.1b).
▲ Figure 4.1

For type (a) the force recorded by spring balances and acting on the
drum equals (W – w) newtons. If the radius of the drum is R metres,
torque T is given by (W – w) R newton metres.

For type (b) the force, recorded by a spring balance, is W newtons. If

the brake arm radius is R metres, the torque T = WR newton metres. A
disadvantage of friction brakes is the difficulty in dissipating heat
generated at the drum. Excessive load placed on the bearing nearest
the brake may reduce efficiency. The method is suited to small motors.

Example 4.3. In a motor brake-test, the effective load on the brake-

drum = 222.7 N, the effective drum diameter = 0.5 m and the motor
speed = 960 rev/min. The motor input = 30 A at 230 V. Calculate the
motor output and efficiency (2 significant figures).
(2) The Calibrated Generator. This is a generator pre-calibrated by
testing held in the test-room. Its output is fed into a resistive load, which
is dissipated as heat, or fed into a common busbar system. Figure 4.2
shows the motor tested, directly coupled to the calibrated generator and
its electrical arrangement. Let P be the power transmitted through the
coupling.

▲ Figure 4.2

Generator efficiency is known from the calibration tests, and determined

for any output on the calibration graph (figure 4.3) with these values
substituted into the efficiency expression.

▲ Figure 4.3

This method’s advantage is that energy output can be put to useful

purpose, i.e. (Internal Combustion) I.C. engine-makers frequently use
the generator initially as a motor for running-in engines, taking the
supply from other loaded engines and fed into common busbars, or
energy supplied from load tests can be fed back into the factory and
used.

(3) The Electrical Dynamometer. This machine is constructed as a

generator or motor (figure 4.4). Since the machine stator tends to rotate
when an armature is loaded (due to magnetic coupling between field
and armature), a restraining torque must be provided to give the
reaction normally at the feet of a loaded machine. A torque-arm is fitted
and the reaction measured by a spring balance, so T = WR newton
metres. Motor output, or the input to the generator under test, is
measured directly and no calibration curve is needed.

▲ Figure 4.4

A dynamometer is constructed as a motor held in a test room for

generator testing or as a generator to test motors. Its output as a motor
(or input as a generator) is checked and used with the machine
measurements to which it is coupled. Electrical energy generated
during test is used for the calibrated generator. If effective use or
feeding energy back into the ‘mains’ is not worthwhile, a dynamometer
can be modified to waste heat. The armature is constructed like an
induction motor cage and water cooled. Cage bars are heated by eddy
currents and cooled by water flowing continuously, which runs to waste.
The main advantage of direct-loading methods is that machine
performance on load can be checked. Output and efficiency are
determined, commutation and temperature rise is observed and
relevant design specifications are noted.

ASSESSMENT TESTS. Two testing methods are considered. The first

is well-established and named after Sir James Swinburne (1858–1958),
a baronet and pioneer in electrical machinery development, and is the
best technique for assessing efficiency without loading a machine and
should be appreciated. A second lesser method is used for determining
the size of various machine component losses. Tests are made with the
aid of a small auxiliary motor and little waste power involved. Limitations
of the assessment testing method are noted when the procedure is
taken and calculations made.

(1) The Swinburne Method. This is suitable for large machines where
loading either as a generator or as a motor might present difficulty. For
a D.C. shunt motor change of speed from no load to full load is small.
Mechanical loss is assumed to stay constant from no load to full load. If
field current is held constant during loading, core loss is assumed to
remain constant. To make a test, a machine is run ‘light’ as a motor
irrespective of its final function. Armature and field resistances are
measured before the no-load test and ambient temperature are noted.
During the test, the supply voltage and input current are recorded after
the speed is adjusted to the value at which the machine is required to
operate on load. Efficiency is then assessed (figure 4.5).

▲ Figure 4.5

When a machine is run light no output is taken from the shaft (net
mechanical output power is zero), only sufficient input power is needed
to supply the machine no-load losses (the copper and rotational losses).

Thus Input Power = No-load copper losses + Iron losses + Mechanical

losses

= No-load armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss + Rotational loss

or Whence:
Once rotational loss is determined for a particular speed and excitation
condition, one can assess the efficiency at any load (speed and
excitation is assumed constant). Thus for a generator we use the
expression:

or where Ia and If are the load values.

For a shunt-connected machine If = I0 so calculation is easier for

determining the constant loss. The predictive efficiency procedure is
illustrated by example 4.4.

Example 4. 4. A 50 kW, 500 V shunt generator is tested by the

Swinburne method. When run light as a motor it takes a 10.1 A no-load
current at the correct voltage and speed. Ra = 0.25 Ω and Rf = 500 Ω.
Assess efficiency at full load as a generator (1 decimal place).

No load. Supply current 10.1 A So Ia0 = 10.1 – 1 = 9.1A

Input = Cu losses + Rotational loss or 500 × 10.1 = 9.12 × 0.25 + 500 ×

1 + PR

Thus PR = 5050 – 20.7 – 500 = 5050 – 520.7 = 4529 W

This problem can also be solved by fi nding the constant loss thus:

No load.

Input = Armature Cu loss + Constant loss

or Constant loss = 5050 – (9.12 × 0.25) = 5050 – 20.7

Pc = 5029.3 W or 50.3 kW

Full load.

With the Swinburne test, a closer approximation to actual efficiency is

obtained if Ra and Rf values are raised to a ‘hot’ value, e.g. 50°C rise.
Regarding assumptions made in such problems, no speed and flux
variation between the no-load and full-load tests is permitted, so
constant iron and mechanical losses are assumed.

(2) Summation of Losses Method (by Auxiliary Motor). Figure 4.6 shows
the arrangement with 2 machines coupled together by a belt. In practice
to avoid belt-slip or losses due to belt friction, machines are fixed in line
and directly coupled. The smaller machine is the auxiliary motor and
tests are made in stages.

▲ Figure 4.6

Let P0 be the input power to the auxiliary motor when running light and
at the speed required to drive the large machine at its operational speed
of N rev/min.

Let P1 be the input power to the auxiliary motor when coupled to the
large main machine and driving its armature in an un-excited field at an
operational speed = N rev/min. So: P1 – P0 = PM the mechanical losses
(windage and friction) of the large machine.

Let P2 be the input power to the auxiliary motor, coupled to the main
machine and driving its armature in an excited field at a speed of N
rev/min.

Then P2 – P1 = Iron losses (PFe) of the main machine under the correct
test conditions of speed and flux. Since PM and PFe = PR rotational loss
(PR) is determined from P2 – P0.

If Ra and Rf are measured the main machine efficiency can be

assessed for any load (like the Swinburne test). The test method, using
an auxiliary motor, further interests the designer as any effects of small
alterations can be determined. Input power readings are taken first with
the brushes lifted off and again with them at the correct pressure.
Losses due to brush friction are then obtained. Tests can be repeated
with variations of bearings, ventilation openings, fans, etc., and data
obtained for improving performance. The test set-up is useful for
determining the constituent iron losses parts. The procedure is as
follows.

Separation of Iron Losses. From Volume 6, iron losses were made up of

hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss or PFe = PHy + PEC. If flux density
Bm is kept constant during testing, iron losses are written: PFe = Hf + Ef2
or for a machine: PFe = HN + EN2 with HN representing hysteresis loss
and EN2 the corresponding eddy-current loss. Examination of the
equation PFe = HN + EN2 shows that a solution is possible if PFe values
are obtained at 2 speeds. Tests are made by keeping flux density
constant and varying the driven armature speed. If the auxiliary motor
method is used iron loss is measured at normal speed and excitation.
With excitation constant, testing is repeated at half or double speed and
a solution of the equation is possible, illustrated by example 4.5.

Example 4.5. A test is made on a 230 V shunt motor to determine the

constituent iron losses. The shunt field is separately excited at 230 V
and its excitation kept constant. Measurements were made of the iron
losses at full speed and half speed. At 1500 rev/min iron losses = 1100
W, at 750 rev/min losses = 450 W. Find the hysteresis and eddy-current
losses at normal speed, i.e. 1500 rev/min (1 significant figure).

Substituting in the equation PFe = HN + EN2 we have

Subtracting (a) from (c) we have: 700 = HN so the hysteresis loss = 700
W

The eddy-current loss is thus: 1100 – 700 = 400 W

At half speed losses are: Hysteresis , and the Eddy-current

REGENERATIVE TESTS. Direct machine loading is the best method of

checking performance because efficiency, commutation and
temperature rise can be noted. Loading difficulties are overcome by
operating the test machine with a similar machine which provides
electrical power or absorbs it. These two machines operate ‘back-to-
back’ and just enough energy is taken from the mains to supply both
machine losses. The method was adapted to shunt machines by John
Hopkinson, once Professor of Electrical Engineering at London
University. Circuit modification allows the technique to be adapted for
compound machines. Testing of series machines presents
complications but can be achieved, provided appropriate circuit
modifications and protective arrangements are made. With mass
production obtaining a similar machine is not difficult to achieve.

(1) The Hopkinson Method. The test is performed and used for
machines which are similarly rated. Machines are mechanically and
electrically connected (figure 4.7).

▲ Figure 4.7
The machine operating as a motor is started by cutting out the starting
resistance and speed adjusted by variation of the field regulator,
controlling IfM. The generator self-excites and its voltage is controlled by
the regulator varying the current IfG. A change-over switch is operated
from position 1 to position 2 and the generated voltage EG adjusted and
compared with the mains voltage V. When EG = V the parallel switch is
closed since no current can circulate between G and M for this
condition. If EG is increased by raising IfG, a generator can be loaded,
i.e. it supplies current. The motor consequently loads and requires an
increased current from the generator. By manipulating the field
regulators of both machines a condition is achieved when either the
motor or generator is fully loaded. Power taken from the supply will be a
minimum and then supplies both machine losses. Under this condition:

From this expression PRM + PRG is found and if they are assumed to be
similar the rotational loss of each machine can be found. Resistance Ra
and Rf are measured ‘hot’ after the test and efficiency calculated for any
load under normal working conditions either as a generator or motor
(example 4.6). Note: approximate efficiency is found on the test-bed for
checking from the following.

Let P be the power transmitted through the coupling between motor and
generator.

Then and

If the efficiency of each machine is assumed equal then:

Example 4.6. Two shunt motors on a Hopkinson test take a current of

15 A from 200 V mains. The current to the motoring machine is 100 A
and the field currents are 3 A and 2.5 A. If the resistance of each
armature is measured to be 0.05 Ω estimate the efficiency of each
machine under the particular test loading conditions (1 decimal place).

Total input = 15 × 200 = 3000 W. The generated e.m.f. of the generator

must be higher than the motor back e.m.f. and both armatures are
rotating at the same speed, then the field current of 3 A must refer to
the generator and the 2.5 A to the motor.

Since IM = 100 A Then IaM = 100 – 2.5 = 97.5 A and IaG = (100–15) + 3
= 88 A

∴3000 = 2 PR + Motor armature Cu loss + Motor field Cu loss +

Generator armature Cu loss + Generator field Cu loss

or 3000 = 2 PR + (97.52 × 0.05) + (2.5 × 200) + (882 × 0.05) + (3 × 200)

= 2PR + 475.3 + 500 + 387 + 600 So 2PR = 3000 – 1962.3 = 1037.7 W

or PR = 518.8 W
Check. Approximate machine efficiency =

The Hopkinson test can be made for compound machines if care is

given to the correct series field connection. If 2 compound generators
are tested, since one machine ‘motors’, the series field must be reverse
connected as armature current direction will reverse and differential
compounding for a motor otherwise results. The motor, if differentially
connected, could not be loaded effectively and correct testing would be
impossible. Assuming a satisfactory load test is achieved, rotational
loss and efficiency are determined as described for shunt machines, not
forgetting the added series field copper losses.

(2) Field’s Method. Due to the tendency for series motors to race on no-
load and difficulties of operating a series generator in parallel with a
constant voltage supply, regenerative test method is not possible
without taking precautions and giving the test-rig continual attention. In
its essential form Field’s test is not strictly a regenerative method. Two
similar series motors are mechanically coupled, one machine acting as
a motor and the other as a separately excited generator. Both series
fields are connected in series with the motor armature and the
generator output absorbed in a resistance load with no switches in the
circuit to eliminate any possibility of a detached load. The method of
calculating efficiency is given in example 4.7.

Example 4.7. The following results were obtained from a Field’s test on
2 series motors: Motor current 20 A; Generator output current 17.5 A;
Generator voltage 160 V; Supply voltage 220 V; Resistance of each
armature 0.6 Ω; Resistance of each series field 0.4 Ω. Estimate full-load
efficiency of a machine as a motor (2 decimal places).

Input to test rig = 220 × 20 = 4400 W Output of generator = 160 × 17.5

= 2800 W

Total losses P = 4400 – 2800 = 1600 W Motor armature copper loss =

202 × 0.6 = 240 W

Motor and generator field copper losses = 202 (2 × 0.4) = 400 × 0.8 =
320 W

Generator armature copper loss = 17.52 × 0.6 = 183.75 W

Rotational loss of 2 machines = 1600 – Total copper losses

or 2PR = 1600 – (240 + 320 + 183.75) = 1600 – 743.75 = 856.25 W

and PR = 428.125 W. Then

Now voltage drop across the generator series field = 20 × 0.4 = 8 V

∴Voltage applied to motor = 220 – 8 = 212 V Input = 212 × 20 = 4240

W
Losses = PR + Motor armature Cu loss + Field Cu loss

= 428.125 + 202 (0.6 + 0.4) = 428.125 + 400 = 828.125 W 42 040 –

828.125 3411.875

D.C. Generators in Parallel

The benefits of operating generators in parallel are known to marine
engineers and we will consider the theory for satisfactory running and
load sharing. The technique of paralleling 2 D.C. generators involves
basic conditions and safeguards built into the switchboard to ensure a
correct operational sequence. Thus ‘to put a machine on the bars’, the
generator must be run up to its correct speed and its voltage adjusted
until it equals that of the busbars. The circuit-breaker of the ‘incoming’
machine is then closed, when it floats on the bars. If the excitation is
then increased with the field regulator, an output current is then noted
indicating the generator is taking load. The busbar voltage increases
and adjustment of the field regulators of all the machines in parallel is
needed before the correct busbar voltage and load sharing between
generators is achieved. Essential conditions for correct paralleling of
D.C. generators are assumed and the polarity of the incoming machine
correct, i.e. it corresponds to that of the busbars which is ensured with
moving-coil voltmeters. If the polarity reverses, because of a fault, the
‘machine’ voltmeter will indicate this. Compound generators are often
used so an equalising connection is required. Such a connection must
be made before an incoming machine circuit-breaker is closed. Modern
equipment ensures mechanical interlock between switch and circuit-
breaker, typically a 3-pole circuit-breaker. The equalising connection is
usually the centre pole and given a ‘lead’, i.e. its contacts ‘make’ first,
before the +ve and –ve poles ensuring the equalising connection is
automatically assured first.
 Parallel operation

The possibility of D.C. generators operating in parallel is investigated by

considering their load characteristics. It is reminded that for a shunt-
connected generator, terminal voltage falls with increasing load current,
so the characteristic is a falling one. For a series machine terminal
voltage rises with load current until saturation of the magnetic system
occurs, a characteristic described as rising. For compound generators,
the shape of the characteristics is decided by the series field strength,
which requires special attention in parallel operation.

(1) Shunt Generators. Such machines are easily paralleled and operate
with stability for the following reasons. If the prime-mover of No. 1 (see
figure 4.8) slowed down momentarily, the generated e.m.f. would fall
and the output current, I1, given by the expression would fall.

▲ Figure 4.8

Stability is assured by the fact that a reduced input means a reduced

output. E1 might fall below V when current I1 reverses so the machine
‘motors’. Sharing of load with a similar machine can be considered.
Take 2 similar machines in parallel and operating correctly. Next there is
a load increase, i.e. a demand for extra current. The voltage of each
machine falls with the result that each tries to ‘reject the load’. Since
both machines tend to ‘sit down’, eventually a new load is taken jointly
by both machines, the final proportion on each decided by the load
characteristic slope (influenced by the prime-mover characteristics), the
sizes of armature resistance and excitation. Stable working conditions
are a feature of parallel shunt generators or a shunt generator in
parallel with a battery.

(2) Series Generator. A series generator will not self-excite until the load
circuit is completed and its resistance made less than the critical value.
Such a machine cannot be paralleled onto ‘live busbars’. To investigate
parallel operation, assume 2 similar series generators in parallel,
started together from rest with the load circuit completed. If the latter is
adjusted until self-excitation results, operational stability can be
examined (figure 4.9).

▲ Figure 4.9

Let E1 and E2 be the e.m.f. of each generator and R1 and R2 the

resistance (armature and field). Generators share load as long as E1 =
E2. If there is a momentary slow-down, E1 becomes less than E2, and a
current circulates whose value will be:

As the load current is I, generator No. 2 now supplies a current =

and No. 1 supplies a current .

The effect of the new current conditions strengthens field No. 2 but
weakens field No. 1. The generated e.m.f. follows in response, the
machine currents and their effect is cumulative until No. 2 takes all the
load and current No. 1 reverses, once E1 falls below busbar voltage V.
No. 2 now tends to ‘motor’ No. 1 which when field polarity is reversed,
tends to brake in order to reverse. Generator No. 2 under this condition
supplies a large current which could burn out both machines. Failing
this occurring and if the prime-mover of No. 1 had picked up speed and
sufficiently powerful to drive the generator in the original direction, the
machine polarity reverses, resulting in 2 generators in series on a short-
circuit – a disastrous condition. Series machines operate in parallel in a
highly unstable state and to avoid this, the current in field No. 1 must be
made independent of the e.m.f. The method provides a connection
between the armatures, an equalising connection (dotted in figure 4.9)
and should have negligible resistance. If this fault occurs, the circulating
current Ic will not pass through the field winding, avoiding polarity
reversal. The fields are now parallel and their currents substantially
equal, even though the armature currents are different. Stability is
introduced with fixed polarity, if the No. 1 armature current reverses, the
machine will motor and the prime-mover speeds up.

(3) Compound Generators. Such generators have a series field and

rising characteristics. When operating in parallel, if due to momentary
slowing down of a generator its e.m.f. falls, a current imbalance occurs
with consequent variation of field strengths caused by the series fields.
Once the e.m.f. of No. 1 falls below V, the current in the series field
reverses and differential compounding results in more severe faulty
conditions which are cumulative and may result in polarity reversal. The
machine is liable to an instability common to series generators. Figure
4.10 shows how an equalising connection is introduced, shown dotted.
Stability is assured because the current directions in the series fields
are independent of the reversed armature currents in No. 1 and polarity
reversal is avoided. The equalising connection is made between the
armature and series field. If commutating or interpoles are fitted they
are considered part of the armature circuit. Marine regulations require
series fields to be fitted on the –ve side for uniformity, and ammeters to
be in the opposite pole.
▲ Figure 4.10

Load sharing

For D.C. generators as for batteries, no difficulty in sharing load is

encountered provided stable working in parallel is achieved. Consider a
battery of e.m.f. 4 V connected in parallel with another of e.m.f. 4 V. No
current flow is observed, which is explained by the fact that no e.m.f.
acts around the complete circuit formed by the 2 batteries. The 4 V of
No. 1 is opposed by the 4 V of No. 2, resulting in no effective e.m.f. for
a current. If a resistor is connected between the common +ve and –ve
lines a current will flow, part of which is due to battery No. 1 and the rest
from battery No. 2. The proportion of shared current is decided by the
batteries’ internal resistances and by application of basic circuit laws.

For D.C. generators similar reasoning is applied but since machine

characteristics are not always straight lines load sharing problems are
best solved by graphical rather than mathematical methods. Both
methods are illustrated next.

Example 4.8. Two shunt generators A and B, each with straight line
load characteristics operating in parallel. The characteristics are:

Machin
Open-circuit voltage Terminal voltage at 50 A
e
A 460 V 420 V
 B 440 V 410 V

Determine how both machines share a 100 A load and find the common
busbar voltage (1 decimal place).

Mathematical Solution. For a generator since E = V + IaRa then:

When in parallel let IA = current of machine A and IB = current of

machine B.

Let IA + IB = I (the total load current). Let V = the common busbar

voltage.

Substituting in equations EA = V + IARaA

(a)
or 460 = V + 0.8 IA

and, EB = V + IBRaB
(b)
440 = V + 0.6 IB

Using equation (b) then 440 = V + 0.6(I – IA)

= V + 0.6 (100 – IA) or 440–60 = V – 0.67IA

(c)
giving 380 = V – 0.6IA

Using (a) and (c). Then 460 = V + 0.8IA

380 = V – 0.6IA

Subtracting 80 = l.4IA or

Also IB = 100 – 57.14 = 42.89 A

And the common busbar voltage V = 460 – (0.8 × 57.14) = 460 –

45.712 = 414.2 V.

Graphical Solution. Two methods are possible and both are applied to
this problem.

Method 1. The two characteristics are plotted (figure 4.11a) with voltage
ordinates spaced 100 A apart. The common terminal or busbar voltage
is given by the intersection of the lines. The required answers can be
read off the graph. The method is suited for problems where load
sharing for one current value is needed. If a problem requires solution
for more than one load current method 2 is more suitable.
▲ Figure 4.11

Method 2. The procedure is to draw both characteristics to a common

voltage ordinate (shown in figure 4.11b). The ‘combined characteristic’
assumes the generators are in parallel and supply currents satisfying
the common busbar voltage condition. Assume the busbar voltage =
420 V. Machine A supplies 50 A and machine B 33 A. The total current
supplied = 83 A. Plot this point and repeat the procedure. For a busbar
voltage of 410 V, machine A supplies 63 A and machine B supplies 50
A. Total current is 113 A. One plots this and obtains the combined
characteristic. This latter values determine the busbar voltage and
currents supplied by each machine for any load current value. Thus a
load current of 120 A consists of 66 A given by machine A, and 54 A
given by machine B. The busbar voltage is then 408 V.

Commutation and Armature

Reaction
Before considering the full treatment of Commutation and Armature
Reaction for D.C. machines, the reader should revise the basics of
Volume 6, Chapter 7. The modern D.C. armature benefits from
refinements such as the equalising ring, duplex winding, etc. In its
simplest form, the pattern follows by connecting the coil elements to
each other and to the commutator segments and is called a winding.
Coil elements can be preformed from several turns in series or of
multiturn coils connected in parallel. Coil elements are connected to
form a closed circuit and the method used results in the winding which
are classed as either ‘lap’ or ‘wave’. The description of lap and wave
windings is not repeated here, as this was covered previously (Volume
6, Chapter 12).

Commutation

For both lap and wave windings as a brush passes from one segment
to the next, a coil element of a single coil or a series of coils is short-
circuited briefly during the commutation process. Brushes are placed at
points on the commutator where currents converge from and diverge to
parallel paths of the armature. At these points brushes contact adjacent
segments connected to coil elements in the interpolar gaps, optimally
placed for short-circuit. In summary: the currents in the armature coil
elements on either side of the brushes are in opposite directions and as
the commutator turns and a complete S.C. element passes under a
brush from one side to the other, current in the element must reverse. In
the arrangement of figure 4.12 adjacent segments pass under a brush,
and current in connected coil element X must be stopped and restarted
in the opposite direction. A width of brush equal to that of a commutator
segment is assumed.
▲ Figure 4.12

▲ Figure 4.13

Figure 4.13 shows the current/time curve for coil element X being
commutated. The time marked ‘t’ is the period when current direction
reverses, i.e. the time taken for a brush to pass completely from one
segment to the next, is perhaps 1/1000th second or less. The ±ve signs
of the current ordinate are arbitrary and indicate current reversal.

The graph illustrates ‘straight-line commutation’ where each brush

contact area section takes its correct proportion of current, illustrated in
figure 4.14.
▲ Figure 4.14

The commutation condition here is for the ‘ideal case’ and is not
achieved in practice. For the coil element being commutated, because
of self and mutual inductance effects, due to the rapid collapse of flux
associated with a changing current, an induced e.m.f. is set up called
the reactance voltage. According to Lenz’s law, this e.m.f. opposes and
tends to slow the rate of current change. Thus current in the S.C. coil
element changes more slowly and the condition is shown by a new
current/time graph (figure 4.15).

▲ Figure 4.15

It is seen from the actual working conditions graph that although the coil
current has reversed, it has not reached its full –ve value when
commutation finishes. The effect of ‘under-commutation’, where for the
instant considered, i.e. when , the last section of a brush carries

50 A instead of the 25 A for ideal straight-line commutation (figure

4.16). The effect of concentrating current into the brush trailing edge
can result in sparking, burning and overheating. Furthermore, at t = 1,
when the segment is due to break contact with the brush, the coil
element current being commutated is 25 A, so the remaining 25 A must
pass between the segment and brush as an arc, until coil current X
rises to its correct value. Arcing and heating results in commutator
damage. The arcing condition is shown in figure 4.17.
▲ Figure 4.16

Since for the coil element X inductance and resulting reactance voltage
are the main causes of poor commutation, it is clear these must be
minimised. If an e.m.f. can be generated in coil element X to produce a
current in the same direction as occurs when the element enters the
armature-current path after it has been commutated, the effect of under-
commutation can be cancelled. This is the main means of improving
commutation but commutation can benefit by increasing brush
resistance. ‘Resistance commutation’ is used in small machines and is
one of the methods used for improving commutation.
▲ Figure 4.17

Example 4.9. Consider a machine where the following commutation

conditions occur. If a 100 A current is collected by a brush and the
commutator speed = 1200 rev/min, calculate the reactance voltage (1
significant figure). There are 50 commutator segments. The coil
element inductance connected to adjacent segments = 10 μH.

Speed of commutator = = 20 rev/s. Thus 1 revolution = s

The time taken for a segment to pass under a brush

Current in a coil element being commutated =

Rate of change of current in the coil =

So reactance voltage =
METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION. These are considered
under 3 distinct headings but a combination of 2 methods is often used.

(1) Resistance Commutation. Carbon (with a little copper added) is the

material most commonly used for D.C. machines, whose resistivity is
much higher than copper. However, even small changes in composition
(a few percentage) can significantly alter brush properties. The effect of
a high-resistance brush is considered in figure 4.18.
▲ Figure 4.18

As segment A contacts and moves past a brush, current from coil

element Y can pass along 2 paths. It can flow directly down brush
section a or it can continue through coil element X into the other brush
section b. As a result of the commutator movement under the brush,
section b gets smaller and its resistance rises while section a gets
larger and its resistance falls.

The overall effect of brush resistance on commutation is now seen. At

the first instant segment A contacts with a high-resistance brush, little
current passes and the unchanged value of current continues to flow
through coil element X. As more of brush a is contacted, brush
resistance path a falls inversely in proportion to the movement, and
current diverts to take the falling resistance path. Coil element X current
falls in accordance with the commutator segments’ movement, following
the condition of straight-line commutation. When current in X has
reversed and increases, correct commutation is aided by the rising
resistance of section b and the falling resistance of section a. The rising
reversed current is forced through the coil in accordance with the ideal
requirements.

(2) E.M.F. Commutation. This method improves commutation by

generating a reversing e.m.f. in the S.C. coil element, such a reverse
e.m.f. opposes the reactance voltage and is achieved by (a) giving
brushes a ‘lead’ or (b) using Commutating Poles – often called
Interpoles.

(a) Brush Displacement. For a drum winding to operate correctly,

brushes are placed in a neutral position to contact segments connected
to coil elements in the interpolar gaps. For this condition, no e.m.f. is
induced in coils being short-circuited by brushes but if, for a generator,
brushes move forward in the rotation direction to a position slightly in
advance of the neutral position, commutation takes place in a reversing
field. Since the coil element, being short-circuited, is now no longer in
the interpolar gap but in the field of the main pole ahead, an e.m.f. is
induced because of armature rotation and in a direction opposite to that
resulting from the coil element passing under the poles prior to
commutation. The new e.m.f. opposes the reactance voltage and tends
to stop the original current, accelerating its build-up in the reverse
direction to satisfy the ideal commutation condition. The method needs
a different ‘angle of lead’ of the brush-rocker for each load current, but
for small machines a compromise is achieved by fixing brushes at the
‘lead’ required, about 3/4 load. This position, together with resistance
commutation, gives a reasonably sparkless performance over working
load range. For a motor, brush displacement is in the opposite direction,
i.e. against the rotation direction with a ‘lag’ angle. The armature
motoring current will be in a direction opposite to that for generating and
the reversing e.m.f. must be opposite, i.e. obtained from the pole
behind.

(b) Use of Commutating Poles. Instead of moving forward a coil

element being commutated to be under the field of the pole ahead, the
same effect is achieved by moving the magnetic field back by adding
small electromagnetically energised poles midway between the main
poles, whose polarity and flux density are decided by current passing
through the exciting coils. Commutating poles (compoles) are run at low
flux densities to avoid saturation, and energised by coils of a few turns
of wire or strip conductor, connected in series with the armature.
Energising ampere-turns vary commutating flux density in accordance
with the armature current. The commutating e.m.f. generated in the
S.C. coil will vary with the reactance voltage which in turn varies with
load, i.e. the coil current being commutated.
Although armature reaction has yet to be studied figure 4.19 shows the
revolving armature acting as a stationary electromagnet. When
conductors carry current with small poles placed as shown, flux from
the armature ampere-turns passes through the armature and round the
yoke. Polarity is given to the compoles, i.e. flux passes from a N pole
through the armature to the S pole. Since flux due to the armature
reaction must be cancelled by the commutating poles’ magnetic fields, if
the latter are to achieve this, the compoles’ ampere-turns must produce
the induced commutation e.m.f. This arrangement means the brushes
need not move from the neutral position and the ampere-turns per pole
of the commutating poles is made to exceed the armature ampere-turns
by some 25%. For a generator, interpoles have the same polarity as the
main poles ahead of them and for a motor, the same polarity as the
main poles behind them. The direction of rotation is taken as the
reference.
▲ Figure 4.19

Armature reaction

We will now look further at the armature reaction effect. The armature
conductors produce flux when a machine is supplying or taking current.
This armature reaction effect provides the characteristics of various
D.C. generator and motor types. Armature reaction may be defined as:
‘the effect on the main-field flux caused by armature flux, which due to
the armature current, distorts and weakens the main-field flux’.

BRUSHES ON NEUTRAL AXIS. Consider the simple 2-pole machine of

figure 4.19 but without compoles (figure 4.20). According to basic
theory, brushes must be on the neutral axis midway between the main
poles, i.e. on the Magnetic Neutral Axis (M.N.A.) which coincides with
the Geometric Neutral Axis (G.N.A.). If an armature is loaded as a
generator and carries current, if no interpoles are provided, associated
armature flux takes the path of least reluctance and cross the air-gap
orthogonally (figure 4.20).
▲ Figure 4.20

Armature flux is at right angles to the main flux and termed a cross-
magnetising flux crossing each air-gap twice, i.e. if the N pole-piece is
considered, armature flux is opposite to the main flux at the leading pole
tip and in the same direction at the trailing pole tip. The terms leading
and trailing are used in this regard with the armature rotation taken as
the reference for this distinction. The net effect of a cross-magnetising
flux is seen in figures 4.21a and 4.21b where the total flux twists and
the M.N.A. moves through an angle of lead.
▲ Figure 4.21

Flux effects are illustrated by an m.m.f. vector diagram (figure 4.22)

showing the effect of armature reaction developed so far. Fm is the main
field m.m.f. and Fa is the armature or cross-magnetising m.m.f.

As the M.N.A. moves forward, brushes must be on this axis to function

properly and move onto the new M.N.A. Since the lead angle changes
as the armature current changes the brush position must change. This
is a poor arrangement and attempts to cancel the cross-magnetising
flux are beneficial.

▲ Figure 4.22
▲ Figure 4.23

▲ Figure 4.24

BRUSHES GIVEN AN ANGLE OF LEAD. The arrangement of figure

4.23 has the brushes in optimum position for a generator, i.e. contacting
the commutator at appropriate tapping points, while allowing correct
commutation of the S.C. coil element. With the passage of current, the
armature electromagnet axis turns through θ° and the m.m.f. vector Fa
is as shown (figure 4.24).

Armature flux combines with the main flux to give the resultant flux,
represented by a new m.m.f. vector diagram. The resultant F is found
by resolving Fa into quadrature components Fc and Fb. Fb is a
demagnetising component which weakens Fm to give a new reduced
value Fm1. Fc is the cross-magnetising component which acts with Fm1
to give the new resultant F. To ensure satisfactory commutation, the
new armature reaction condition results in the 2 effects mentioned
previously, namely: (1) the main field weakens and (2) the main-field
flux density in the air-gap distorts. The forward movement of brushes or
angle of lead is only required for generators. For a machine operating
as a motor, the armature current direction is reversed for the same
rotation direction and main field polarity. As a result armature flux
reverses and brushes are given an angle of lag for correct operation.
The main flux is distorted and weakened as before, and if brushes
move when a motor runs, speed can vary. This is not a recommended
method of speed variation as optimum commutation conditions are
desired, but the cause of speed variation is due to flux-density variation.

CROSS-MAGNETISING AND DEMAGNETISING AMPERE-TURNS. In

Figure 4.23, the armature ampere-turns is considered to consist of 2
parts. One a band of conductors between lines XX and YY constitutes
an energising electromagnet whose effect is represented by the m.m.f.
Fb of figure 4.24. These current carrying conductors form ampere-turns
which oppose Fm, the main-field ampere-turns (and are demagnetising
ampere-turns) giving a final main field Fm1. The demagnetising ampere-
turns are proportional to the angle of lead or lag, and corresponds to the
vector diagram, i.e. Fb = Fa sin θ.

Conductors outside the lines XX and YY constitute an ampere-turns

band or energising solenoid when carrying current, resulting in a cross-
magnetising m.m.f., Fc from the total armature ampere-turns, if brushes
are not moved off the G.N.A. Since armature reaction reduces the main
field, armature demagnetising ampere-turns set up by the brushes’
movement should not be too big when related to the ampere-turns
needed for the main field under full-load. The ratio of the latter to the
former is always made greater than 1, ensuring armature reaction
effects are not too big and machine characteristics not unduly altered.

Example 4.10. A 150 kW, 250 V, 6-pole D.C. generator has a lap-wound
armature with 432 conductors. If the brushes are given a 5° angle of
lead from the G.N.A., estimate the added ampere-turns per pole
needed to neutralise an armature’s demagnetising effect when a
machine is on full load. Neglect the shunt field current. A solution is
considered with 2 pole-pitches.
Effective conductors in two pole-pitches = Effective armature

turns = 72

Thus armature ampere-turns = 7200

Since this is a 6-pole machine then or 60 mechanical degrees are

equivalent to 180 electrical degrees or 1° (mechanical) = 3° (electrical).

If θ is the brush shift in electrical degrees then θ = 15° (electrical). The

proportion of armature demagnetising ampere-turns to the total
armature ampere-turns is given by .

Thus demagnetising ampere-turns per pole pair

or demagnetising ampere-turns/pole = 600.

The cross-magnetising ampere-turns can also be determined thus:

Total armature ampere-turns = 7200

Demagnetising ampere-turns = 1200

∴Cross-magnetising ampere-turns = 7200 – 1200 = 6000

Cross-magnetising ampere-turns/pole = 3000.

FLUX-DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE ARMATURE. The

armature and field poles have been drawn in developed form (figure
4.25).
▲ Figure 4.25

The flux-density distribution under the main poles and in the interpolar
gap, caused by the main-field ampere-turns and the armature ampere-
turns respectively, is shown separately and combined. The armature-
current m.m.f. acts with the main-field m.m.f. to produce a resultant
m.m.f. and flux-density distribution pattern which is uneven over the
pole arc. The e.m.f.s generated in the armature-coil elements are non-
uniform as they pass across the pole face and voltages between
commutator segments may, in some positions, be much higher than the
mean value. If field distortion is pronounced there is a danger of a
‘flash-over’ across the commutator. The effect of the armature m.m.f.
can be mitigated against partly by fitting a compensating winding, which
is an expensive solution only used in large machines subject to heavy
and sudden current peaks, and is not discussed here as use is limited.
Examples of such applications include motors for steel-rolling mills and
special generators such as those used in electric locomotives.

Special D.C. Machines

Some D.C. machines must perform special duties which may have
unique construction features or operating characteristics. Many smaller
machines have application in the marine field and are of interest to the
marine engineer.

The rotary transformer

This machine is a D.C. generator and D.C. motor combined consisting

of an armature with separate windings on the same core and operating
in a common field system. In essence it is a variable frequency
transformer that aids the process of allowing electrical signals
associated with 2 rotating components near one another to ‘connect’
without generating undesirable activity, helping reduce components’
wear, and are commonly found in recording equipment, e.g. VCR
recorders and washing machines. Each winding is connected to its own
commutator and its physical dimensions chosen when considering D.C.
machine construction. Old ship’s depth sounders used to operate off a
24 V D.C. supply from 220 V D.C., so a static transformer could not be
used. A small rotary transformer was used instead. If a sounder needs
36 W one winding is wound for serving as the generator.

Assuming 60% overall efficiency the input will be . The

other winding is rated: or 273 mA and functions as a

motor winding. Field flux is provided by a permanent magnet or shunt-

connected field coils energised from the motor supply. Commutation
requirements are simple as the armature reaction effect is reduced by
the fluxes of motoring and generating currents tending to cancel each
other out. There is no voltage control of the field on the generating side,
as this alters the common flux and motor speed. The machine can be
installed for a specific duty and operates at predetermined speed and
started like a D.C. motor.

The rotary converter

Although at one time widely used, the A.C. to D.C. rotary converter is
now largely replaced by the semiconductor rectifier, but is still found in
service. Even as late as 1999, large terrestrial substations using
synchronous rotary converters operated in the New York city subways.
Semiconductor devices do not need daily maintenance, manual
synchronisation for parallel operation, skilled personnel, requiring only
periodic visits for inspection and maintenance. Rotary converters have
an advantage that they can be run ‘inverted’, i.e. supplying A.C. from a
D.C. source, but because there is a fixed relation between A.C. and
D.C. voltage, and that varying the field alters speed and frequency, the
more common motor-alternator arrangement is preferable for ship work.

The rotating amplifier

This device was a cross-field generator (C.F.G.) given the brand name
Amplidyne, a special-purpose D.C. generator which still supplies large
precisely controlled D.C. currents to large D.C. motors used to drive
heavy physical loads, such as gun turrets or missile launchers. It is
really a motor and generator which for most maritime purposes has
been replaced in low-power applications by the MOSFET and Insulated-
Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).

Practice Examples
4.1 A D.C. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.9 Ω and takes
an armature current of 18 A from 230 V mains. Calculate the motor’s
power output and overall efficiency (3 significant figures). Rotational
losses are measured to be 112 W and shunt-field resistance is 300 Ω.
4.2 Calculate the light-load current taken by a 100 kW, 460 V shunt
motor assuming the armature and field resistances to remain
constant and to equal 0.03 Ω and 46 Ω respectively. Efficiency at full
load is 88% (2 significant figures).
4.3 A 200 V, 15 kW motor when tested by the Swinburne method gave
the following results: Running light, the armature current was 6.5 A
and the field current 2.2 A. With the armature locked the current was
 70 A, when a potential difference of 3 V was applied to the brushes.
Calculate the efficiency on full load (1 decimal place).
4.4 A Hopkinson ‘back-to-back’ test made on two shunt generators
rated at 150 kW, 220 V, required 140 A to be taken from the mains.
The field currents of the two machines were 5 A and 7 A and the
armature resistance measured to be 0.02 Ω. Estimate the efficiency
of each machine when loaded to 150 kW (1 decimal place).
4.5 The results of a test made to determine the open-circuit
characteristic of a ship’s shunt-connected generator are set out
below. The test was made with the machine being separately excited
and driven at 700 rev/min.

(a) If the generator is coupled to a 850 rev/min engine and to be

made self-exciting, find the range of the field rheostat required to
vary the O.C. voltage between the limits of 200 V and 250 V. The
resistance of the shunt field was measured to be 52 Ω (1 decimal
place).
(b) If the armature resistance was 0.04 Ω, estimate the O.C. voltage
and rheostat setting if the armature is to deliver 200 A at a terminal
voltage of 220 V. Neglect the effects of armature reaction and
brush-contact voltage drop (1 decimal place).

4.6 A ventilating fan in a ship’s galley is driven by a 220 V, 10 kW series

motor and runs at 800 rev/min at full load. The total armature circuit
resistance is 0.6 Ω. Calculate the speed (4 significant figures) and
percentage change in torque (2 significant figures) if the current taken
by the motor reduces by 50% of the full load value. The efficiency of
the motor is 82%. Assume flux is proportional to the field current.
4.7 An engine-room ventilator fan motor is a series machine with a total
resistance of 0.5 Ω and runs from a 110 V supply at 1000 rev/min
when the current is 28 A. What resistance in series with the motor will
reduce the speed to 750 rev/min? The load torque is proportional to
the square of the speed (e.g. for a fan) and the field strength can be
assumed to be proportional to the current (2 decimal places).
4.8 A 230 V, 10 kW shunt motor with a stated full-load efficiency of 85%
runs at a speed of 1000 rev/min. At what speed should the motor be
driven, if it is used as a generator to supply an emergency lighting
load at 220 V? Armature resistance is 0.2 Ω and the field resistance
is 115 Ω. Find the kW ‘rating’ of the machine under this condition (2
decimal places).
4.9 A series D.C. motor is run on a 220 V circuit with a regulating
resistance of R ohms for speed adjustment. The armature and field
coils have a total resistance of 0.3 Ω. On a certain load, with R zero,
the current is 20 A and the speed is 1200 rev/min. With another load
and R set at 3 Ω, the current is 15 A. Find the new speed and also
the ratio of the two values of the power output of the motor. Assume
the field strength at 15 A to be 80% of that at 20 A (2 decimal places).
4.10 A D.C. shunt machine generates 220 V at 800 rev/min on open
circuit. The armature resistance including brushes is 0.4 Ω and the
field resistance is 160 Ω. The machine takes 5 A running as a motor
on no-load at 220 V. Calculate the speed and efficiency of the
machine taking 45 A at 220 V (1 decimal place). Assume armature
reaction weakens the field by 3%.
 Edison and Tesla – the real transformers of electricity.
Chris Lavers

Transformers, by their design, only operate with the application of a

continuously varying input voltage, varying from +ve to –ve and then
back again to +ve. The requirement of some electrical applications on
a D.C. (+ve only) supply requires a method of turning the A.C. output
of a transformer into a D.C. waveform. Thus ‘rectification’ describes
the conversion of an A.C. voltage or current waveform into a constant
or D.C. value. The basic principles of rectification were discussed
when the action of a commutator, as fitted to a D.C. generator, was
first introduced, but the more widely accepted meaning is in
connection with operation of static devices such as the
semiconductor diode. The diode is a device which only permits a
current to flow in one direction, a device with zero resistance when a
+ve voltage is applied but with infinite resistance when a –ve voltage
is applied across it. Mention will be made of the one-way conducting
property of the diode semiconductor (Volume 7, Chapters 11 and 12)
and although other types are named in this chapter, it is sufficient to
point out that rectification can be achieved by any of these devices
irrespective of how they operate. The general relationships between
input (A.C.) and output (D.C.) values hold good for any specific
devices used to achieve rectification.

To understand D.C. rectification some revision of electromagnetic

induction is needed. Electromagnetic induction was first described in
Volume 6, Chapter 7, and the reader will find it useful to review this
subject. For the more able student however, sufficient reference is
made here to basic principles to enable study to proceed. The subject
of static rectification is new but knowledge of terms, such as r.m.s.
and average values, together with their relationships for a sinusoidal
waveform, is assumed from Volume 6. The integration method will
also be introduced here.

Electromagnetic Induction
In Volume 6, both Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws were introduced. These
laws stated the magnitude and direction of the e.m.f. which is self-
induced in an inductor when its associated flux-linkages are
changing. A basic formula was given for the

average induced e.m.f.

Eav gives the value of the induced e.m.f., when N is the number of
turns of the coil, Φ is the flux value (in weber) associated with the coil,
and t is the time taken for the flux to change. This formula is useful, if
a steady rate of change occurs but if the change occurs in a short
interval or varies from instant to instant the condition is best
expressed as .

Note: it is the flux that is changing and not the number of turns. Now
the calculus method was introduced and is suitable here for finding
the rate of change of flux as instantaneous values are involved. Here
e gives the instantaneous magnitude of induced e.m.f. resulting from
a rate of change of flux, which differs from instant to instant.

Inductance

A changing current in an inductor results in a changing flux which is

responsible for an induced e.m.f., which is proportional to the rate of
change of flux-linkages or . Now any value of flux is given by:

(the flux set up by 1 ampere) × (the value of current in amperes).

Thus Φ = (Flux set up by 1 ampere) × I and,

The rate of change of flux = (Flux set up by 1 ampere) × (rate of

change of current).

Or

Thus

If the value within the bracket is called L, the coefficient of self-

induction, or more simply the circuit inductance, then the expression
becomes: which was introduced in this form in Volume 6,

Chapter 9.

The assumption L = N × Flux set up by i amperes can be developed

to or L = Flux-linkages per ampere. The unit of inductance is

the Henry defined as: ‘A circuit has an inductance of 1 Henry, if an

e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced in it when the current changes at the rate of
1 ampere per second.’
A further development from L = the flux linkages per ampere is
obtained thus:

Note: l is used for the length of the magnetic circuit to avoid confusion
with L, the inductance.

Since then the flux set up by 1 ampere =

Remember that μ=μrμo and since = N × Flux set up by 1

ampere

The formula determines a coil’s inductance, if the area and length of

the magnetic circuit and its permeability are known. For a given
inductor working at a constant permeability, the inductance is
proportional to the coil turns squared.

The Direct Current LR Circuit

Consider a coil of resistance RL and inductance L is carried on an
iron core and connected in parallel with a non-inductive resistor R as
shown in figure 5.1. The arrangement is energised from a D.C. power
supply. When the switch is closed, current I2 through the resistor R
rises to its maximum value instantaneously as shown in figure 5.2.
Current I1 through the inductor L takes time to grow to its maximum
value. The maximum final value of each current is given by Ohm’s
Law, i.e. and as a coil has an electrical inertia due to its

inductance.

▲ Figure 5.1

▲ Figure 5.2

Growth of current

An explanation for the shape of the I1 curve (graph b) is as follows.

An increase in current is accompanied by an increase of flux which,
because it is changing, induces an e.m.f. in the coil. By Lenz’s law
the direction of the e.m.f. opposes the change taking place, i.e. it
tends to counter the applied voltage and halt the growth of current.
The e.m.f. can be described as a back e.m.f. and its value at any
instant can be stated as: .

From earlier work on induction and inductance, it was seen that, the
effects of induction are always present, even under a circuit’s steady
running conditions. For our study we are concerned with transient
conditions, i.e. effects which occur when an inductive circuit is
switched ‘on’ or ‘off’. Our main interest here is in D.C. circuit
conditions but mention will be made of corresponding A.C. conditions.

SHAPE OF THE CURRENT CURVE. This is considered for a

condition of inductance with and without resistance. The first
condition is theoretical but helps understanding of the second.

(1) CIRCUIT WITH INDUCTANCE (L) AND NEGLIGIBLE

RESISTANCE. In accordance with theory so far, we know that the
induced back e.m.f. created when a circuit is switched on will oppose
the applied voltage V. There is no voltage drop due to resistance and
e must equal V. Thus V = e. but

With V volts applied, current increases at a steady rate of amperes

per second. This current will not reach a steady value since there is
no resistance and continues to grow (figure 5.3a).
▲ Figure 5.3

(2) CIRCUIT WITH INDUCTANCE (L) AND RESISTANCE (R). At any

instant after the circuit switch is closed, the current will be i amperes.
The voltage condition is given by:

Applied voltage = Resistance voltage drop + Induced back e.m.f.

Rewritten, the change of current at the instant considered is

Thus and this, being a differential equation will solve to

Here e is not the symbol for induced e.m.f. but is the base of
Naperian Logarithms, where e = 2.718 and log10e = 0.4343.
Differential equations of this type are derived at appropriate points
and the solution method will be of interest to students. This method is
set out as follows for the above equation.

Since

Rearranging and by integration

K is a constant of integration and its value is obtained thus:

When t = 0 i = 0 and K = –logeI

Using this value for

or

Thus .

This is often known as the Helmholtz equation and shows that the
growth curve is of exponential form. Further investigation of the
mathematics leads to the term time-constant and its meaning.

Example 5.1. A 20 H inductor with a resistance of 20 Ω is connected

to a 200 V D.C. supply. Calculate the value to which current will rise
0.1 seconds after switching-on and how long it takes to grow to a
value of 5 A (both 3 decimal places).
Here

or i = 10(1 – e–0.1) = 10 – 10e–0.1

let x = 10 e–0.1 then log x = log 10 – 0.1 log e

or log x = 1 – 0.1 × 0.4343

= 1 – 0.04343 = 0.95657 giving x = 9.048

Thus i = 10 – 9.048 = 0.952 A

Similarly substituting in

Thus whence 2 = et giving t log e = log 2

or 0.4343 t = 0.301

Thus seconds.

THE TIME CONSTANT. If the initial rate of growth of current was

sustained, the time for the current to attain its full value will be given
by:

Let this time be t0 then

This time t0 is the circuit time constant. In this time, current rises to a
value given by

Thus

The value of i will be 63.2% of I, shown in figure 5.3b. The time

constant is defined as the ratio and is equal to the time taken for

the current to attain 63.2% of the full value. The following deduction
will be of interest.

When the current increases to half its value in a time then

Thus

So log2 =

and and

The current reaches half value in 0.693 seconds or 0.693 t0

seconds.

Similarly the current reaches of its final value in a further 0.693

seconds.

Example 5.2. A lighting circuit is operated by a relay of which the coil

has 5 Ω resistance and an inductance of 0.5 H. The relay coil is
supplied from a 6 V D.C. source through a push-button switch. If the
relay operates when the current in the relay coil reaches a value of 50
mA, find the time interval between pressing the button and the closing
of the lighting circuit (3 significant figures). Determine the circuit’s
time constant (1 decimal place).

Here and

Then giving:

and 10t log

giving t = 0.00421 or 4.21 ms

Also

Decay of current

Assume for simplicity that the inductor, after connection to the supply,
is short-circuited at the same instant as the supply is switched off. As
the field collapses the energy put into the magnetic field must be
released through a current with heat generated in the circuit’s
resistance with the arrangement shown in figure 5.4. The current
decays in a circuit with the same constants as before.
▲ Figure 5.4

For the condition considered V = 0 and the induced e.m.f. at any

instant opposes the decay of current. The voltage condition at any
instant is given by:

This is a differential equation which can be solved to

The solution will be:

Integrating both sides

K is the constant of integration and its value is obtained thus:

When t = 0 i = I ∴K = logeI

giving

or
which can be written as

SHAPE OF THE CURRENT CURVE. The decay of the current is of

exponential form and a reflection of the growth curve. It is shown in
figure 5.5 where t0 is the time constant, the current falls to a value
equal to . As before the current decays

to half the original value in a time of seconds.

▲ Figure 5.5

The e.m.f. or voltage-drop curve is as shown, since e at any instant is

responsible for the discharge current and equals the circuit voltage
drop v where v = iR.

The field switch and discharge resistor

If the field circuit of a large machine such as an alternator or D.C.

generator is opened quickly, a high and potentially dangerous e.m.f.
may be induced. Since theoretically if current falls to zero

instantaneously, it follows that e will be infinitely high. In practice this

does not happen. As current begins to fall an e.m.f. is induced which
tends to maintain the current at its original value. The direction of the
e.m.f. assists the mains voltage and the current flow is prolonged,
sometimes generating an arc across the switch contacts. Added
resistance is introduced into the circuit by the resistance of the arc
and a condition of balance exists during the circuit-breaking period,
when the value of applied voltage plus that of the induced e.m.f.
equals the voltage drop across the field resistance plus that across
the resistance of the arc. The arrangement is undesirable due to the
fact that voltage developed across the field depends on the speed of
opening a field circuit. Thus opposite condition may arise, that for
safety purposes, it is desired to ‘kill’ the field quickly with a fast
opening switch. This creates a large voltage induced across the field
which results in insulation breakdown and damage to the machine
(since tends to a large value so also tends to a large

value). The alternative is to make the switch open relatively slowly

and tolerate a long arc which would persist and burn the contacts
(since will tend to a small value so tends to a small value).

The field dies slowly but the induced voltage will be kept at a safe
value.

A compromise arrangement provides an extra contact on the field

switch which connects in a non-inductive ‘discharge resistance’ RD in
series with the main field coils, at the instant they are disconnected
from the supply. The circuit is as shown in figure 5.4 except that
instead of the direct link at X, resistor RD is included. The
arrangement allows current to decay in a closed circuit and the
magnetic energy stored in the field discharges as heat and the e.m.f.
and arcing at the main contacts is minimised.

If the field was short-circuited there will be no voltage rise, induced

e.m.f. being only sufficient to momentarily maintain the same current,
i.e. e = iR. Since no sudden alteration of current value is desirable to
maintain the e.m.f. condition, i, at the start of discharge, should be
equal to I, the full field current. To avoid a short-circuit on the supply
when the switch is operating and the main arc conducts, discharge
resistance RD is needed and has a high value. The maximum value
of induced e.m.f. will be given by i(RD + R), i.e. I(RD + R). If the field
has to be ‘killed’ rapidly, the time constant must be small. L cannot be
reduced, so RD is increased. A working value is RD = R. The time
constant is thus half of that for the field circuit alone and the induced
voltage is, at most, twice the working voltage, an acceptable figure.

Example 5.3. The 6 field coils of a D.C. generator, each of 1500

turns, are connected in series to a 500 V D.C. supply. The field
current is 5 A and the flux per pole 0.05 Wb. Calculate (a) the field
circuit inductance, (b) the value of induced e.m.f. if the circuit is
broken in 0.1 second, (c) the value of non-inductive discharge resistor
connected across the field terminals, if the induced e.m.f. on opening
the switch must not exceed 750 V and (d) the time taken for the field
current to decay to 10% of its steady value under these conditions (all
2 significant figures).

(a) L = N (Flux set up by 1 A)

(b) e = L × Rate of change of current

(c) Let RT be the total resistance of the circuit. Then 5RT = 750

But RT = R + RD. As and since RT = 150 Ω

So RD = 150 – 100 = 50 Ω

(d) Here
 The Direct Current CR Circuit
Because the LR circuit behaviour was considered in some detail, it is
appropriate to give attention to that of a circuit of resistor R and a
capacitor of capacitance C connected to a D.C. supply. In Chapter 8
of Volume 6 the capacitor was introduced and its ability to store
electricity discussed. Charging action was described, in that, a
current will pass on closing a switch to the supply, and the current
falls to zero as the potential difference across the capacitor plates
rises to eventually equal the applied e.m.f. supply. Discharging
conditions were also described and attention given to a thorough
investigation of charging and discharging, noting that the quantity of
electricity which can be stored is proportional to charging voltage.

CAPACITANCE. Before deducing the mathematical expressions for

current and voltage growth, we remember that C, the capacitance of
a capacitor, depends on the number and dimensions of the plates,
upon their spacing and upon the dielectric. The unit is the Farad and
given in terms of unit quantity and unit voltage. Thus a capacitor has
a capacitance of 1 Farad if 1 Coulomb of electricity is stored when 1
Volt is applied across the plates. Note: the expression is deduced for
series and parallel capacitor arrangements. Thus if C is the
equivalent capacitance, for a Series connection: ...

and for a Parallel connection C = C1 + C2 + C3 +... .

Growth of current
Charging is considered and as stated above, Q ∝ V, so we rewrite Q
= CV where C is a constant, termed the capacitance. Since Q = It it
follows that . The current, at any instant, depends on

or the rate of change of voltage. As for an inductor, since we are

more interested in instantaneous values, we can write the relation as

. This expression shows that, if the rate of change of voltage is

uniform for a period of time, a constant current flows. This condition

was considered in Volume 6, Chapter 8, in the absence of resistance.
However, resistance is present and the effect of a high value is
considered. If the current and p.d. across the plates are noted at
various intervals after closing the switch and plotted to a time base,
the graphs shown will be of exponential form (figure 5.6). The reason
for this exponential curve shape is accounted in the mathematics in
figure 5.6.

▲ Figure 5.6

SHAPE OF THE CURRENT CURVE. Consider a circuit of C farads

and R ohms, connected as shown in figure 5.7. On switching on,
there is no p.d. across the plates and maximum current flows, given
by .

Let v = the capacitor p.d. after t seconds. Then

Also i is the rate of charge build up.

▲ Figure 5.7

This is a differential equation which solves to

The solution will be by integration.

where K = a constant of integration.

When t = 0, v = 0 and K = logeV

So loge whence

or giving

and or

THE TIME CONSTANT. If the initial rate of current build up, i.e. ,

is to be maintained and the time taken to charge the capacitor to V

volts is t0 seconds, the quantity of electricity stored is
seconds, which is the circuit time

constant or t0 = CR. In this time, voltage increases to 63.2% of its

maximum value. As before, voltage reaches its half value in 0.693 CR
seconds, etc. During charging, current decays exponentially and its
value at any instant can be found thus:

Let i = the current value at any instant

Example 5.4. A 1 MΩ resistor is connected in series with a 20 μF

capacitor. The arrangement is connected across a 2.5 kV D.C.
supply. Find the value of charging current 10 seconds after closing
the circuit switch. Find also the circuit time constant (both 2 significant
figures).

Time constant t0 = CR = 20 × 10–6 × 1 × 106 = 20 s

The maximum value of charging current

then . Here so i = 2.5e–0.5

or log i = log2.5 – 0.5log2.718 = log2.5 – 0.5 × 0.4343

= 3.3979 – 0.2173 = 0.1807 giving I = 1.52 mA.

Discharge conditions
The circuit switch of figure 5.7 is operated so the capacitor is
disconnected from the supply and discharges through a short-circuit.
As no resistance is present, the discharge current will be very large
and may damage the capacitor. It is usual to include resistance in a
circuit for this reason which may be achieved by moving R to the
hinged side of the switch. The circuit time constant will be the same
as for the charging condition, but may be altered by adding a further
discharge resistance RD into the short-circuiting link.

DECAY OF CURRENT. The current and voltage curves are shown

(figure 5.8). The current graph is drawn below the horizontal to
remind the reader that it is a reversed current.

▲ Figure 5.8

Let capacitor C be charged to V volts and discharged through a

resistor of R ohms. The maximum value of current is . The

voltage across the resistance after a time t seconds is v volts and the
current at that instant . The current is caused by the voltage

change or

. The negative sign shows current reversal due to a decrease

of voltage dv
Thus

This is a differential equation which solves to . As before the

time constant is CR and the current follows the same exponential law
since or . Solution for the differential equation is

similar to those already detailed and is not repeated here.

Example 5.5. A voltmeter having a resistance of 30 MΩ is connected

across a capacitor charged by a D.C. supply to a p.d. of 500 V. If after
3 minutes the reading is 100 V, calculate the capacitor value (3
significant figures).

Example 5.6. A 2 μF capacitor is connected across the terminals of

an electrostatic voltmeter of negligible capacitance and a resistor of
50 MΩ is placed in series with the parallel arrangement. Determine
the voltmeter reading 1 minute after connection to a 500 V D.C.
supply. The voltmeter of negligible capacitance is assumed to have
no effect on the circuit (1 decimal place).

The charging current 1 minute after switching on is given by:

and i = 10e–0.6 μA. So log i = log 10 – 0.6 log e

= 1 – 0.6 × 0.4343 = 1 – 0.26058 = 0.7394

giving i = 5.488 μA. For this charging current, the voltage drop across
the resistor will be 5.488 × 10–6 × 50 × 106 = 274.4 V.

∴the reading on the voltmeter will be: 500 – 274.4 = 225.6 V.

The Alternating Currents LR and

CR Circuit
It is not intended to give a detailed treatment of conditions occurring
at the instant of switching on or off an inductive or capacitive A.C.
circuit, but rather to draw attention to their importance in relation to
the switching duty of circuit-breakers and fuses. Circuit conditions
and terms used for the non-resistive A.C. circuit during transient
periods have not yet been considered as only steady-state operating
theory has received attention. This introduction is to the basic
fundamentals which are applicable to both LR and CR circuits. For
convenience only the former are considered since corresponding
relationships can be deduced for capacitive-resistive circuits.

Current asymmetry

Consider an A.C. circuit in which the ohmic values of inductive

reactance and resistance are comparable, i.e. the operating P.F. is in
the region of 0.7 (lagging). When connected to a sinusoidal supply
voltage, with current starting from zero no matter at what point in the
voltage cycle the switch is closed. Figure 5.9 illustrates the resulting
current condition. After an interval of time the current settles down to
a steady or permanent condition given by this is the r.m.s. value,
or instantaneous value where φ is the circuit phase

angle and the applied voltage expressed as v = V sin ωt.

▲ Figure 5.9

Let the actual current after closing the switch at any instant be i = i1 +
i2. The simplest condition to understand is shown, which assumes the
supply voltage is going through its normal value when the switch
closes. Since the current for the normal closed circuit condition has a
definite value and phase angle (but is actually zero when the switch is
closed), it follows that a component of D.C. current is induced which
decays exponentially to zero. This is shown in the diagram and i2 is
assumed to be the instantaneous value of the transient current which
may or may not be present, according to the circuit conditions at the
instant of switching.

The expression for the transient current is obtained from the following
deduction where i1 is the permanent current.

Instantaneous applied voltage = Instantaneous voltage drop +

Induced back e.m.f.

(a)
Under steady conditions i2 = 0 and (b)

Subtracting (b) from (a)

By integration where I2 is the initial maximum value of the

D.C. transient current at the instant the switch closes. The current
flowing in a circuit at any instant after closing the switch is the result
of both the A.C. and D.C. components. With an asymmetrical current:
(1) the alternate ‘loops’ of current are dissimilar in magnitude
consisting of major and minor loops and (2) the time intervals
between the loops are unequal, unlike those for the permanent
current.

The condition of current asymmetry is of interest when considering a

circuit under fault conditions. Thus if a short-circuit developed on an
alternator, at the instant of fault, the short-circuit current rises to a
high value, limited only by the alternator’s resistance and reactance
which are comparatively low. If the reactance was substantially
greater than the resistance then the fault current, due to the low
circuit’s P.F., will lag voltage by nearly 90°. If the fault occurred at the
condition of zero voltage complete asymmetry of current results, and
the initial maximum value of fault current in the first loop may be 20
times the final steady value, which could take several seconds to fall
to the final permanent value. If a fuse or circuit-breaker was made
sufficiently fast acting, it would operate immediately the fault occurred
to break a current substantially greater than that which is switched
normally.

It is hoped this brief introduction to A.C. transients provides sufficient

knowledge for the student to appreciate the importance of equipment
which is designed to function under fault conditions. Testing and
certification of circuit-breakers and fuses for particular duties is a
requirement of both British and foreign specifications, compiled to
ensure safe operational characteristics.

Rectification
Several terms should be first understood before the half-wave and
full-wave rectification methods are considered in detail.

Terms

(1) Peak Inverse (or Reverse) Voltage (P.I.V.). This is the maximum
value of reversed voltage which a rectifier unit must withstand
during non-conducting periods.
(2) Peak Current Rating. When a rectifier is used with a ‘reservoir’
capacitor smoothing system, it can pass pulses of current which
are greater than the load current. The greatest current value, which
can be safely passed, is the device Peak Current Rating.
(3) Ripple. This is the output voltage variation which produces a
current in the load consisting of a steady value and superimposed
sinusoidal fundamental and harmonic values. The ripple is
expressed as the ratio of r.m.s. ripple current to the mean current,
or r.m.s. ripple voltage to the mean voltage.

Rectifier arrangements

The property of a diode to conduct when anode voltage is made

positive with respect to a cathode and isolated when voltage is
negative is used in rectifier circuits. The commonest arrangements
are considered.

HALF-WAVE (ONE PHASE). The simplest use is the half-wave

connection (figure 5.10a). For all rectifier arrangements, a straight
line characteristic is assumed, i.e. ‘forward resistance’ – if the
conducting direction is constant and current will, at all times, be
directly proportional to applied voltage.

▲ Figure 5.10

The applied and rectified voltages have the waveforms shown (figure
5.10a). The latter is half sinusoidal as is the current if load is resistive.
If the load is inductive or capacitive the current waveform shape is
altered. By suitable choice of L and C values, smoothing is
introduced. To estimate the effect of current obtained from half-wave
rectification one must consider the process for which current is used.
For electrolysis or battery-charging, current is unidirectional and used
in half-wave pulses, as shown. The effect of current is equivalent to
that of a smaller D.C. flowing at a constant value over the time of a
complete cycle. The average value of a sine wave is or 0.6365

times the maximum value but since one half of the wave is
suppressed, the average output currents ID must be taken over a
complete cycle and is thus: or 0.318 times Im (the peak value).

If the current is used for its heating or electro-magnetic effect, the

r.m.s. value over a full cycle should be considered. The r.m.s. value
for a sinusoidal waveform was deduced mathematically from
. For a full cycle, half of which is non-conducting,

the r.m.s. value is . The relation of r.m.s. and average

values to maximum or peak value for a sinusoidal half wave has not
been deduced from first principles, but forms a useful exercise and
should be attempted by a student for either a mathematical or
graphical solution.

Example 5.7. A half-wave rectifier is connected in series with a 18.8

Ω resistor and copper-sulphate voltameter of negligible resistance.
The rectifier is assumed to have a constant resistance of 1.2 Ω in the
forward direction. Determine the equivalent values of the D.C.
currents which would deposit the same amount of copper and
produce the same heating effect as the rectified current. The supply
voltage has an r.m.s. value of 40 V. Neglect the effects of polarisation
of the voltmeter (3 decimal places).

Peak value of applied voltage =

Average value of rectified current =

The same amount of copper will be deposited by a D.C. current of 0.9

A flowing for the same time as a rectified current. Similarly r.m.s.
value of rectified current = . Similarly the same

amount of heat is produced in a resistor by a D.C. current of 1.414 A

flowing for the same time as a rectified current. During the non-
conducting period the P.I.V. applied to the rectifier is equal to the
maximum supply voltage Vm. To compare different rectifier
arrangements, it is usual to evaluate the P.I.V. in terms of average
output voltage. Thus for a half-wave arrangement the ratio is

FULL-WAVE (ONE PHASE BI-PHASE CONNECTION). Here 2

diodes conduct on alternate half cycles of supply voltage, and the
output voltage and current waveforms are illustrated in figure 5.11 – a
resistive load is assumed. The average value (ID and VD) for the
current and voltage waves is the same as for a full sine wave,

(0.6365) times maximum value. Similarly the r.m.s. value (I and V) is

0.707 times the maximum value. Thus:

VD = 0.6365 Vm and ID = 0.6365 Im, also V = 0.707 Vm and I = 0.707

Im. From these can be deduced:

VD = 0.9 V and ID = 0.9 I where V and I are the r.m.s. values.

It is noted that as Vm is the peak value of the forward voltage applied

to a diode, it is the voltage of each half of a transformer secondary
winding and so the maximum P.I.V. which a diode must withstand is 2
Vm. This P.I.V. is applied to 2 rectifiers in series, but since one is
conducting the other must withstand the full voltage or
. The half-wave arrangement employs a

centre-tap transformer, and is used for older valve diodes where the 2
anodes and a single cathode are accommodated in one glass
envelope. A transformer is essential, although its use is uneconomic,
since each half of the secondary is used only half the time, while
insulation for twice the voltage of a half-winding is needed. The D.C.
side can however be completely isolated from the A.C. mains with
such a transformer.
▲ Figure 5.11

Example 5.8. A half-wave rectifier is connected in series with a

moving-iron ammeter and a permanent magnet moving-coil ammeter.
The supply is sinusoidal. The reading on the moving-iron instrument
is 10 A. Find the reading on the other ammeter. Estimate the readings
on both meters if full-wave rectification is used. The moving-iron
meter indicates the r.m.s. value of current while the moving-coil meter
indicates the average value of the rectified current (2 decimal places).

For a full wave, r.m.s. value = Max. value

Average value = Max. value × = 0.6365 Max. value

For a half wave, r.m.s. value = Max. value

Average value = Max. value × = 0.318 Max. value

On half wave, maximum value = 2 × 10 = 20 A

Average value = 20 × 0.318 = 6.36 A

Thus the moving-coil ammeter registers 6.36 A

On full wave, since maximum value = 20 A

Then r.m.s. value = 20 × 0.707 = 14.14 A

The moving-iron meter will indicate 14.14 A

Also, average value = 20 × 0.6365 = 12.73 A

The moving-coil meter will indicate 12.73 A.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION (ONE-PHASE BRIDGE

CONNECTION). The arrangement is illustrated in figure 5.12 showing
a full-wave system whose average and r.m.s. values of voltage and
current are the same as for full-wave rectification. Thus, e.g. VD =
0.6365 Vm or 0.9 V where VD is the D.C. output voltage. Vm the peak
and K the r.m.s. value of the applied A.C. voltage. The P.I.V. is the full
transformer voltage since in relation to the applied potential the two
rectifiers are in series but only one is conducting.

A transformer generally provides the desired output voltage and

isolation from the mains.

Example 5.9. A permanent magnet moving-coil voltmeter which

requires 10 mA for full-scale deflection is used on a 110 V A.C.
system. A suitable bridge-connected instrument rectifier with a
forward resistance of 2.5 Ω per unit is available. Find the necessary
series resistor value (4 significant figures).
▲ Figure 5.12

For a full-wave sinusoidal supply, since the ratio of r.m.s. to average

values is the form-factor, this value can be used. Thus
.

The average value of rectified direct voltage . Let R be

the value of the required series resistor. There are two rectifier units
in series when conduction occurs during a half cycle. Thus the
average value of D.C. current required by an instrument for full-scale
deflection, i.e. to read 110 V A.C., is 10 × 10–3 A.

So

Required series-resistor value = 9910 – 5 = 9905 Ω

HALF-WAVE (THREE PHASE). Although single-phase systems often

have an advantage of cost in low-power arrangements, three-phase
systems can achieve large power smoothing without expensive
components. Because for given load a large capacitor reduces ripple
but costs more and creates higher peak currents in the transformer
secondary and supply feeding it. With a three-phase supply and 3
diodes (figure 5.13) the pulsing nature of the unidirectional current is
decreased – nearing a D.C. current. Current conduction occurs at the
diode whose anode is at a +ve potential with respect to the cathode.
Figure 5.14 shows that any one diode conducts for of a cycle.

Assume diode D1 conducts, as the potential across it falls and that

across D2 rises, conduction must transfer when the load potential
equals that across D1. As the red phase voltage decreases, the
potential across D1 falls further and the load potential now acts as a
back voltage, so D1 stops conducting. The load is now supplied by
the yellow phase via D2 and current passes from one diode to the
next and its value never falls to zero.
▲ Figure 5.13

▲ Figure 5.14

For a resistive load the output current and voltage waveforms are
similar and represented by rectangular blocks. The circuit was used
widely for plating equipment as the arrangement has a higher
efficiency and a lower voltage regulation than a three-phase bridge
rectifier. It can be shown mathematically that there is a definite
relation between the D.C. output and A.C. applied voltages. This
relation is written as where N is the number of diodes

or rectifying circuits. VD is the average value of the output D.C.

voltage and Vm is the maximum or peak value of the applied forward
voltage – here a phase voltage.

Thus for the three-phase arrangement in figure 5.14 there are 3

rectifying circuits and:

or where V is the r.m.s. value of the applied

voltage.

The P.I.V. is the full peak line voltage applied across a rectifier unit
when it is not conducting. Here the ratio is:

An alternative method of achieving full-wave rectification involves a 2-

diode system with a centre tap on the transformer, known as bi-phase
rectification. Such systems provide D.C. output for a load but are not
steady in D.C. voltage. These waveforms may be adequate to supply
a load such as a D.C. motor, but some loads require a steady D.C.
voltage achieved by introduction of smoothing components (C and L).
In this regard D.C. supply circuits may be referred to as
‘unsmoothed’, the level of smoothing being achieved by the size and
cost of the capacitors used to ‘filter’ the output waveform.
FULL-WAVE (THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONNECTION OR 6-PULSE
RECTIFICATION). A three-phase rectifier operating on a transformer
output will, as a result of the overlapping phases, produce a
smoothed D.C. output. For this arrangement 6 diodes are used,
connected into the three-phase lines, as shown by figure 5.15. For an
explanation of circuit action consider the voltage between the R–Y
lines (figure 5.15) with Red +ve with respect to Yellow. Disregarding
the effect of the other line voltages, it is seen that diodes D1 and D5
conduct until the voltage falls to zero and reverses with the Yellow
line becoming +ve with respect to Red. Diodes D2 and D6 will conduct
and full-wave rectification will occur. The D.C. load voltage and
current conditions for one cycle of supply voltage are shown by the
second illustration, where diodes 1, 2, 5 and 6 are involved. The
advantage of three-phase rectification over single phase is its ease of
achieving a reasonable level of smoothing for large power loads
without expensive smoothing components.

If the conditions for the Y–B and B–R lines are considered the
appropriate diodes will be conducting and the illustrations of figure
5.15 can be studied. If all 3 voltage conditions between the lines are
considered, it is seen that a level of output voltage is reached so that,
as the voltage across any conducting diode circuit falls below this
value, the conduction ceases but D.C. continuity is maintained
through the pair of diodes in a parallel circuit across which voltage
rises. The concept of a commutating switch is useful here with each
diode circuit conducting for a sixth of a cycle, with the switch having 6
positions. In the general formula, the number of rectifying diode
circuits is 6 – 2 for each voltage cycle, one for forward and one for
reverse. Thus N = 6 and if Vm is the maximum value of applied line
voltage then:
▲ Figure 5.15

or where V is the line r.m.s. value.

Note that, as for the single-phase bridge arrangement, there are 2

diodes in series but as one is conducting, the ratio of:

The expression for VD was developed in terms of a line voltage, i.e.

with no transformer present. In practice a transformer is used as it
provides a way of obtaining the required D.C. voltage value from a
fixed A.C. supply. Such a transformer may be delta or star connected
and VD developed in terms of the transformer phase voltage – as was
done for the three-phase, half-wave condition.
Vphm is the maximum value of a phase voltage and Vph is the phase
r.m.s. value. For a very high power rectification some methods of
three-phase rectification use Star and Delta outputs to produce ‘12
pulse rectification’ where each output is rectified with its own three-
phase bridge, the rectifier outputs being connected in parallel or
series to reduce ‘ripple voltage’ further (typically 2.5%) and the effects
of current harmonics on the supply. Such methods are generally not
used on lower power (usually single-phase) systems.

Example 5.10. For a three-phase, half-wave rectifier express (a) the

output voltage variation as a percentage of the mean value (1
decimal place). (b) If the latter is 2000 V calculate the P.I.V. (2
significant figures). (c) If the supply is at 400 V and the transformer
primary is in delta with the secondary in star, find the step-up ratios
for each phase.

(a) For three-phase, half-wave rectification, any one diode conducts

for a third of a cycle. The conducting period is for 120°, spread 60°
either side of the maximum value. The change-over occurs when the
voltage is at the 30° value or .

Thus output voltage varies from Vm to 0.5 Vm = 0.5 Vm and mean

value of D.C. output = 0.827 Vm

(b) If VD = 2000 Then P.I.V. = 2000 × 2.1 = 4200 V

(c) Also VD = 1.17 V where V is the r.m.s. value of a phase applied
voltage. So . This is a secondary phase voltage but the

primary voltage per phase = 400 V.

So step-up ratio

Battery charging by rectifier

When a rectifier operates in the forward direction, the supply voltage

is countered by the battery e.m.f. which reduces the voltage
producing the charging current. The action is illustrated by a half-
wave arrangement (figure 5.16).
▲ Figure 5.16

When the rectifier output voltage exceeds the battery, output current
flows into the battery to charge it. During the complementary half-
cycles, a rectifier offers no conduction and a reverse current does not
flow. Thus charging is possible and an actual effective current value
can be determined by making a graphical solution in accordance with
figure 5.16. The rectified voltage wave is plotted, the battery e.m.f. set
off and the resultant voltage waveform drawn. Instantaneous values
of current are deduced from where Rb is the battery internal

resistance and Rx the variable control resistance value. The average

for the complete cycle is determined in accordance with procedures
previously established. Thus where n is the number of

mid-ordinates for a complete cycle. The deduced value of current is

that indicated by an ammeter. Rectifiers have a characteristic which
drops part of the input voltage (which for silicon devices is typically
0.7 V) plus a non-linear equivalent resistance. At high frequencies
this voltage drop distorts the waveform and dissipates power. One
aspect of most rectifications from the peak input voltage to the peak
output voltage is caused by this built in voltage drop (which can be as
low as 0.3 V for the Schottky diode). Half-wave rectification and full-
wave rectification with a centre-tapped secondary will have peak
voltage loss of 1-diode drop (0.3 to 0.7 V). Bridge rectification will
have a 2-diode loss drop (0.6 to 1.4 V). These will reduce output
voltage and limits the available output voltage if very low A.C.
voltages must be rectified. For high-voltage A.C. systems this is less
of a problem.

Practice Examples
5.1 A D.C. supply of 100 V is applied to a coil of resistance 10 Ω and
inductance 10 H. Find the current 0.1 s after switching on, and the
time for the current to reach 5 A (both 3 decimal places).
5.2 A resistor is connected across the terminals of a 20 μF capacitor
previously charged from a D.C. supply to 500 V. If the p.d. falls to
300 V in 0.5 min, determine the resistor value (3 significant
figures).
5.3 The field winding of a separately excited D.C. generator has an
inductance of 10 H and a resistance of 50 Ω. There is a discharge
resistance of 50 Ω in parallel with the coil. The coil is energised by
a D.C. supply at 200 V which is suddenly switched off. Find the
field current 0.04 s after the instant the supply is switched off (3
decimal places).
5.4 A resistor of 100 kΩ is connected in series with a 50 μF capacitor
to a D.C. supply of 200 V. Calculate the voltage across the
capacitor and the current at a time 0.2 s after switching on (both 2
decimal places).
5.5 The time constant of a coil is 2.0 and the inductance is 15 H.
Determine the current 0.2 s after connecting the coil to a 300 V,
D.C. mains. Find the time taken for the current to reach half its
maximum steady value (3 decimal places).
5.6 A 1 μF capacitor is charged from a D.C. supply to 50 V, then
discharged through a 5 MΩ resistor. After 5 s another 5 MΩ resistor
is connected in parallel with the first. Determine the voltage after a
 further 5 s have elapsed (2 decimal places), and find the capacitor
current (1 significant figure).
5.7 A relay coil has a 1 kΩ non-inductive resistor connected across it
and the parallel arrangement is connected to a 50 V D.C. supply.
The relay data is: Resistance 2 kΩ, Inductance 100 H, Operating
current 10 mA, Release current 1 m A. Find the time taken by the
relay to (a) operate when the supply is applied (3 significant
figures) and (b) release when the supply is removed. Assume
instantaneous operation when the current reaches both the operate
and release values (4 significant figures).
5.8 A circuit has a 2 μF capacitor in series with a 100 kΩ resistor
used to control another device so that if the p.d. across the
capacitor reaches 63.2 V its instant discharge is effected and the
voltage, applied to the circuit, recharges the capacitor as before. If
the applied voltage is 100 V, find: (a) the initial current (1 significant
figure) and (b) the charging current at the instant before the
capacitor is discharged (3 significant figures). Sketch a current/time
curve for the current in the resistor throughout the charging and
discharging sequence and (c) determine the frequency of the
sequence.
5.9 A metal rectifier, a moving-coil ammeter and a thermo-junction
ammeter are connected in series across a 2 V supply. The rectifier
has a forward resistance of 20 Ω, an infinite reverse resistance and
the resistances of the ammeters are neglected. When a D.C.
supply is applied, the ammeters give identical readings. With an
A.C. supply at 50 Hz and 2 V (r.m.s.) the readings are different.
Calculate the actual meter readings (1 significant figure).
5.10 Given that a three-phase, 50 Hz supply is at 450 V between
lines and feeds a delta-star transformer with primary to secondary
turns ratio 1:5, determine the D.C. output voltage on no-load from a
suitably connected full-wave rectifier, and the ripple voltage size (1
decimal place) and frequency (1 significant figure).
 It was found that the dynamos in a power house six miles
away were repeatedly burned out, due to the powerful high
frequency currents set up in them, and which caused heavy
sparks to jump through the windings and destroy the
insulation!
Credited to Nikola Tesla regarding the Colorado tests of
1898–1900

A.C. generators or alternators (as they are also called) operate on the
same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction as do D.C.
generators. In Chapter 7, Volume 6, we introduced the basic laws of
electromagnetic induction, and considered the principles of e.m.f.
generation by dynamic induction. Generation of an alternating or A.C.
voltage is accomplished by a relatively simple arrangement but, if the
A.C. generator is to function as a machine, distinct from the D.C.
generator, it is clear that further work is needed. The advantages of
A.C. over D.C., from a power generation and applications view point,
have been discussed but if both generators are compared, the A.C.
generator wins out because it does not need a commutator (as there
is no need to invert the opposite negative half-wave cycle) and
remembering our discussion of the transformer (Chapters 1 – 3) it
can easily step up or step down voltage so that a low-voltage A.C.
current can be made into a high-voltage A.C. current and vice versa.
If it is just a relative movement of conductors with respect to the
magnetic field it is irrelevant whether the field moves and the
conductors are stationary or vice versa. Thus we have 2 operational
modes available to the machine designer but the arrangement of
moving field with fixed armature is usually preferred due to reasons to
be discussed. A rotating magnetic field which continuously changes
direction is also a key principle to A.C. motor operation. The basics of
machine construction are here considered before the main A.C.
generator theory is given.

The A.C. Generator

The A.C. generator or alternator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating
current. The term ‘synchronous A.C. generator’ or ‘A.C. generator’ is
used as a direct comparison with the ‘D.C. generator’. The term
alternator is also used by engineers, although this usually refers to
small rotating machines driven by yachts, automotive and other
combustion engines. Marine alternators, typically 12 or 24 V, are used
in boats and yachts and are similar to vehicle alternators but with
adaptation to the harsh salt-water environment. They are designed to
be explosion proof so brush sparking will not ignite explosive gas
mixtures in an engine room. The main types of A.C. generators in
common use today are now considered, generating electricity using
the same principle as D.C. generators. When the magnetic field
around a rotating conductor changes a current is induced in the
conductor. Typically a rotating magnet turns within a stationary set of
conductors wound in coils on an iron core. The field cuts across the
conductors generating an induced e.m.f. as the mechanical input
causes a rotating magnet to turn. A rotating magnetic field will induce
an A.C. voltage in the windings. Often there are 3 sets of windings,
physically off set so the rotating magnetic field produces a three-
phase current, displaced by period with respect to each other.

Rotating-armature type

A.C. is always produced in a basic generator. The provision of a

reversing switch – or commutator, results in D.C. but, if A.C. is
needed slip-rings are used. A machine of this type is constructed like
a D.C. generator with a fixed-field system and a moving armature or
‘rotating-armature’ alternator is common for small machines up to 40
kVA and voltages of 450 V. It is a cheaper machine than an A.C.
generator constructed on the rotating-field principle, because a D.C.
generator or suitably sized motor uses slip-rings, replacing the
commutator. A D.C. armature winding is retained and tappings are
brought out to the slip-rings, as required for single- or three-phase
supply. The number of poles is chosen to suit the speed of the prime-
mover and the required frequency. Yoke and field system construction
follows D.C. practice and separate excitation. The generator voltage
waveform is not exactly sinusoidal but is acceptable for applications
where this alternator type is used.

Rotating-field type

The stationary portion is called the stator and carries the armature
conductors while the field system moves and is called the rotor. The
magnetic field is produced by energising the pole windings with D.C.
through slip-rings from a D.C. generator (the exciter), usually driven
off the main shaft with D.C. voltage below 110 V, although 220 V or
440 V may be used. A stator arrangement has an advantage in that it
can be uniformly slotted and wound for high voltage working. As no
centrifugal forces are involved, a greater insulation thickness can be
used and there is more room for windings and end-connections than
if these were on a moving rotor. Bracing end-connections against
electro-magnetic forces, evident under S.C. conditions, is easier and
more effective. A rotor can be made compact, with a construction
allowing a low-voltage, high-current winding to withstand the large
centrifugal forces encountered. The stator core is built from
laminations insulated from each other, like the armature of a D.C.
machine, but for small A.C. generators each lamination may be a
complete ring. The rotating-field machine is built in 2 main forms
under the general category of the Salient-Pole Rotor or the Cylindrical
Rotor.

SALIENT-POLE ROTOR. The salient-pole type of field construction is

used for slow and medium speeds and may be driven by steam-
engines, water-wheels or turbines and slow-speed diesel engines.
Construction is distinguished by a machine having a large diameter
compared to its axial length. The basic arrangements are shown in
figure 6.1.

Pole-pieces are similar to those used in D.C. machines and bolted to

a flanged magnet wheel of solid or spoked construction. Smaller
machines may have poles fitted to a solid hub.

The number of poles varies from 4 to 40, usually made from steel
laminations or cast-iron with laminated pole-shoes. The pole-shoe
width is of a pole-pitch and its shape chosen to provide a sinusoidal

flux-density distribution across the air-gap. Field windings follow D.C.

machine practice, except that effective bracing is needed; to achieve
this a copper strip wound on edge, suitably insulated, is used. In rotor
construction for a three-phase A.C. generator, slots are uniformly
distributed around the inside periphery of the stator and spaced to
allow 3 or multiples of 3 to be accommodated in a pole-pitch.
Assuming a 16-pole machine and 3 slots per pole per phase, 9 slots
are needed for a pole-pitch, giving 144 slots in total. The number of
slots/pole/phase is decided by voltage and waveform design
requirements, as is the shape of the stator slots which can be open-
rectangular or semi-enclosed.
▲ Figure 6.1

CYLINDRICAL ROTOR. This consists of a steel forging, out of which

rotor winding slots are milled. The shaft may be integral with the field
system or, for a large rotor, made from 2 identical parts bolted to the
ends of the magnet unit. The number and spacing of slots is fixed by
the number of poles. Figure 6.2 shows 2- and 4-pole rotor systems

where of a pole pitch is slotted, leaving for the pole centre. Field

windings are made up from coils of copper strips, wound as for the
salient-pole rotor.
▲ Figure 6.2

Steel or manganese-bronze wedges are driven into the slots to hold

the winding against the centrifugal forces and special methods secure
the end-connections, since the mechanical stress which the copper
experiences can be high. Non-magnetic steel retaining rings or end-
caps, which screw on to the rotor, are usually provided to cover the
end-connections, once clamped and braced between bakelised-paper
and hardwood blocks. Because of the rotor’s smooth surface, cooling
is achieved by forced ventilation, as there is virtually no fanning
effect, unlike the salient-pole machine, so the rotor has suitable air-
ducts. Construction permits it to be driven at high speeds and the
generator is associated with steam or gas turbines. Because of speed
considerations, the diameter is limited to 1 to 1.3 m and, to achieve
high electrical output, axial length is large. This machine is
characterised by its shape: length is 4 to 5 times its diameter.

Stator construction follows the salient-pole machine except that

because of its length, cooling issues are more important and
influence design. Laminations are punched and assembled into a
fabricated steel frame so that axial air-vents and radial ducts allow
the air streams provided by rotor or external fans to circulate. The
A.C. generator is enclosed in a steel case, and air is fed into the air-
gap and cooling passage-ways at the ends of the stator, discharging
through radial ducts into the space between the stator core and
casing. Air is filtered and a closed-circuit system is common with air
passed through a cooler. For marine work, a composite A.C.
generator and sea-water cooler unit is often used.

Complete machine enclosure reduces noise, and for large power-

station units, further development uses hydrogen instead of air as the
cooling medium. Hydrogen cooling reduces windage loss and
increases heat removal, permitting a 1% efficiency increase and a
20% rating increase. Hydrogen cooling also results in a windage
noise reduction, less insulation oxidation and reduced fire risk.
Disadvantages include the requirement of the cooling system, gas-
tight shaft-seals and the need for an explosion-proof construction.

Excitation Arrangements
Modern methods of energising the A.C. generator field are placed
under 2 headings: (1) Rotary excitation and (2) Static excitation
systems. At first the field current was obtained from a separate D.C.
generator but with development of the semiconductor rectifier, other
excitation methods were added to give desired characteristics. One
such characteristic for a marine alternator is a fast response speed to
the Automatic Voltage Regulator (A.V.R.). It is usual practice to
‘direct-on’ start large induction motors which may have start currents
comparable with the full-load current of the supply alternator. A.V.R.
controls the field current to keep output voltage constant. If output
voltage from stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in
demand, more current is fed into the rotating field coils through the
voltage regulator. This increases the magnetic field around the field
coils which induces a larger voltage in the armature coils, so the
output voltage is brought back up to its original voltage. Both
analogue and digital A.V.R. systems exist, where in the former the
terminal voltage of an A.C. generator is fed back by a feedback circuit
and the difference between the terminal voltage and a reference
voltage circuit’s output. In the latter, the output voltage of an A.C.
generator is produced through a full-wave rectifier and converted to a
digital signal by an Analogue to Digital (A/D) converter by thyristor
with field current control. The thyristor remains non-conductive until a
firing pulse is applied through the gate to cathode junction (so
controlling the firing pulses). If the anode is +ve with respect to
cathode when the pulse is applied a silicon-controlled rectifier will
conduct and stay conducting until the anode voltage goes –ve. Thus
current goes to zero. A.V.R. regulates the voltage applied to the
generator as a generator can draw a large amount of power from the
source, especially for diesel generators and avoids the changing load
causing voltage fluctuations that could damage a generator. Transient
voltage performance is important and as the voltage dip is a function
of alternator reactance, this must be accounted for, even at the
expense of machine size and cost. In relation to excitation, due to the
high inductance of the field systems of the exciter and main
alternator, large time constants may be involved. Many excitation
designs use field-forcing techniques, with the 2 main excitation
methods now considered.

Rotary excitation systems

The D.C. generator or exciter is usually mounted on an extension of

the main alternator shaft. For large A.C. synchronous generators, as
used in power stations, 2 or more exciters may be used in series
(cascade). The first exciter energises the field of the next, the output
of which supplies a second larger exciter field or alternator field.
Smaller marine machines do not require this cascade exciter
arrangement but a small pilot exciter may be used, of a permanent-
magnet field system rotating within a stator containing the armature
coils. Generated A.C. voltage is fed into a rectifier system, the D.C.
output feeding the field of the main exciter. Excitation reliability is
ensured as a D.C. generator by itself may fail to excite due to residual
magnetism loss. With the advent of silicon semiconductor diodes,
able to handle large powers, D.C. generator exciters are now largely
replaced by an arrangement dispensing with commutator, slip-rings
and associated brush gear. Thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier
static excitation systems are common as they require little
maintenance.

THE BRUSHLESS A.C. GENERATOR. In this machine the exciter

consists of an A.C. armature mounted on the main alternator shaft
rotating within a normal D.C. field system. The armature A.C. output
is rectified by diodes mounted on and revolving with the shaft (figures
6.3a and 6.3b). The diode assembly D.C. output is fed to the rotating
field of the main alternator by leads taken through or secured to the
drive shaft. Exciter and alternator can be mounted in a common
frame and air space, forming a brushless generator. A 2-bearing
arrangement is used and maintenance requirements are reduced as
there is no commutator, slip-rings or brush gear. The brushless A.C.
generator illustration (figure 6.3a) was provided originally by the
Brush Electrical Company of Loughborough, England.

The machine can be made self-exciting as long as sufficient residual

magnetism is present. As no commutator is required, interpoles are
replaced by permanent magnets fixed within the interpolar spaces.
Alternatively the exciter main poles are built up with permanent-
magnet laminations. Adequate residual voltage at the main alternator
terminals is ensured to overcome the impedance of any components
of the exciter field circuits.
▲ Figure 6.3

Unlike a conventional alternator-exciter arrangement, since power

supply for the A.V.R. cannot be obtained from the exciter armature, it
is obtained from a pilot exciter or reliable stationary D.C. supply, or
from an A.C. generator output using rectifiers. The disadvantage of
this last method is that if a three-phase ‘short-circuit’ occurs the main
machine voltage collapses. Alternator current has an initial high value
but decays rapidly so the machine circuit-breaker does not ‘trip’.
Under-voltage or instantaneous-current protection must be fitted, but
if these are not desired auxiliary S.C. transformers must be provided.
Transformers ensure an added power supply to the exciter field or
A.V.R. and enable the main alternator to maintain sufficient S.C.
current to trip associated circuit-breakers. ‘Field suppression’
introduces a further complication for brushless machines which can
be solved with thyristors on the main alternator rotor but exciter field
suppression is used and although this results in a longer period to
achieve complete and correct machine ‘shutdown’ it is generally
satisfactory. Rectifier diode rating depends on the full-load excitation
current and the cooling arrangements, i.e. amount of air and heat-
sink areas. As transient voltages are induced in the rotor during a
stator three-phase short circuit, the P.I.V. rating must be sufficient to
withstand prolonged induced voltages and currents. Diodes are
arranged in a bridge connection with a combination of units in series
or parallel to avoid a machine ‘shutting down’ since diode failure by
internal S.C. breakdown clears to an open circuit due to over current.
Diodes must be checked periodically but a rotor insulation test should
be made with the diodes disconnected and isolated or with a
temporary short circuit applied across each such unit.

Static excitation systems

This heading covers self-regulating and thyristor excitation. For these

methods, an A.C. generator requires slip-rings and brush gear but no
rotating exciter. There are various systems developed by different
manufacturers to provide a desired voltage regulation performance
for ‘direct-on starting’ large motors.

Self-regulating systems are divided into those relying on excitation

power taken from the main alternator output and conveyed to the field
by a combination of transformers, inductors and rectifiers, using
A.V.R. As close voltage regulation cannot be obtained by
transformers and inductors alone A.V.R. provides closer regulation –
typically ±1%. Without A.V.R., ±5% regulation is achieved. Figure 6.4
shows a typical arrangement.
▲ Figure 6.4

Because of added compound transformers or inductors, a field-

forcing effect is achieved when a large alternator load current passes.
With the A.V.R., in series with the alternator field, the voltage dropped
across it can be lowered by the control current and an increased
voltage applied across the field, resulting in an added field-forcing
effect. Like the brushless machine, the need for sufficient generated
terminal voltage under S.C. conditions is clear. Compound
transformers achieve this and currents up to 5 times normal can
operate machine circuit-breakers. Initial voltage build-up when the set
is run up to speed is provided by a pilot exciter, permanent-magnet
exciter field inserts or a special starting circuit with a relay which
shorts out exciter-circuit impedance until voltage builds up.

Thyristor excitation systems were developed to exploit the benefits of

electronic control. High-efficiency silicon rectifiers and thyristors result
in small size and weight without large iron cores and rotating exciters.
The thyristor acts as rectifier for which conduction can be controlled.
In addition to a normal diode anode and cathode, it has a 3rd
electrode, ‘the gate’. When a thyristor is forward biased by a half-
cycle of applied A.C. voltage, it conducts when the gate is pulsed with
the correct polarity but stops conducting at the end of the half-cycle. If
the next half-cycle is to conduct a second thyristor is needed with its
gate pulsed accordingly. Thyristors are arranged like diodes used in
rectification, although for a bridge assembly only 2 thyristors need be
used with diodes in series in opposite arms. The instant a thyristor
conducts or ‘fires’ is controlled during the half-cycle and thus switch-
on is delayed, so the power level averaged over several cycles is less
than when no delay is added. Variation of delay length varies average
power, with the system known as ‘phase shift’ control. An alternative
system employs ‘burst triggering’ control with both systems
controlling conducted power. When excitation thyristors are used,
irrespective of the control method employed, the A.C. field current is
varied by the static exciter.

Figure 6.5 shows a typical thyristor-controlled excitation arrangement.

A.V.R. is built into the system but as the electronics involved require
specialist knowledge, the equipment and its operation is treated in
block form. A three-phase voltage-sensitive measuring unit is shown
with a transistor error amplifier, triggering circuit and half-wave
thyristor output stage. As for excitation systems, provision is made for
some of the field power to be obtained from excitation current
transformers (not shown) in the A.C. generator output. This
arrangement ensures that, in the event of a short-circuit, excitation is
maintained.
▲ Figure 6.5

System operation can be followed with reference to figure 6.5. Three-

phase A.C. generator terminal voltage is applied to the measuring
unit where it is rectified and applied across a resistor/zener-diode
reference bridge. The bridge signal output, a measure of generator
voltage error, passes to the amplifier and is fed into a trigger circuit.
The bigger the amplified signal the greater the delay time before the
trigger fires the thyristor to allow half-wave rectified current-flow
through the field winding. Thus if the terminal voltage rises due to
load reduction, the thyristor firing delay time is extended. The greater
the delay, the smaller the average field current, with consequent
lowering of machine-generated voltage. Conversely, terminal voltage
reduction reduces delay time, so firing commences earlier in the
rectified half-wave and average current rises with consequent
generated voltage increase. A voltage build-up relay unit is shown
which operates as other static-excitation systems, building up voltage
by residual magnetism during the initial starting up. This system
controls voltage regulation to an accuracy of ±1% from no-load to full-
load.

The Speed-Frequency Equation

Before considering the conditions for generation of e.m.f. by an
alternator, we consider the basic relationship between: alternating
voltage frequency, the speed at which the machine is driven and the
number of poles, since output frequency depends on the number of
poles and the rotational RPM speed. The synchronous speed
corresponds to a particular frequency, e.g. for a 2-pole system at 50
Hz it is 3000 rev/min, but at 60 Hz may be 3600 rev/min. The term
synchronous speed used in connection with motors is introduced
here since speed directly relates to frequency, and the equation
developed relates to both alternators and motors. From basic theory
an A.C. waveform voltage is generated as a coil passes through 2
pole-pitches, so the waveform frequency is the number of cycles
generated per second.

If ƒ = number of cycles per second or number of hertz, then the time

for one cycle = second

A coil moving through 2 pole-pitches generates one cycle of e.m.f.

and if driven at a speed of N rev/min then the time for one revolution
= seconds. Hence the time taken to pass through 1 pole-pitch =

seconds if P is the number of poles. Consequently the time taken

to pass through 2 pole-pitches = seconds, so:

The time taken to move through 2 pole-pitches = time for one cycle
giving or Hz with N the synchronous speed for a

frequency of ƒ HERTZ.

Example 6.1. Find the speed at which an 8-pole, salient-pole A.C.

generator must be driven in to generate voltage at a frequency of 60
Hz (3 significant figures).
Since then rev/min.

E.M.F. equation

This is deduced in a similar way to that used for D.C. generators.

Consider figure 6.6 where the pole system and stator conductors are
shown. Every revolution one conductor is cut by ΡΩ weber, where Ρ
is the number of poles and Ω the flux per pole (in weber).

▲ Figure 6.6

The time for one revolution = seconds, so the average rate of

cutting lines of force

From Faraday’s law, the average e.m.f. generated in volts is given by

the average rate of cutting lines of force so the average e.m.f.
generated in a conductor = volts =Eav

For A.C. work, r.m.s. values are required and if sine-wave working is
assumed, the relation: Form factor = may be used.
So the r.m.s. value of e.m.f./conductor = volts and as

the r.m.s. value of e.m.f./conductor =

volts.

However, if the generated waveform is not sinusoidal the 1.11 form-

factor cannot be used. Κ is used for a general case so the
e.m.f./conductor = 2ΚΩƒ volts.

CONCENTRATED WINDING. Figure 6.6 shows all the conductors of

one-phase Zph, concentrated in one slot per pole, and is a theoretical
arrangement only. However, since conductors are spaced 1 pole-
pitch apart, then for every one, flux rises and falls simultaneously, so
the e.m.f.s rise and fall together, i.e. they are in phase. If all the
conductors under a pole-pair are connected in series, the total e.m.f.
is the phasor sum – here the arithmetical sum of the e.m.f.s per
conductor. Thus for a concentrated winding the e.m.f. of winding per
phase = 2.22 × Zph × Φ × ƒ volts.

DISTRIBUTED WINDING. A winding of one slot per pole per phase

needs a broad deep slot which alters the air-gap flux distribution and
the generated waveform. The winding would be difficult to
accommodate and a more practical arrangement is the distributed
winding which uses more than one slot per pole per phase – usually 2
or 3. Too many slots would mean the smaller teeth would be
mechanically weak and, along with other possible faults, would
vibrate, adding to mechanical noise.

Figure 6.7 shows a working condition, where the conductors in one

slot have e.m.f.s generated in them which are not in phase with those
generated in adjacent conductor slots. If all the conductors per phase
are connected in series the resultant e.m.f. will be the phasor sum,
the resultant being slightly smaller in magnitude than if a
concentrated winding were used, adding another multiplication
constant in the e.m.f. equation called the Distribution or Breadth
Factor. This term is written as KD and defined as the ratio of the
e.m.f. in a distributed winding to the e.m.f. in a concentrated winding.

▲ Figure 6.7

OA and OB are shown in figure 6.8. with KD always less than 1. If the
same number of conductors for each type of winding is considered,
for a Distributed Winding, the e.m.f. per phase = KD × e.m.f. for a
concentrated winding, or Eph = 2.22 × KD × Zph × Φ × ƒ volts.

In summary the distribution of the phase winding in several slots for

each pole-pitch improves the waveform but reduces the resultant
e.m.f. value slightly.
▲ Figure 6.8

Example 6.2. Find the no-load terminal voltage of a three-phase, 4-

pole A.C. generator. Flux per pole (sinusoidally distributed) = 0.14
weber (3 significant figures). Slots per pole per phase = 2.
Conductors per slot = 2. Distribution Factor = 0.966. The machine is
driven at 1500 rev/min and is star connected.

Terminal voltage = .

DETERMINATION OF BREADTH FACTOR. To determine KD for a

specific stator-slot arrangement, the following expression is used.
Figure 6.9 shows voltages of conductors in successive slots: AB, BC,
CD, etc. are all equal with a phase displacement of α (degrees).
Points A, B, C, D, etc. lie in a circle of centre O. Drawing OP
perpendicular to AB, then angle AOP = angle POB = α/2 since angle
AOB = α.
▲ Figure 6.9

Now AP = AO sin α/2 and AB = 2AO sin α/2

The resultant e.m.f. = AE and angle AOE = nα, if there are n slots per
pole per phase.

Now

and

or

Example 6.3. From example 6.2, find the no-load terminal voltage of
a three-phase, 4-pole alternator having 2 slots per pole per phase
with 2 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.14 Wb, the machine
speed 1500 rev/min and the connection of the phases is in star (3
significant figures).

As before

so Eph = 2.22 × 0.966 ×16 ×14 ×10–2 × 50 = 240.19 volts/phase

Terminal voltage =

COIL SPAN, PITCH OR CHORDING FACTOR. To improve output

waveform, the span of a coil may be less or greater than a pole-pitch.
In figure 6.10 the phase difference between the e.m.f.s in the coil
sides and the resultant e.m.f. is seen to be further reduced.

The two sides of the coil are not 180° apart, the span being less than
a pole-pitch. From phasor diagram (figure 6.10c), the resultant e.m.f.
is AC or = 2AB and the Pitch Factor, Ks defined as the ratio of

the actual e.m.f. to that obtained from a fully pitched coil, or

Thus
The effect of the Pitch Factor is observed if the span is 140° or less,
i.e. θ = 40° or more. For θ = 40° Ks = 0.94. The term ‘chorded’ is
used in connection with coils pitched less or greater than the pole-
pitch. Occasionally the term Winding Factor is used to include the
Distribution and Coil-span Factors.

Thus Winding Factor = Distribution Factor × Coil-span Factor.

▲ Figure 6.10

Example 6.4. The e.m.f. generated in a generator’s coil is 20 V.

Calculate the e.m.f. between the ends of two such series connected
coils, separated on the generator core by 30° electrical (2 decimal
places).

Since the voltages of the coils are out of phase by 30° (figure 6.10)
the resultant is given by:

2V where θ is the external angle of an isosceles triangle = 2 ×

internal angle.

∴ Resultant voltage = 2 × 20 × cos 15° = 2 × 20 × 0.9659 = 4 × 9.659

= 38.64 V.

Example 6.5 Find the no-load terminal voltage of a 4-pole, star-

connected, marine, turbo-alternator from the following data: Flux per
pole (sinusoidally distributed) 0.12 Wb, 4 slots per pole per phase, 4
conductors per slot, coil-span 150°, connection – star, speed 1500
rev/min (4 significant figures).
Distribution Factor

Note

Pitch Factor where θ = 180 – 150 = 30°

Generated voltage per phase

Here

∴Eph = 2 22 × 0.958 × 0.966 × (4 × 4 × 4) × 0.12 × 50

= 2.22 × 0.958 × 0.966 × 64 × 6 = 789V

Terminal voltage = .

Waveform of generated e.m.f.

For A.C. current theory and practice, ideal sinusoidal working is

assumed. As the A.C. generator is the source of e.m.f. to achieve this
condition, it is vital the generated voltage waveform approximates
closely a sine wave. For modern power-stations, synchronous A.C.
generators of 300–500 MW are used, where it is assumed that
‘mains’ voltage is sinusoidal. For marine work, although A.C.
generator sizes are smaller, every effort is made to achieve sine-
wave voltage conditions as generating capacity is both appreciable
and independent. Non-sinusoidal conditions create errors in metering,
circuit protection and plant rating and adverse effects such as excess
voltages due to unwanted harmonic resonances. In Chapter 3,
mention was made of harmonics connected with a transformer’s no-
load current. Fourier showed that an A.C. waveform of any shape can
be analysed into a fundamental sine wave and several sine waves of
harmonic frequencies. Figure 6.11 shows the resultant of a sine wave
combined separately with 2nd and 3rd harmonic sine waves. With an
even harmonic, the second half-cycle of the wave is not an exact
inverted reflection of the first, while with an odd harmonic this
condition is fulfilled.

▲ Figure 6.11

For an A.C. generator, a North magnetic pole followed by a South

pole sweeps past a conductor so the e.m.f. generated varies instant
to instant with flux density. Since air gap flux-density distribution is
similar for both poles, even though the South-pole flux is opposite to
the North-pole flux, the generated waveform has a –ve half cycle
exactly the same as the +ve half cycle. Thus only odd harmonics can
be generated. Earlier study showed that for a circuit with inductance
and capacitance, there is a frequency for which the circuit resonates.
For a series circuit this creates high currents and voltages across the
inductive and capacitive circuit parts which may be much greater than
the supply voltage. For a parallel circuit the ‘mains’ current is reduced
to a minimum but large currents arise in the inductive and capacitive
branches, again undesirable. Now a circuit not resonant at 50 Hz may
be resonant at 150 Hz. If a supply voltage with a 3rd harmonic, of
amplitude less than the fundamental (but still appreciable), is applied
to a circuit then, due to the strong 3rd harmonic e.m.f., disagreeable
effects result which wouldn’t be seen if only a fundamental sine wave
voltage of 50 Hz were used. Other generated harmonic effects disturb
and interfere with associated communication or control circuits
through induction. Designer methods to achieve sine wave
generation with minimum harmonic distortion are considered,
explaining some A.C. generator construction features.

THE AMPERE-TURN OR M.M.F. WAVE. To understand a common

treatment method let’s look at a procedure for drawing out the m.m.f.
or ampere-turn wave. Take a simple 3-turn, flat coil with conductors
arranged as in figure 6.12. If conductors a and d form one turn, the
m.m.f. available with a current of 1 ampere to set up flux is 1 ampere-
turn and is constant between the current-carrying conductors. Each
time a current-carrying conductor is passed over, the m.m.f. reverses.
If the resultant m.m.f. wave for the set of 3 turns ad, be and cf is
drawn from the series of rectangular waveforms, a stepped m.m.f.
distribution wave is obtained. The m.m.f. increases gradually across
each slot so the ampere-turn wave is more like that shown dotted, i.e.
a trapezium.
▲ Figure 6.12

ALTERNATOR WAVEFORM IMPROVEMENT. The ideal method of

obtaining a sine wave of induced e.m.f. requires armature conductors
to cut or be cut by a flux whose density is sinusoidally distributed over
a pole-pitch. In practice this is not possible but working methods,
differing for the cylindrical and salient-pole types, closely approximate
this.

Cylindrical Rotor. Since the rotor of a turbo-alternator is smooth, the

machine air-gap is uniform. The field winding is distributed over the
cylinder surface, resulting in a flux wave in space which is more or
less sinusoidal than if the field winding were concentrated in one slot
for each coil side. Consider the rotor of figure 6.13a spread out (figure
6.13b) in this 2-pole field system. The graphs show the size, location
and direction of the effective resultant m.m.f. resulting from rotor
current in the coil sides. If a smooth curve is drawn, ignoring the
steps, a trapezium is obtained which represents the m.m.f. acting at
any point along the surface of the air-gap. The trapezium is made of
several sine waves – 3 are shown, the fundamental, with the 3rd and
5th harmonics. Flux is directly proportional to m.m.f., and flux-density
distribution over a pole-pitch is sinusoidal so a sine waveform voltage
is induced if harmonic e.m.f.s are eliminated. This is achieved by
added corrective measures such as chording of the stator windings,
etc.
▲ Figure 6.13

Salient-Pole Rotor. In this case, as independent poles exist – each

with its own field winding, a sinusoidal flux-density waveform in the
air-gap across the pole face cannot be achieved by ‘distribution of the
field winding’. However, as the poles are small and independent they
are shaped and modified to allow one or more of the following
methods to be effective.

Method (1) Shaping of Pole-Shoes. Magnetic circuit reluctance is

varied by shaping the pole profile so the air-gap is graded, being least
at the centre of the pole-shoe, increasing towards the edges. In
practice the profile is determined by theory and the final shape
achieved by trial and error. An approximation is obtained by making
the pole-shoe radius of curvature 0.7 times the stator core inside
radius. Figure 6.14 illustrates the method and again corrective
methods are usual.
▲ Figure 6.14

Method (2) Skewing of Poles or Armature Slots. If a pole face is

sinusoidally shaped as in figure 6.15 the armature conductors’ active
lengths vary as they are cut by the field, the air-gap being uniform.
Pole edges are sine shaped and the arrangement is impractical.

One approximation is the third arrangement and an e.m.f. wave of

trapezium form results (figure 6.16). This can be corrected to give the
required fundamental sine wave.
▲ Figure 6.15

▲ Figure 6.16

The same result is obtained by fixing poles axially and skewing the
armature conductors. Method (2) is less favoured than (1) because it
does not permit easy modification once a machine is built.

Example 6.6. A 4-pole alternator, on open circuit, generates 200 V at

50 Hz, with a 4 A field current. Determine the generated e.m.f. at a
speed of 1200 rev/min and field current of 3 A, neglecting iron
saturation (3 significant figures).

The original alternator speed is given by

The generated e.m.f. E α ΦN and assuming Φ is proportional to the

exciting current then:
E α IfN so we can write and

Thus generated e.m.f. = 40 × 3 = 120 V.

Stator Windings
Mention was made of the types of slots into which stator or armature
conductors are placed. From a construction view, ‘open’ slots are
preferred (figure 6.17), one can preform and insulate the coil side,
made of one or more conductors, inserted into the slots. The main
‘open’ slot disadvantage results in teeth which encourage flux to
‘stray’ as it crosses the machine air-gap. Local magnetic leakage
from the slot is high and leakage reactance is low. Flux ‘jumps’ tooth
to tooth so a ‘ripple’ frequency is generated (figure 6.17). The ‘closed’
slot overcomes this effect but makes winding hard and gives the
machine a high leakage reactance.
▲ Figure 6.17

A ‘semi-enclosed’ slot is a compromise. Skewing of conductor slots

reduces the e.m.f. wave ripple. A ‘semi-enclosed’ slot increases
leakage reactance but reduces air-gap reluctance and is preferred for
induction-motor construction. The ‘semi-enclosed’ slot is best suited
to a multi-turn coil where, as for a D.C. winding, hand-wound or
preformed coil conductors can be inserted singly into the available
space after slot insulation is positioned. An ‘open’ slot arrangement is
suited to bar-type conductors or insulated coils, a method favoured
for high-voltage machines.

Types of windings

Winding techniques are not considered in detail. Only basic examples

are described but generally for A.C. machines ‘open-type’ windings
are used in contrast with D.C. machines where ‘closed’ windings are
needed. It is usual for smaller and rarely used rotating-armature A.C.
generators to follow D.C. practice with a closed winding provided with
tappings, brought out to the appropriate slip-rings. For a common
rotating-field alternator, the armature or stator winding is of ‘open’
type with 2 ‘free ends’ per phase.

▲ Figure 6.18

A.C. windings may be of (a) the ‘single-layer’ or (b) the ‘double-layer’

type (figure 6.18).

SINGLE-LAYER WINDINGS. For a single-layer winding each slot is

fully occupied by a conductor or coil side, an arrangement suited to
high-voltage machines or coils with a large number of conductors per
slot (figure 6.19).

The 3rd diagram of figure 6.19 shows one phase of a three-phase,

single-layer winding made from concentric, half-coiled coils. Mean
coil span equals a pole-pitch and the number of coil groups equals
the number of pole-pairs. This figure shows how the winding
explanation can be followed from the simple skeleton bar winding. In
each case one phase is shown and diagrams set out logically to
follow on. The bar winding is extended into the 2nd diagram which
shows a full-pitched concentrated winding. This in turn is developed
to show a distributed arrangement. In connection with the distributed
winding, as coils are in series, the order in which conductors are
connected is not important so other arrangements are possible, such
as concentric whole coils, shown by the 4th diagram where the
number of coil groups equals the number of poles.
▲ Figure 6.19

Both half-coiled and whole-coiled concentric windings use coils of

different spans. It can be difficult to make the ‘overhang’ or end
connections, as these pass each other. An accepted method is to
bend appropriate coils through 90° or 45° if needed, as shown by the
last diagram in figure 9.18. Another method ‘cranks’ the overhand of
the end-connections but a better alternative winding sequence as
shown (5th diagram in figure 6.19). This creates a regular
arrangement with coils of the same pitch and shape, coil-span being
equal to a pole-pitch. A ‘distributed’ effect is achieved and a lap or
wave effect obtained as a winding progresses round the stator. The
need for the necessary end-connection X between coil groups is
noted. The lap-wave arrangement may be called a ‘lattice’ winding,
from its symmetrical woven appearance.

DOUBLE-LAYER WINDINGS. For D.C. machines, the 2 winding

types, lap and wave, are the result of the way the coils per pole-pair
are connected. To assist the ‘lay’ of the coils at the ends and for
symmetrical assembly with all coils pre-formed the winding is
arranged in 2 layers with one coil side in the upper half slot and the
other coil side in the lower half slot, one pole-pitch apart. For an A.C.
winding, coils similar to those used for D.C. armatures are arranged
in lap or wave windings (figure 6.20). Coil span is often equal to a
pole-pitch but can be made slightly different if ‘chording’ is needed.
Such windings are called ‘lattice’ windings, due to their symmetry, and
are common for medium-sized, salient-pole machines for marine
work. For example, only one phase of a three-phase winding is
shown, as the other phase winding repeats the first.

▲ Figure 6.20

Example 6.7. An 11 kV alternator provides a three-phase, 50 Hz

supply if run at 3000 rev/min. It has 48 slots with 20 conductors per
slot. Each coil spans 18 teeth. Find the flux per pole, assuming it to
be sinusoidally distributed (3 decimal places).

From

A fully pitched coil spans teeth, constituting 180°

so 18 teeth
Thus

Also

Now (assuming star connection)

and since Eph = 2.22 KD Ks Zph f

then

Here and

or

The Alternator on Load

As for any e.m.f. source, A.C. generator terminal voltage falls when
current is supplied. The difference of terminal voltage between open-
circuit and load conditions depends on the current and the causes of
voltage drop inside a machine. These causes are due to: (1) machine
impedance and (2) the armature reaction effect. The terminal voltage
variation is affected by the P.F. at which a machine operates (figure
6.21) which shows the ‘on-load’ characteristic.

Before the load condition is covered in detail, the term Regulation is

introduced, which defines a key machine performance aspect,
estimated without direct loading, by developing the phasor diagram of
a machine with figures obtained from assessing tests.

▲ Figure 6.21

VOLTAGE REGULATION. The variation of terminal voltage between

full load and no load, expressed as a percentage or per unit value of
full load voltage, is termed the regulation. Thus:

(refer to
figure 6.21).
Since regulation is influenced by P.F. and load current, these are
specified when stating percentage regulation. Due to magnetic circuit
iron hysteresis, a rise of p.d. when load is thrown off will be below the
fall in p.d. when a load is applied. One method of standardised
regulation is defined by the rise in p.d. when load is thrown off,
sometimes termed regulation ‘up’ or ‘down’.

Example 6.8. Terminal voltage of a three-phase alternator is 440 V, by

adjusting the field excitation when the speed is correct and the full-
load current supplied at 0.8 P.F. (lagging). When the machine circuit-
breaker is opened and the load thrown-off, terminal voltage rises to
506 V. Estimate the voltage regulation (2 significant figures).

PHASOR DIAGRAM. The causes of internal voltage drop have been

mentioned and when considered against the generated e.m.f. and
terminal voltage, the best approach is through a phasor diagram as
phase relationships are examined and appropriate phasor procedures
followed. Unless otherwise stated, phase conditions are assumed.
When an A.C. generator supplies current, internal voltage drops
occur due to the following reasons:

(1) Armature Resistance. The voltage drop IR, caused by this factor,
is always small and usually neglected. It is proportional to the
current causing it and is in phase with the current. For the basic
phasor diagram, current is taken as the reference since the build
up of the diagram follows the procedure for a simple series circuit.
(2) Armature Reactance. The voltage drop due to this factor is
caused by individual inductive effects associated with the stator
winding. Any A.C. winding has self-inductance when carrying
 current, but the consequent reactance is often attributed to the joint
reactance of individual parts, so mention is made of slot-reactance,
end-connection reactance, etc. Overall reactance is proportional to
current and is in quadrature with it. This reactance is one
constituent part of the Xs shown on the phasor (figure 6.22).

▲ Figure 6.22

(3) Armature Reaction. The magnetic field due to the armature

current modifies the main field, altering the generated e.m.f. For a
lagging P.F., armature reaction weakens the main field, resulting in
a reduced generated voltage. For a leading P.F., the main flux is
strengthened and generated voltage rises. The overall effect of
armature reaction is represented by a reactance voltage drop again
proportional to current and in quadrature with it. This reactance is
the other constituent part of Xs shown on the phasor diagram.

Armature reactance and armature reaction produce similar effects

and are combined in so-called synchronous reactance Xs. This is not
a true reactance, but treated as such for practical purposes and
shown on the phasor diagram. If combined with the armature
resistance, synchronous impedance Zs is obtained. The effect of Zs is
represented by a voltage drop on the phasor diagram illustrating the
on-load voltage conditions. Thus for the diagram, I is the load current,
OV the terminal voltage and OE the generated voltage. The armature
resistance voltage drop (IR), the synchronous reactance voltage drop
(IXB) and the synchronous impedance voltage drop (IZB) are shown.

The phasor diagram helps determine the A.C. generator regulation if

a simple construction is made (dotted lines in figure 6.22).

In terms of the large triangle having hypotenuse OE:

Horizontal side = OX + IR or V cos φ + IR

Vertical side = VX + IXs or V sin φ + IXs

∴ OE2 = (OX + IR)2 + (VX + IXs)2

or Generated voltage

and Voltage regulation =

The following example illustrates use of figure 6.22 and its

expressions, but the regulation value obtained from this method is
higher than the actual practical value. Here we become familiar with
the terms Synchronous Impedance and Synchronous Reactance and
use of the Voltage Equation developed from the phasor diagram.

Example 6.9. An alternator has the following values: effective

resistance 0.2 Ω, synchronous reactance 1.1 Ω. The load operates
with 0.8 P.F. (lagging). Find the generated e.m.f. for a 100 A load
current and a phase terminal voltage of 250 V (3 significant figures).
 Practice Examples
6.1 A three-phase, 1000 rev/min A.C. generator supplies a 50 Hz
current to a three-phase, 120 rev/min synchronous motor.
Calculate the number of poles on both the alternator and motor.
6.2 A 440 V, three-phase, 8-pole marine alternator generates a 50 Hz
supply when driven at normal speed. If the system is converted to
60 Hz working, find the speed at which the prime-mover must run.
Assuming the same excitation value find the new system voltage (3
significant figures).
6.3 The e.m.f. generated in a coil of an A.C. generator is 20 V.
Calculate the e.m.f. between the ends of 2 such coils connected in
series, if they are displaced on the A.C. generator core by 30º
electrical (2 decimal places).
6.4 Calculate the breadth factor for a three-phase, 6-pole alternator
having 72 slots (3 decimal places).
6.5 A three-phase, 8-pole alternator has 96 slots. One side of a coil of
a 2-layer winding lies in slot 1, while the other side lies in slot 9.
Calculate the pitch factor for the winding (3 decimal places).
6.6 A 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase alternator is driven at 750 rev/min
with a single-layer winding contained in 120 slots. The flux per pole
is 0.0448 Wb. If the machine is to have a full-pitched winding and is
star connected, calculate the number of conductors per slot.
6.7 For the machine of example 6.6, if the stator winding is short-
chorded to pitch and mesh connected, what would be the

required number of conductors per slot to the nearest whole

number.
6.8 The three-phase, 2-pole, star-connected alternator of a turbo-
electric vessel supplies a 10 000 kW, mesh-connected, 50-pole
synchronous motor operating at 0.95 P.F. (lagging) and 90%
efficiency at a full-load propeller speed of 110 rev/min. Calculate
the phase currents of the alternator (1 decimal place) and the
motor (4 significant figures) when the line voltage = 3.3 kV. Find
also the kVA alternator output when supplying the motor at the
above output power (5 significant figures). Find the supply
frequency of the system on full load (1 decimal place).
6.9 When a reduced excitation current is applied to a single-phase
A.C. generator the O.C. voltage is 45 V. With the same excitation
current and the alternator terminals short-circuited, the current is
now 30 A. The stator resistance is 0.4. Ω. Estimate the
synchronous reactance of the machine (2 decimal places).
6.10 A 750 kVA, 3.3 kV, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a
resistance of 0.5 Ω per phase and a synchronous reactance of 3 Ω
per phase. Find the percentage voltage regulation when full load at
0.8 P.F. (lagging) is switched off (1 decimal place).
 A cord of three strands is not quickly broken.
Ecclesiastes 4.12

Having looked at the A.C. generator in Chapter 6 we now consider

the more complex rotating magnetic field produced when polyphase
currents flow in polyphase windings. For the induction motor and
synchronous motor, the rotating magnetic field is due to currents
arising from application of externally applied polyphase e.m.f.s. For
the alternator, this field is due to the currents through the machine
itself, currents resulting from the load circuit being completed and
supplied by the alternator’s generated voltage. Passage of such
currents through the machine windings produces an armature
reaction effect similar to that found in D.C. machines. Here, the
polyphase machine is described, with a review of the current
conditions and their overall effect. We will focus on the viewpoint of a
marine alternator, as to most mariners, installation of a suitably
powered alternator will likely provide the greatest benefits, safety and
comfort than any other single electronics component. In many cases
alternator performance is the foundation of modern high-power
systems. A typical marine diesel may have a standard alternator with
a rating of 55 A, and typical sustained output of perhaps 30 A, so
addition of a 100 A high-output alternator can more than triple the
useable power on board. Note that modern alternator RPM (e.g.
BMW, Volvo, Motorola, Hyster, Petter, etc.) may operate at 2–3 times
the engine RPM, e.g. an alternator fully output rated at 5000 RPM
can spin up to 10 000 or more, without any added increase in output.
However, when considering alternator size its output should be about
0.25–0.4 times the size of the battery banks in amp hours, so a 60 A
alternator will work well with a 240 Amp hour battery bank.

The Rotating Magnetic Field

This is best described by the simple diagram of figure 7.1, showing 3
coils displaced from each other by 120° in space and supplied by
three-phase currents themselves displaced from each other by 120°
in time. If a compass needle is mounted at the centre of the coil
system, it will rotate, and if 2 connections to the supply are
interchanged the needle rotation direction will reverse.

▲ Figure 7.1
Needle rotation shows that a rotating magnetic field results from the
combined effect of the 3 separate single-phase alternating coils’
magnetic fields. In practice the 3 single-phase windings are laid out
along the stator circumference as described for the alternator. By
choosing a suitable coil pitch, a machine can be wound for any
number of poles, provided the number is even. The magnetic field
rotation speed depends on the number of poles and the supply
frequency. Explanations of the rotating magnetic field effect are here
given by 3 different methods. One alone is likely to be sufficient, but
comprehension of all 3 will allow a better understanding of armature
reaction effects when these are introduced.

Method 1. By Consideration of the Resultant Magnetic Field

Distribution.

▲ Figure 7.2
▲ Figure 7.3

A basic approach to understanding the combined magnetic field

produced by a three-phase winding is made by considering a simple
2-pole stator with one conductor per pole per phase. In figure 7.2,
conductors A and B constitute the ‘go’ and ‘return’ conductors of a
single turn and are supplied from one phase of a three-phase
transformer. Similar conductors C and D are supplied from the yellow
phase and EF from the blue phase. Currents flowing in the stator
windings are illustrated by the figure 7.3 waveform and by
considering conditions at different instants of time. For a suitable
starting time consider Instant 1, when the Rph current is maximum.
Then the conditions shown (figure 7.4a) exist and the resultant
magnetic field is as shown. Note: the currents in the Yellow and Blue
phases are –ve with respect to the Red phase current and
represented by dots in the respective ‘go’ conductors to illustrate their
direction and are half their maximum value. The stator functions as a
solenoid with its axis along the horizontal and the resultant magnetic
field is as depicted. For Instant 2, the time is 30° later. The current in
the Red phase is still +ve but falls to of its maximum value. The

current in the Yellow phase falls to zero, while the Blue phase rises to
maximum value and is negative.
The resultant magnetic field is shown in figure 7.4b and its axis will
have rotated through 30°. For Instant 3, the Blue phase current will be
at negative maximum. The Red and Yellow phases current will be +ve
but half of maximum value. The resultant magnetic field is as shown
(figure 7.4c) and its axis will rotate through a further 30°.

▲ Figure 7.4

On examining steps (a), (b) and (c) we observe that the three-phase
currents flowing through coils, suitably displaced from each other by
120° (electrical), produce a resultant magnetic field which rotates in
time and in phase with the currents, i.e. rotating at a speed decided
by the frequency, giving rise to the synchronous speed, as seen if
alternative methods are considered.

Method 2. By Mathematical Derivation of the Rotating Field

Conditions.

For the mathematically minded student, the following method of

treating the phenomenon of a rotating magnetic field will be
appreciated. Figure 7.5 is similar to figure 7.4a, except that three-turn
phase windings are shown. For simplicity a 2-pole arrangement is
treated, the 3 individual windings produce fluxes ΦR, ΦY and ΦB each
varying in magnitude according to a sine law, but not rotating. Each is
a purely alternating flux.

We can write: ΦR =Φm sin ωt ΦY = Φm sin(ωt – 102°) ΦB = Φm sin(ωt–

240°)

The resultant is found by resolving appropriate flux vectors into

horizontal and vertical components.
▲ Figure 7.5

Thus,

ΦH = ΦR – ΦY cos 60 – ΦB cos 60
= Φm sin ωt – Φm sin(ωt – 120) cos 60
– Φm sin(ωt – 240) cos 60
= Φm[sin ωt – cos 60{sin(ωt – 120) cos 60}
+ sin(ωt – 240)]
= Φm[sin ωt – cos 60 sin(ωt – 180)*

*Note the trigonometric formula set out as follows:

Also,

*Note the trigonometric formula set out as follows:

The resultant flux has magnitude × the maximum value produced

by any one phase winding. If θ is the angle the resultant field makes
with the horizontal, then:

so the resultant field is rotating at a constant angular velocity, i.e. at

synchronous speed, since

θ = ωt = 2πft
Method 3. By Deduction of Magnetomotive Force or Ampere-Turn
Field-Producing Patterns.

Consider figure 7.6a to show one pole of a three-turn phase winding.

The procedure for drawing out the m.m.f. distribution patterns
associated with a winding was considered earlier.

▲ Figure 7.6

Let’s consider the ‘go’ and ‘return’ conductors of a single-turn phase

winding. The m.m.f. available to set up flux is constant in space
between the current-carrying conductors a and d, b and e, c and f.
Each time a conductor is passed over, the m.m.f. reverses and, if the
distribution for the set of phase conductors is drawn as in figure 7.6b
we get a series of rectangular waveforms, which when added gives
the resultant stepped distribution waveform. The m.m.f. increases
gradually across each slot, so the distribution pattern is shown dotted.
This procedure is used to find the m.m.f. distribution over one pole
pitch due to three-phase currents in their respective windings. Three
instants in time are considered and the associated phasor time
diagram drawn to illustrate current magnitudes and their relationships
occurring for each consideration. The relevant diagrams are figures
7.7a, 7.7b and 7.7c.

(a) Instant when the current in Rph is a maximum.

(b) Instant when the current in Yph is zero.

(c) Instant when the currents in Rph and Yph are +ve and half the
maximum value.

▲ Figure 7.7

Examination of the 3 m.m.f. distribution waveforms shows the

following: (1) Pole pitch is constant. (2) Movement in time, e.g. 30° of
the phasors, corresponds to a 30° space wave movement. Thus this
m.m.f. wave moves at synchronous speed and in the same direction
as the phase rotation. (3) The m.m.f. distribution wave is in time
phase with the current for a particular phase winding. If the current is
a definite value at any instant in the winding, the position and form of
the m.m.f. wave at that instant can be found.
The two waveforms are extreme shapes (figure 7.8). Both are
approximated by a fundamental constant height sine wave with 3rd
and 5th harmonics. The latter are not very important and, if care is
taken in design to minimise all the harmonics the m.m.f. wave can be
considered sinusoidal, with a maximum value with a mean between
the maximum values of the 2 limiting cases. Note that as the
magnetic path reluctance is fairly uniform, especially for a cylindrical
rotor alternator and induction motor, the flux and m.m.f. distribution
waveforms are similar.

▲ Figure 7.8

Also note the rotating m.m.f. or flux wave is always in a position

where it can combine with maximum linkages (illustrated by figure
7.9).

Thus for figure 7.9a if, e.g. current in the red phase is maximum, the
m.m.f. and flux wave is symmetrically distributed across that phase
winding and maximum flux-linkages occur. Similarly for figure 7.9b
when current is zero the m.m.f. or flux distribution is such as to have
its zero value at the centre of the winding – zero flux-linkages occur,
i.e. peak value is displaced by 90°. Reference is made to this fact
when armature reaction effects are considered.
▲ Figure 7.9

Armature reaction

The work done, in connection with a rotating magnetic field, shows

that armature currents produce a field of constant strength rotating at
synchronous speed. In figures 7.10, 7.11 and 7.12, the e.m.f.s are
generated in stator conductors by the movement of the main field
poles. Conductors of only one-phase winding are shown, those above
the N pole constituting a three-turn coil with those above the S pole.
The main flux path is shown by full lines and that of the armature
current-produced flux by dotted lines. When such current flows, an
extra magnetic effect is produced which modifies the main field, this
being the armature reaction described previously. The exact effect of
such armature reaction depends on the current phase relative to the
e.m.f.s generated by the main field.
▲ Figure 7.10

CASE 1. CURRENT IN PHASE WITH GENERATED E.M.F. When the

phase winding coil is in the position shown by figure 7.10, the flux
linking with it changes at the greatest rate and maximum e.m.f. is
generated. The armature currents produce flux which passes across
the pole shoes without directly affecting total pole flux. The effect is
purely cross-magnetising, the leading pole-tip being weakened and
the trailing pole-tip strengthened. The effective pole centre thus
moves backwards. Since the armature m.m.f. is cross-magnetising,
field flux is reduced only slightly due to saturation effects of the field
system. The generated e.m.f. is reduced by a small amount but the
waveform may be distorted. In the diagram, use is made of both
e.m.f. and current conductor ‘bands’. Since E and I are in phase, the
bands are in line and similar.

CASE 2. CURRENT LAGGING GENERATED E.M.F. BY 90°–ZERO

P.F. CONDITION. Here current bands lag cycle behind the e.m.f.

bands to produce fluxes which have a direct demagnetising effect on

the main poles (figure 10.11). The armature m.m.f. is entirely
demagnetising and the flux produced is large since the coil centre is
opposite the poles. The resultant flux in the air-gap reduces
considerably and generated e.m.f. is accordingly smaller.

▲ Figure 7.11

CASE 3. CURRENT LEADS GENERATED E.M.F. BY 90°–ZERO P.F.

CONDITION. The diagram is similar to the previous one except the
current in the armature conductors is in the opposite direction and
armature flux is reversed (figure 7.12). The current bands lead the
e.m.f. by cycle to produce fluxes with a direct magnetising effect on

the main poles. The armature m.m.f. is entirely magnetising but the
flux increase is not as big as the decrease in Case 2, due to iron
circuit saturation effects. The resulting flux increase increases the
generated voltage.
▲ Figure 7.12

The phasor diagram (continued)

An introduction has been made to the simple alternator phasor

diagram (figure 6.22) and the causes of internal voltage drop was
mentioned. These are considered in greater detail and the full
diagram developed.

ARMATURE RESISTANCE (R). ‘Effective resistance’ includes the

actual ohmic value and an extra component, arising from the uneven
current distribution in the conductors caused by irregular and
alternating fluxes across the slots. This extra resistance is usually
taken as 10% of the ohmic value and added to the true resistance to
give the effective resistance. Even after making this allowance, the
resistance voltage drop is tiny and often neglected in calculations.

ARMATURE REACTANCE (XS). The reactance, as shown on the

simple phasor diagram (figure 6.22) is repeated in figure 7.14, and
termed synchronous reactance which, from investigation of voltage
regulation, is greater than that due to the machine’s inherent
inductance. This reactance is considered to have 2 components (1)
true leakage reactance and (2) a reactance effect from the armature
reaction.

(1) Leakage Reactance (XL). The armature currents give rise to a

magnetising field which varies with frequency and cuts the
conductors to generate a small back e.m.f. This is the normal
understanding of inductance and the machine is known to have this
leakage inductance which results in a reactance value. This leakage
reactance is considered by designers under 2 main headings: (a) Slot
and tooth-tip reactance and (b) End-connection reactance (figure
7.13) and are roughly equal. The former varies with coil position
relative to the poles and a mean value is taken.

▲ Figure 7.13

(2) Armature-Reaction Reactance (Xa). This is not true reactance but

considered as such for convenience. In this context it is stressed that
armature reaction does not cause reactance, it is responsible, as
stated earlier, for a change in generated voltage, a change which is
likened to a voltage drop. Since the voltage drop is proportional to
current, it can be represented by a reactance value multiplied by a
current value. Further explanation is made in considering the
complete phasor diagram.

THE SIMPLE PHASOR DIAGRAM. This, as already developed, is

redrawn to assist in the solution of the first example (figure 7.14).

Example 7.1. A 50 kVA, 500 V, single-phase alternator has an

effective resistance of 0.2 Ω and a synchronous reactance of 1.688
Ω. Find the synchronous impedance and the voltage regulation when
a load of 100 A operates at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) is removed (1 decimal
place).
Synchronous impedance = 1.7 Ω

From figure 7.14 the generated voltage E is represented by phasor

OE.

▲ Figure 7.14

Thus

This is described as 26% ‘up’, since a voltage rise is involved. Note

the synchronous reactance, resistance and impedance are often
given in percentages rather than definite figures. This practice was
given in relation to transformers and the next example illustrates this.
Note: the percentage value refers to a voltage drop and not to an
ohmic figure.

Example 7.2. A 600 kVA, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase marine

alternator is star connected and operated at full-load 0.8 P.F.
(lagging). If the resistance and synchronous reactance values are 1%
and 6% respectively, find the percentage voltage regulation value for
the full-load condition described (2 decimal places).

If E is the generated voltage per phase and V is phase terminal

voltage then:

THE COMPLETE PHASOR DIAGRAM. In line with the treatment of

A.C. circuits and machines, a phasor diagram can be derived to
illustrate alternator operating conditions. An introduction was made to
such a diagram, with reference made to the causes of internal voltage
drops such as: resistance R, and the combined leakage reactance
and armature reaction effect (or synchronous reactance), Xs being
used. Since ‘on-load’ the main field is altered in magnitude and phase
by the armature flux, this effect is shown on the diagram and
illustrates the related effects on generated e.m.f. The diagram can be
drawn to show voltage and current phasors and the flux (the m.m.f.
vectors). In this form, figure 7.15 depicts more completely machine
operation as described. Since the m.m.f. vectors are added to those
shown on the diagram as deduced up to now, these warrant attention.

▲ Figure 7.15

Flux in the Air-Gap. When ‘on-load’, in the alternator air-gap, there

are 2 sinusoidally distributed fluxes caused by the m.m.f. distribution
waves. These fluxes rotate at synchronous speed in the same
direction. They remain in the same position relative to each other and
produce a resultant flux which is assumed sinusoidal. The fluxes and
their producing m.m.f.s are shown on the left-hand side. Thus Φ0 is
the no-load flux set up by F0 the main field m.m.f. or ampere-turns. Φa
is the armature-reaction flux and the corresponding m.m.f. or ampere-
turns is Fa. Φ is the resultant flux caused by F, the resultant m.m.f. or
corresponding ampere-turns.

Since the ‘on-load’ or resultant flux is the original flux altered by the
armature-reaction flux, the e.m.f. E0 as originally generated is
considered to be weakened and retarded by an internally generated
e.m.f. Eb as shown. The final generated e.m.f. is E1. Since Eb is
proportional to armature flux which is proportional to current I, the
effect is similar to a reactance voltage drop, in quadrature with
current. The machine is credited with Xs – a larger reactance than the
leakage reactance XL, the extra amount Xa taking care of the
armature reaction e.m.f. The term ‘synchronous reactance’, Xs is now
treated in depth and must be appreciated by the reader, and is shown
on the phasor diagram.
The phasor diagram is drawn for one phase only, although the
armature-reaction effect is due to the combined action of all the
phases in a polyphase machine. From figure 7.7 it was shown that
the armature m.m.f., due to all 3 phases, produces its maximum
value, relative to any one phase, when the current in that phase is a
maximum. It is represented by a phasor in phase with the current in
that phase. Generated e.m.f. is produced by a change in flux linked
with the associated coils, and the e.m.f. phasors are shown lagging
fluxes by 90°.

Summarising the diagram, we see it is drawn for a load current I

lagging the terminal voltage V by an angle φ. The main field ampere-
turns are shown by F0, and the e.m.f. generated by the associated
no-load flux Φ0 is E0. The armature ampere-turns Fa cause the
reaction effect or an associated e.m.f. Eb equivalent to a voltage drop
IXa. The on-load flux Φ, caused by F ampere-turns – the resultant of
F0 and Fa – is responsible for the on-load generated e.m.f. E1. The
resistance voltage drop is IR in phase with the current and the
leakage reactance voltage drop is IXL in quadrature with the current.
IXa and IXL are added to give IXS the synchronous reactance voltage
drop from which the synchronous impedance voltage drop IZS is
derived and stated as earlier:

Prediction of voltage regulation

Because of difficulties in loading and driving large alternators,

performance on load is usually determined from assessed tests.
Modern power-station generators operate up to 500 MW and marine
machines of 300–500 kW rating are common. Although the latter are
small when compared with corresponding land units, direct loading is
seldom undertaken until machines are installed on board ship, when
performance is checked against predicted values. Two performance
predicting methods are considered but both require an open-circuit
and short-circuit test to be made on machines.
Open-Circuit (O.C.) Test. This is made like that for obtaining the
magnetisation or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) for a D.C.
generator. The machine is driven at correct speed and terminal
voltage noted for various field current values. Test results when
plotted generate a curve of the type associated with a generator
O.C.C. and a check made to ensure that 50% overvoltage is obtained
without saturating the field system. This precaution covers the
requirement for a machine to generate full voltage under overload
and poor P.F. conditions.

Short-Circuit (S.C.) Test. This is made with the machine terminals

short-circuited, with a suitable current measuring instrument included
in the circuit. The machine is run at normal speed and a reduced
excitation applied. Readings of line current are noted for appropriate
field current values, the former being raised to as large a value as
possible, while keeping in mind the danger of damage overheating to
windings. Plotted test results give a straight line, so only 2 or 3
readings are needed. The O.C. and S.C. test results are often plotted
to the same base of field current or field ampere-turns as they are
used jointly for making assessment tests as described shortly.

THE SYNCHRONOUS-IMPEDANCE METHOD. This is also referred

to as the Belm Eschenberg or Pessimistic method – for the reason
set out below. The effect of armature reaction is ignored and the
alternator credited with a greater reactance value than it actually has.
In relation to the phasor diagram, the effect of Fa is accounted by the
Xa value from the windings. As the terminal-voltage value V is zero it
is assumed that all the voltage generated is used in overcoming
voltage drops IR and IXS when current circulates through a machine.
Synchronous impedance is thus obtained and used in conjunction
with the phasor diagram and regulation formula. The reasoning
appears acceptable but for the fact that ZS is measured from a S.C.
test and, if its values, as determined by the procedure considered,
are plotted to a base of excitation current it is seen to decrease as
excitation is strengthened due to field system saturation. For
calculations a value of ZS is chosen as near as possible to the
excitation under load conditions.
For the S.C. test, field current is low and the field is weak, i.e. the
magnetic circuit is unsaturated. On full-load, field current is high and
the iron nearly saturated. Under the latter condition greater opposition
is offered to the flux causing armature reaction than under the former
or test condition. For the S.C. test, more flux-linkages is associated
with the armature than occurs on load and thus Xs, as obtained from
the S.C. test, is larger than its value under normal load conditions. A
larger assessment test voltage drop occurs than in practice, giving a
pessimistic figure for voltage regulation. Figure 7.16 shows the
curves obtained from the O.C. and S.C. tests, illustrating how test
results are used.

▲ Figure 7.16

The voltage generated, when making the S.C. test, drives current
through the armature impedance. For the full-load current value IL the
field current is IfL as shown. From the O.C.C., for IfL a voltage of VL
generated. A current of IfL in the field gives a voltage of VL generated
and an armature current of IL results.

Therefore for that field current value. R is measured for a hot

armature condition and is Xs is found from . From the

basic phasor diagram E is obtained, and voltage regulation deduced.
The procedure is illustrated by the next example.

Example 7.3. A single-phase marine alternator required an excitation

current of 1.9 A to produce a short-circuit full-load current of 100 A.
The same excitation current results in an O.C. voltage of 430 V.
Armature resistance is measured to be 0.77 Ω. Find the full-load
voltage regulation percentage at unity P.F. when the terminal voltage
is 500 V (2 significant figures).

Example 7.4. A three-phase, 5 MVA, 6.6 kV alternator is star

connected and has O.C. and S.C. test results as set out in the
following table:

Estimate percentage voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

by the synchronous impedance method. Assume stator resistance is
negligible (1 decimal place).

The graphs of figure 7.17 show the appropriate values plotted to a

common base of field current. The figures in the last column are not
test results but deduced from column 2. Thus . This is a

star-connected machine and the problem is worked in phase values.

The largest measured S.C. current is used to obtain ZS, as this gives
the maximum field strength leading to saturation, with a reduced ZS
value error.

▲ Figure 7.17

Generated voltage per phase = E

Then
 Synchronising torque

It is useful to consider the condition when a machine is connected in

parallel with ‘live’ busbars. An ‘incoming’ alternator may be paralleled
onto infinite busbars, i.e. a system so large such as the ‘grid’ system,
whose stability is unaffected by the speed and size of the incoming
machine. Alternatively, the alternator may be connected to a machine
of equal rating, which is already on load. As the procedure of
synchronising involves bringing the machine up to the correct voltage
value and frequency, it is assumed this can be done accurately by
noting the voltmeter, tachometer and frequency-meter readings.
However, a further condition to be satisfied for correct synchronising
is the phase sequence and phase angle of the incoming alternator at
the instant of closing the machine circuit-breaker.

In the event of a machine ‘synchronised’ partially out of phase with

the busbar voltage, the incoming alternator experiences a ‘pull-in’
torque which will either instantaneously speed it up or slow it down
relative to the system. If paralleled onto an infinite busbar system, the
incoming machine will be affected, but if it is connected to a small
independent system, as occurs on board ship, the system frequency
and stability may change. If the incoming machine lags, the system
will sustain a shock, as the machine is pulled up into step and the
loaded machine momentarily slowed down. Once synchronised, the
incoming alternator will run light or ‘float’ on the busbars. Similarly if
the incoming machine is leading it will sustain a momentary shock
while pulled back and the system frequency may rise until the
arrangement attains steady-state conditions with the machine floating
on the bars.

During the transient conditions described, a circulating current flows

between the incoming machine and the busbars. The current size is
determined by the ‘out of phase’ magnitude when the parallel circuit-
breaker is closed. This current is extra to that supplied by the system
and may well ‘trip out’ closed circuit-breakers, causing their over-
current or reverse-power protective devices to operate. Such a
current may be dangerous, as the synchronising torque which it
produces can result in damage to the incoming machine or system.
Factors affecting this current and synchronising torque are
considered and illustrated by example.

SYNCHRONISING POWER AND TORQUE. The position of the

incoming and ‘running’ machines is regarded from the common circuit
point of view, i.e. the busbars and the phasor diagram (figure 7.18).

▲ Figure 7.18

Let E1 be the generated voltage of machine (No. 1) or machine

already on the ‘bars’ and E2 the e.m.f. of the incoming machine (No.
2). E2 is in advance by an angle of α or its equivalent mechanical
displacement. Due to this displacement, a resultant e.m.f. Er is
created which causes synchronising current flow IS. IS is limited
mainly by reactance of the closed circuit, so the machines’
resistances being negligible, then IS lags Er by 90°.
Now

and where Xs/ph is the synchronous reactance per

phase of each machine, which is assumed to be identical.

Power flow from machine No. 2 = E2IS

Example 7.5. A single-phase, 10 kV, 50 Hz alternator runs at 1500

rev/min with a synchronous reactance of 4 Ω. Assuming the machine
is paralleled on to an infinite busbar arrangement, calculate the
synchronising power in kW for 1 mechanical degree of phase
displacement (3 significant figures).

Here poles. Total number of electrical degrees

contained on rotor circumference = . Number of

equivalent mechanical degrees = 360° For this machine 1 mechanical

degree 720 / 360 = 2 electrical degrees.

Synchronising current for two small machines but for infinite

busbars
The XS/ph of the busbar system being negligible.

Here

Synchronising power

If this was a three-phase machine, the total power would be 3 ×

single-phase power. Synchronising torque. This is derived from the
relation:

Synchronising power = or =

newton meters.

Hunting or Phase-swinging. For small phase differences, the

synchronising current IS and thus the synchronising torque are
proportional to the phase-difference angle. The parallel working
arrangement can have a free period of oscillation about the
maintained speed which is known as ‘hunting’ or phase-swinging.
After synchronising, on light load or when load is thrown off, the
oscillation may increase the circulatory current amplitude until a
machine falls out of step and is ‘tripped off’ the busbars. All
alternators designed for parallel operation have a damping winding
set into the pole faces. When hunting occurs, relative motion takes
place between the damping-winding bars and the field flux, resulting
in large currents in the bars producing a damping or stabilising effect.
Damping windings are referred to as damping grids and as hunting
occurs, particularly with engine-driven salient-pole machines, where
cyclic oscillations are prone to be present, an arrangement as in
figure 7.19 is common. For extreme cases, special precautions are
needed and short-circuiting damping rings may extend around the
rotor periphery.
▲ Figure 7.19

For a cylindrical rotor, retaining wedges may be made of brass and

bonded at the ends to serve as damping grids. Considerable damping
already exists since the rotor is solid and augmented by the effect of
metal wedges in the rotor slots. For special cases, sufficient damping
is provided by an extra bar in the slots, connected to end rings to act
as a damping winding. The next 2 examples are included for interest
and revision purposes.

Example 7.6. In a 1 MVA, 11 kV, three-phase, star-connected

alternator the resistance of the winding per phase is 2 Ω. The iron
core loss is 15 kW, the friction and windage loss is 10 kW and the
input required to the field excitation circuit amounts to 5 kW. Estimate
the percentage machine efficiency when operating at full load and 0.8
P.F. (lagging) (1 decimal place).

Output power at 0.8 P.F. = 1000 × 0.8 = 800 kW

Three-phase copper loss = 16.53 kW

Total loss = 16.53 + 15 + 10 + 5 = 16.53 + 30 = 46.53 kW

Input power = 800 + 46.53 = 846.53 kW

Example 7.7. An industrial load of 4 MW has a supply voltage of 11

kV with 0.8 P.F. (lagging). A synchronous motor must meet an added
1130 kW and at the same time raise to 0.95 P.F. (lagging). Find the
motor’s kVA rating (4 significant figures), the P.F. (3 decimal places)
at which it must be operated and the motor’s line current (1 decimal
place) if it is star-connected. Assume the motor efficiency is 93%.

Original condition.

Active power of basic load = 4000 kW Apparent power of basic load =

= 5000 kVA

Also cosφ = 0.8 so sinφ = 0.6

Reactive power of basic load = 5000 × 0.6 = 3000 kVAr

Additional load.

Motor active power output = 1130 kW

Motor input power

Final condition.

Total active power of load = 4000 + 1215 = 5215 kW

 Apparent power of combined load = = 5500 kVA

Also cosφ 0.95 ∴ φ = 18.11 so sinφ = 0.312

Reactive power of combined load = 5500 × 0.312 = 1715 kVAr

By deduction:

Reactive power rating of motor = 3000 – 1715 = 1285 kVAr

The motor is to operate at a leading P.F. so as to raise the P.F. of the

combined load. The original load was working under a lagging P.F.
condition.

Practice Examples
7.1 A 4-pole alternator, on open circuit, generates 200 V at 50 Hz
when its field current is 4 A. Determine the generated e.m.f. at a
speed of 1200 rev/min and a field current of 3 A, neglecting
saturation of the iron (3 significant figures).
7.2 A single-phase alternator has an effective resistance of 0.2 Ω and
a synchronous reactance of 2.2 Ω. Find the generated e.m.f. when
the load current is 50 A at a terminal voltage of 500 V. The load
operates at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) (3 significant figures).
7.3 Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator
in which a given field current produces an armature current of 250
A on S.C. and a generated e.m.f. = 1500 V on O.C. Armature
resistance is 2 Ω. Calculate terminal voltage in kV when a load of
250 A at 6.6 kV and 0.8 P.F. (lagging) is switched off (2 decimal
places).
7.4 A 250 kVA, 3000 V, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a
synchronous reactance of 20 Ω per phase. The armature
resistance measured between two terminals is 2.8 Ω. Determine
the value to which the terminal voltage will rise when full load at (a)
0.8 P.F. (lagging) and (b) 0.9 P.F. (leading) is switched off (both 4
significant figures).
7.5 A marine type 9 kVA, 230 V, single-phase alternator has an
armature resistance of 0.25 Ω. The results of the O.C. and S.C.
tests are as follows:

Estimate, by means of the synchronous-impedance method, the

percentage voltage regulation of the machine on a full-load, 0.8 P.F.
(lagging) condition (1 decimal place).
7.6 Using the data of example 7.7, estimate the machine’s
percentage voltage regulation by the ampere-turn method (1
decimal place).
7.7 A 500 kVA, 440 V, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a
resistance of 0.01 Ω per phase. The results of O.C. and S.C. tests
are as follows:
 Calculate by means of both the ampere-turn and the synchronous-
impedance methods the value to which the terminal voltage will rise
when full load at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) is switched off (both 3 significant
figures). What is a more likely voltage value for this machine?

7.8 A marine-type, 30 kVA, 440 V, three-phase, star-connected

alternator has a resistance of 0.15 Ω per phase. Results of O.C.
and S.C. tests are as follows:

Find the percentage voltage regulation of the alternator on a full-

load and 0.8 P.F. (lagging), by the synchronous-impedance (2
decimal places) and ampere-turn methods (1 decimal place).
7.9 A three-phase, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz alternator having an equivalent
armature reactance of 5 Ω per phase and negligible resistance is
connected to busbars to which an identical alternator is already
connected. A circuit-breaker was closed at an instant when the
rotors of the 2 machines ran at 1500 rev/min but was out of phase
by 1° mechanical. Find the value of the synchronising current (2
decimal places) and the synchronising torque in Nm at this instant
(1 decimal place).
7.10 A 2 MVA, three-phase, 8-pole alternator runs in parallel with
other machines on 6 kV busbars. If full load at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) is
supplied, calculate the total three-phase synchronising power in kW
per mechanical degree of displacement (3 significant figures). The
machine’s synchronous reactance is 6 Ω per phase.
 The validity of all the Inductive Methods depends on the
assumption that . . . the beginning of every phenomenon,
must have some cause; some antecedent, upon the
existence of which it is invariably and unconditionally
consequent.
John Stuart Mill (1843)

An induction or asynchronous motor is an A.C. electrical motor where

the current in the moving rotor needed to produce mechanical torque
is induced by electromagnetic induction from the changing magnetic
field of a fixed stator. An induction motor does not require mechanical
commutation or separate-excitation of energy from stator to rotor as
is the case in D.C. and some synchronous motors. An induction
motor’s rotor can be either wire-wound or of ‘squirrel-cage’ type and
is often referred to as an asynchronous machine since it operates at
a speed below that of the rotating magnetic field set up within it. It is
this asynchronous feature which determines the motor’s simple action
and robust construction. It is the most common A.C. motor since A.C.
working is almost universal for shore work and much marine practice,
and as such is an important machine. The main disadvantage in its
use however, lies in the fact that its speed cannot be varied if it is
used in its basic cage form and that, if variable speed is required a
special type of A.C. or induction motor with built-in speed control
characteristics must be used. The latter are more expensive and an
alternative is to use the basic single-speed cage motor and provide
power output adjustment by mechanical means, e.g. for pumps and
fans adjustment is achieved with valves and dampers. Other methods
use gears and/or adjustable pulleys with belt drives, methods well
known to the marine engineer. Here attention is only given to
induction motors allowing limited speed control. Three-phase squirrel-
cage induction motors are often used in industry because they are
reliable and robust, while single-phase induction motors are used
widely for smaller loads, such as many common household
appliances.

Principle of Operation
In its basic form the machine is known as a squirrel-cage or simply a
cage motor. The theory of the rotating magnetic field was introduced
in Chapter 7 and it is now appreciated how, if a polyphase motor’s
stator is suitably wound with an appropriate number of conductors
and energised from a polyphase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. It is the effect of this field on the motor’s rotor which is
considered next to understand the operational theory. It can be
shown the rotating magnetic field will drag around a rotatable solid
iron cylinder when placed concentrically in the field. For efficiency,
copper conductors are embedded in the face of the cylinder to yield 2
forms of rotor known as (1) the cage and (2) the wound-rotor types.
The cage type is more simply constructed, consisting of copper bars
inserted without insulation into slots spaced evenly around the
circumference of a rotor built from iron laminations. Bars are
connected to copper rings at each end of the rotor and winding and
looks like a cage – hence the name. The winding consists of single
turns connected in parallel. The wound-rotor construction employs
insulated conductors placed in coil form, in a similar way to that of the
stator. There are thus 3 insulated phase windings, correctly
positioned and spaced relative to each other. Phase windings are
usually star-connected and the 3 free ends are brought out to slip-
rings insulated from the shaft. Contact is made to the rings with
brushes mounted on a brush-arm and the external circuit completed
through 3 star-connected variable resistors. Control gear, built into
the starter, allows resistors to be cut out and the slip-rings ‘shorted’.
Thus the winding, when the motor runs, is short-circuited and
resembles the cage winding except there are more turns per phase
coil. The theory set out as follows assumes conditions for a wound-
rotor machine.

THEORY OF ACTION. Figure 8.1, drawn for an instant in time, shows

conductors on a rotor situated in a rotating magnetic field produced
by a suitably wound stator fed with polyphase currents. Some stator
conductors are shown but current direction is not given since rotating
flux is the result of the effect of currents of different magnitudes in 3
phases. Rotor conductors are considered to constitute a winding
which is short-circuited.

If the field is considered to move, the relative cutting between flux and
rotor conductors induces e.m.f.s in the rotor, producing currents in the
direction shown as when the ‘right-hand generator rule’ is applied,
conductors move in the direction opposite to that as shown for the
flux and the latter considered to be stationary. Currents circulate in
paths provided by the end-rings and the conductors under the
opposite stator poles. Applying first principles for the action between
the flux and rotor currents, a force results in the direction shown, i.e.
the rotor conductors follow the rotating field because of the torque
produced. The rotor starts to revolve and accelerates up to speed N2
approaching the synchronous speed – the speed of the rotating field
N1. There is always a difference in speed between N1 and N2;
otherwise there is no relative cutting, no rotor e.m.f.s induced and
hence no rotor currents or torque.
▲ Figure 8.1

Further consideration of the process shows that transformer action is

also involved. Taking again the ‘standstill’ condition, i.e. a stationary
rotor, the rotating magnetic field is of sinusoidal form and as it rotates,
the resulting induced e.m.f. in the rotor and stator conductors will also
be sinusoidal. Rotor currents are also of sine-wave form and, with
transformer working in mind, the rotor acts as a short-circuited
secondary to the stator (the primary). With the transformer concept
we see that if the secondary (rotor) is open-circuited, rotating flux will
cut the stator conductors to produce a back e.m.f. almost equal to the
supply voltage and so negligible current is taken – like a transformer
on no-load. If the rotor winding is completed to form a short-circuit,
rotor currents flow and transformer on-load conditions occur. A
secondary (rotor) flux is produced which interacts with the stator flux
to produce a resultant smaller than the original. The stator induced
back e.m.f. is reduced and the supply voltage forces a larger current
through the stator – so stator current depends on the rotor current.
Up to now standstill (stationary) conditions were considered but if the
rotor rotates, the speed with which the field cuts the rotor conductors
is reduced, and the rotor e.m.f. is reduced in size. Consequently rotor
current is reduced and the stator or supply current reduces, giving a
condition with a large starting current which falls as the machine ‘runs
up to speed’. Earlier we saw the need for a difference in speed
between rotor and magnetic field, and the first term associated with
the induction motor, namely slip or slip speed, is now introduced.
Slip speed. This is the speed at which the rotating field cuts the rotor
conductors, expressed as a fraction or percentage of synchronous
speed. Thus if NS is the slip speed: NS = N1 – N2.

The ratio or is called the slip s

As a fraction we have

Fractional slip

Or percentage slip

Example 8.1. A 4-pole, 400 V, 50 Hz induction motor operates with

4% slip. Find the motor speed.

Synchronous speed N1 is given from the relation

or N2 = 1500 – 60 = 1440 rev/min

Alternatively, for every 100 rev/min the slip is 4 revolutions or rotor

speed = 96 rev/min.

Thus for 1500 rev/min the slip is 4 × 15 revolutions so rotor speed =

96 × 15 = 1440 rev/min.

When a motor ‘runs light’, i.e. unloaded, the torque is only that
required to overcome friction and windage so the speed is nearly
synchronous and the stator draws little current from the supply. As
load torque is increased, i.e. the motor is loaded, speed falls slightly
causing an increase in the relative cutting of the rotor conductors by
the field, so rotor e.m.f. and current are increased. This effect gives
the increased torque required and speed is determined by this
condition when power developed equals the power required. The fall
in speed from no-load to full-load is about 4–5% for small motors and
1.5–2% for large motors (with greater inertia). The speed-load
characteristic is similar to the D.C. shunt motor.

Rotor to stator relationships

These can be deduced and provides the basic theory of induction

motors.

(1) FREQUENCY. For both standstill and running conditions, the

stator frequency is the supply frequency or f1 = ƒ. At standstill the
rotating field also cuts the rotor at synchronous speed, so f2 = ƒ.
When running at speed N2, the speed at which the rotor conductors
are cut by the field is N1 – N2. Thus

But fractional slip Therefore rearranging: sN1 = N1 – N2

and

So Rotor frequency = Supply frequency × Fractional slip.

The introduction of the dash, e.g. , should be noted and is used to

distinguish ‘running’ conditions against stand-still conditions when the
dash is omitted.

Example 8.2. If the supply voltage to an 8-pole induction motor is at

50 Hz and the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is 1.5 Hz, find the speed at
which the motor runs and the slip.
Since = sf then i.e. Fractional slip is 0.03 or

Percentage slip is 3%.

and .

(2) E.M.F. The rotating magnetic field cuts the stator and generates
an e.m.f. given by the formula E1 = 2.22 KD1 KS1 Zph1 Φf1 volts.
Neglecting voltage drops due to resistance and reactance E1 can be
considered as a back e.m.f. approximately equal to the supply
voltage V.

For a stationary rotor the rotating field cuts the rotor at the same
speed as the stator and an e.m.f. E2 is induced where = 2.22 KD2
KS2 Zph2 Φf2 volts. Here f2 = ƒ the supply frequency. With the rotor
revolving the induced e.m.f. varies depending on the rotor frequency
since

Rotor induced e.m.f. at any speed = Standstill e.m.f. × slip.

(3) REACTANCE. A rotor has reactance and resistance. The

reactance is due to the circuit’s inductance formed by the cage
conductors embedded in iron. The characteristics of the machine can
be altered by the degree the conductors are embedded in the iron,
i.e. the slot depth. Since reactance is directly proportional to
frequency the rotor reactance will vary as the slip changes.

Accordingly we can write

Rotor reactance at any speed = Standstill reactance × slip.

From these relationships the following is deduced:

For any speed. Rotor Impedance

Rotor current and,

Rotor phase angle

Example 8.3. A 6-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz induction motor runs at

full load with a 4% slip. The rotor is star-connected and its resistance
and standstill reactance are 0.25 and 1.5 Ω per phase respectively.
The e.m.f. between slip-rings at standstill is 100 V. Find the full-load
conditions for (a) the e.m.f. induced in each rotor phase (1 decimal
place) (b) the rotor impedance per phase (3 decimal places) and (c)
the rotor current, and P.F. assuming the slip-rings are short-circuited
(2 decimal places).

The rotor phase e.m.f. at standstill

The rotor phase e.m.f. at full-load = = sEph2 = 0.04 × 57.7 V

Rotor reactance per phase on full load sXph2 = 0.04 × 1.5 = 0.06
Ω

Rotor impedance per phase on full load

Rotor current
 Relation between rotor loss, rotor input power
and rotor output

The power taken from the supply creates a rotating magnetic field or
flux (as in the transformer analogy). Copper and iron losses occur in
the stator winding, so the power put into the air-gap flux or the stator
output = stator input – stator losses. As no losses occur in the air-gap
we assume the stator output power is the rotor input power thus:

Stator output = Rotor input

The machine power output is given by: watts, with torque T in

newton metres.

Returning to the induction motor relationships, we know copper and

iron losses occur in the rotor. On load, because of the very low
frequency, the latter are usually negligible so we can write:

Rotor input = rotor output + rotor copper loss

or rotor copper loss = rotor input – rotor output

= stator output – rotor output =

T is in newton metres and N is in revolutions per minute.

(a)
∴ Rotor copper loss = s × Rotor input

Since the above relation can also be written as:

∴s = from which it follows that if rotor resistance is large,

the slip will be large and vice versa.

A further deduction is:

Since

(b)
Thus

or Rotor copper loss Rotor output

From (a) and (b) we have:

Rotor input: Rotor copper loss = 1 : s and,

Rotor copper loss: Rotor output = s : 1 – s

Rotor input : Rotor copper loss : Rotor output = 1 : s : 1 – s.

Example 8.4. The input power to a three-phase induction motor is

measured to be 50 kW. Stator losses are 800 W. Find the rotor
copper loss per phase and the mechanical power developed, if the
slip is 3%.

Stator input 50 kW Stator output = 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 kW

Rotor input = 49 200 W and Rotor Cu loss = s × Rotor input or Rotor

Cu loss = 0.03 × 49 200

= 492 × 3 watts

Rotor Cu loss per phase =

Mechanical power developed = Rotor input – Rotor Cu loss

= 49 200 – (492 × 3) = 49 200 – 1476 = 47 724 = 47.72 kW.

Torque conditions

Earlier theory considered how torque is produced by the rotor but it is

clear further examination of the conditions resulting in torque is
needed. A machine ‘brake test’ produces a mechanical speed/torque
characteristic of the type shown in figure 8.2, where the normal
operating region is shown for each motor type, as a shaded area. The
comparison with a D.C. shunt motor is given and from these it is seen
that the induction motor torque is limited to a maximum value. Since
torque and slip are directly related it is usual to give the characteristic
of the machine as a torque/slip or torque/speed curve (figure 8.3).
The maximum torque value is decided by the motor’s physical
dimensions and cannot be exceeded even by overloading, but can be
adjusted to occur at a desired slip value. Such adjustment is achieved
by altering the rotor-cage winding resistance and is exploited in
wound-rotor machines.
▲ Figure 8.2

▲ Figure 8.3

STANDSTILL TORQUE. For a stationary rotor condition, Ts is the

standstill torque in newton metres, produced on the rotor by the
magnetic field rotating at a speed of N1 rev/min. When the motor is
not running, there is no mechanical output so the rotor input power
must be converted into rotor electrical power, i.e. a copper loss. Here
rotor iron loss being small is neglected for this assumption.
Thus Rotor input = Rotor copper loss

Thus E2 and N1 are constants whose sizes

depend on motor design.

We thus have

Starting. Since the rotor is usually coupled to machinery, maximum

starting torque is a vital feature, and we will investigate how this is
obtained. The expression above shows torque is affected by rotor
resistance, and the following mathematical deduction indicates the
direction in which control can be made. The result and not the
method is important to the engineer but is given here for the benefit of
mathematically minded students. The torque expression has a
maximum value R2 found by differentiating the expression with
respect to R2 and equating to zero.

Since then:

or from which X22 = R22 or X2 = R2

This is the condition for maximum starting torque and explains why a
wound-rotor is used to ensure a good starting torque. At starting,
rotor frequency is ƒ, so X2 is large compared with R2. Normally the
rotor-circuit P.F. is also low and TS will be small. Improvement can be
made, if cos φ2 is raised by (1) decreasing X2 – not easily achievable,
(2) increasing resistance – by putting in external resistance as for a
wound-rotor machine, or using a high resistivity material for the rotor
cage. The latter does not allow for good running conditions and high
efficiency, so as a result special cage forms were developed to give
improved overall performance. As mentioned for the wound-rotor
motor, as the rotor speeds up, external resistance is cut out. Before
considering actual running conditions, it is vital to point out the effect
of supply voltage on starting torque.

The expression was deduced on the assumption that E2

and N were constant. It is noted that E2 depends on the machine flux

Φ which is in turn proportional to the supply voltage V, so the torque
expression may be written as:

where C is a constant.

We now see a change of supply voltage will considerably alter

starting torque and this must be kept in mind when choosing from
various methods used for motor starting.

Example 8.5. An induction motor with star-connected stator takes 45

A from a 110 V supply with the rotor stationary, and 0.3 P.F. (lagging).
If the ratio of stator to rotor turns per phase is 2, determine the
resistance and reactance per phase of the rotor winding. What extra
resistance per phase is required to make the starting torque
maximum (3 decimal places)?
Stator voltage per phase = Rotor voltage per phase =

Stator current per phase = 45 A Rotor current per phase = 45 × 2 =

90 A

Impedance Z2 of rotor per phase =

For maximum starting torque R2 = X2

∴ R2 must be 0.337 Ω per phase or 0.337 – 0.106 = 0.231 Ω must be

added in each phase.

RUNNING TORQUE. With the rotor up to speed, as seen earlier, the

rotor e.m.f. varies with rotor frequency. Thus .

Since mechanical power is produced at the shaft, rotor input = rotor

output + rotor copper loss.
Whence

A better understanding of the torque/slip characteristic is now

possible. From the work above, it is seen that, on examining the

expression , when the rotor just starts to move, the slip

is large and the reactance is large. By comparison resistance R2 is

small and the expression can be modified to . Thus at

starting, torque varies inversely with slip at low speeds. Thus when
slip is high, torque is small and the relation explains the unstable
right-hand side of the torque/speed curve shown in figure 8.1. At high
speeds, i.e. small slip, rotor frequency is low and the reactance is
small compared with the resistance. Again with reference to the

expression , for approximation under the condition of

small slip or . Thus T α s or torque is directly proportional

to slip and this explains the stable left-hand side of the characteristic
(figure 8.3).

Summarising, the torque/slip curve first rises steeply showing an

increase of load produces increased torque. This linearity continues
until maximum torque is reached when the curve flattens and turns
back. Beyond this the curve fails to follow an inverse law. Here an
increase in load results in a decrease in torque and the slip
increases.

Maximum Running Torque. The technique for determining this

condition is the same as for the standstill condition. Thus by
differentiating with respect to slip and equating to zero, we have:

For the maximum condition:

∴ KR22 + Ks2X22R2 = 2KR2s2X22

or R22 + s2X22 = 2s2X22

and R22 = s2X22

or R2 = sX2.

The above shows that maximum torque occurs when the slip .

R2 and X2 are normally constants but by increasing R2, as in the

wound-rotor machine, maximum torque can be made to occur at any
slip value. Thus maximum starting torque is arranged for starting with
heavy loads and this value is maintained through the accelerating
period by cutting out external series resistance. Maximum torque is
unaffected by resistance, but it is cut out when the motor gets up to
speed to reduce loss and ensure a smaller slip. Figure 8.4 shows the
effect of rotor resistance on the torque/speed or torque/slip curve.
Curves are drawn with speed as the base and they appear reversed
with respect to those shown on figure 8.3. Either method of
representation is acceptable although slip as a base is more usual.

▲ Figure 8.4

For figure 8.4, the following points are considered for load torque. For
line (b) and curve R21, starting torque produced by the motor is
greater than the load torque, so the motor starts and accelerates the
load. The machine runs up to speed, operating at about 4% slip. For
line (a) and curve R21, the load requires a greater starting torque than
that produced by the motor which cannot thus start and accelerate
unless load torque is reduced. However, if resistance is introduced
into the rotor circuit to operate on curve, R21, starting is possible and
the motor will run up to speed and operate at about 6%.

Example 8.6. The rotor current per phase of an induction motor is 50

A, with the rotor stationary, and 5 kW power per phase. The lag angle
in the rotor is 75°. Find the resistance of a rotor phase, then calculate
the current per phase and the angle of lag when the slip is 10%. At
what percentage slip (1 decimal place) and speed (4 significant
figures) will torque be maximum? Assume a 4-pole machine and 50
Hz supply.
At 10% slip,

Impedance

Note: X'2 = sX2 = 7.47 × 10/100 = 0.747 Ω

Maximum torque occurs when

= 0.268 or 26.8%.

Synchronous speed
∴ Motor speed = 1500 – 0.268 × 1500 = 1500 – 402

= 1098 rev/min.

The phasor diagram

Since the motor functions like a transformer, with the stator as the
primary and the rotor as the secondary, the phasor diagram will be
similar to that of the transformer and the associated reasoning can be
applied, provided the following points are noted.

(1) Transformer action is set up by a rotating magnetic field.

(2) Because of the air-gap between the stator (primary) and rotor
(secondary), the magnetic circuit has a high reluctance and the
magnetising component of current Im is larger than for a
transformer. Due to the large Im, the no-load current I0 is at a low
P.F., so the motor should not be run light, but instead should be
switched off.
(3) Since the rotor circuit is closed there is no secondary terminal
voltage V2. The rotor e.m.f. is responsible for the rotor current
and overcoming rotor resistance and reactance voltage drops. The
secondary impedance voltage triangle will thus be larger than for a
transformer and constituted by all the secondary voltage drops.
(4) Standstill conditions relate directly with the transformer but for
running conditions slip must be considered since it influences the
induced secondary e.m.f. and secondary reactance.

Figure 8.5a shows the motor circuit with the rotor open-circuited, the
condition resembles a transformer on ‘no-load’. Figure 8.5b is drawn
for rotor standstill conditions, i.e. rotor locked and circuit complete, a
condition similar to a transformer ‘on-load’ and phasor relations, as
discussed earlier for the transformer, apply. Thus for the ‘locked rotor’
condition, the main flux generates stator and rotor e.m.f.s of E1 and
E2 respectively. I0 is the no-load current consisting of components Im
and Iw. Im is the current component which produces the ampere-turns
resulting in the main flux Φ, and Iw is the energy component supplying
the iron loss. The stator resistance voltage drop is I1R1 and the
reactance voltage drop is I1X1 and these when added by phasors with
the back e.m.f. E1 equal the supply voltage V. The rotor e.m.f. E2
produces a rotor current I2 which is limited by the resistance R2 and
reactance X2 of this circuit. The rotor secondary resistance and
reactance voltage drops, I2R2 and I2X2 respectively, by phasor
addition equal the induced e.m.f. E2 or E2 = I2Z2.
▲ Figure 8.5

When the rotor rotates, we get the conditions shown by the phasor
(figure 8.5c). Here the secondary e.m.f. is now reduced to or sE2
and the secondary reactance falls to or sX2. Since rotor resistance
is unaffected by slip, R2 is unchanged and the P.F. rises as the sX2
value falls. As mentioned under point (2), the P.F. is low if the motor
runs light since component I0 is large in relation to . When a motor
is loaded I2 and hence increases I0 being constant, the result is that
I1 rises and the P.F. condition improves.

It is acceptable to relate rotor or secondary conditions at slip

frequency to those of the stator or primary which are at the ‘mains’
frequency as when running. Although the rotor frequency is low, the
field produced by the rotor current rotates at a speed relative to the
rotor itself in the same direction as the stator field. Thus the rotor field
relative to the stator is at synchronous speed, and the rotor quantities
can be combined and related to stator quantities, provided
appropriate adjustment is made for the turns ratio and slip.

Example 8.7. Full-load torque is obtained from a 3 kV, 24-pole, 50 Hz

star-connected induction motor at a speed of 240 rev/min. The slip-
ring motor has a resistance of 0.02 Ω per phase and a standstill
reactance of 0.27 Ω per phase. Calculate (a) the ratio of maximum to
full-load torque and (b) the speed at maximum torque (1 decimal
both).

Let T = the full load torque

Then

Also let Tm = maximum torque.

Now Tm occurs when smX2 = R2 or when sm 0.27 = 0.02

∴ For maximum torque,

Then at this slip

or

For maximum torque, slip = 0.074 or 7.4%.

= 250(1 – 0.074) = 250 × 0.926

= 250 × 0.2315 × 4 = 231.5 rev/min.

Note that the information relating to motor-voltage rating and

connection (3 kV, star-connected) is superfluous and unnecessary for
the solution.

The Circle Diagram

Circle or Locus diagrams are still used in electrical engineering to
determine circuit working conditions when variables are altered in a
known way. It is not intended here to give a detailed discussion of the
circle diagram, for further discussion consider reading further
textbooks on electrical engineering, e.g. Electrical Machines, Second
Edition by Smarajit Ghosh, Pearson Education India, 81-3176-090-1.
The basics upon which the induction motor circle diagram is based
are simply introduced here. The diagram helps predict motor
performance under varied operating conditions and can be developed
to show current, efficiency, P.F., slip, speed and torque. The diagram
can be constructed from results of simple tests which do not involve
loading a machine and this performance assessing method is similar
to that used for transformers and alternators. Since the circle diagram
is developed from the phasor, mathematical operations appropriate to
the latter can be applied to the former, and the results of
measurements made depend entirely on the accuracy of graphical
construction, so the largest possible scale should be used.

▲ Figure 8.6

Consider figure 8.6 which shows a circle of diameter BC. Since A is a

point on the circumference, the angle BAC is a right angle and AB =
BC sin φ or AB = K sin φ where K is the diameter of the circle. Next
consider the rotor expression where the rotor current is given by:

If we multiply the bottom by X2 and rearrange,

we have:
Comparing this with the expression AB = K sin φ2 it is seen the locus
of I2 is on a circle with a diameter of constant value at right angles to
E2 as shown by figures 8.7a and 8.7b. is the reflection of I2 in the
primary or stator circuit. Thus lies on a circle of appropriate
diameter. Again, since the primary current is the phasor sum of I0 and
, the relevant parts of the primary diagram can be adapted to give
the Circle Diagram. It is unnecessary to know the diameter since the
circle can be built up from current values obtained from simple motor
tests. The diagram, once deduced, may be used for performance
assessment and is illustrated by example.
▲ Figure 8.7

Explanation of the circle diagram

Reference is made to figure 8.8 which is the circle diagram extracted

from the phasor. Both stator and rotor conditions are given, the latter
in terms of appropriate stator values. OB is the no-load current. OA is
the stator-load current value, made up of the no-load current OB and
the rotor-load current BA reflected into the stator circuit ( ). Thus
current phasors, originating from B lying on a semicircle, are rotor
values referred to the stator, while phasors originating from point O
are stator values. Note: all current phasor vertical components are in
phase with the voltage, and are energy components – a measure of
input power, i.e. output power plus losses, which will be explained as
the diagram is detailed. The semicircle is constructed if 2 phasors
originating from O are known in length and in their angular relation to
an axis. Such current phasors are obtained from simple machine
tests performed under conditions requiring the minimum of loading.
▲ Figure 8.8

Testing procedure

Since the machine is a three-phase motor, three-phase

measurements are made. Data can be used in this form but it is more
conveniently worked in phase values as is evident from the problem
worked.

NO-LOAD TEST. The machine is run light at normal voltage and

frequency. Measurements are made of line voltage, line current and
total power. Referring to figure 8.9 length OB and phase angle φ0 are
obtained.

LOCKED-ROTOR OR STANDSTILL TEST. A reduced voltage is

applied to the stator which is raised until full-load current is passing.
The rotor is clamped to prevent rotation. Line voltage, line current and
total power are measured. Referring to figure 8.9, length OAs and
phase angle φs are found. Note: data from this test must be adjusted
to full voltage values, so if Vs is the reduced voltage and V is the
normal voltage the Standstill current (at normal voltage) = measured
current
▲ Figure 8.9

Power (at normal voltage) = measured value

Construction of the circle diagram

A P.F. quadrant is useful for ‘laying off’ and measuring P.F.s and the
procedure given here. An engineering drawing can be a highly
stylised representation of an engineering idea, where ‘laying off’
refers to measuring off a set distance. Along the vertical axis (figure
8.9), starting from point 0, a scale of 10 units is drawn, which is of
convenient length to give accuracy and a quadrant drawn. Scale the
vertical 0 to 1. For example, if a line drawn horizontally through the
0.2 mark to cut the quadrant and this point of intersection is joined to
the origin, the line obtained must subtend with OV an angle whose
cosine is 0.2.

No-load Test. This test gives I0 and φ0. Thus no-load P.F. cos
where P0 = the no-load three-phase power. To start the

circle diagram, using a suitable scale, lay off OB equal to I0 at an

angle φ0.

Load Test. The P.F. for this test is given by .

Next adjust the locked-rotor or S.C. test current to the correct current
value at full voltage. This deduced value of current gives OAs, drawn
to the chosen current scale at angle φ0. Construction now proceeds
by joining BAs and bisecting it perpendicularly. The bisector is drawn
to cut the horizontal through B at point M, which now becomes the
centre of the circle.

This diagram (figure 8.9) aids P.F. estimation for any load current and
the optimum P.F. condition. It can be extended to estimate power
output, losses, slip, etc. Consider any load-current value OA. AL will
be the power component of OA and the input power to the motor is
× AL. This input power supplies the output power developed at
the motor shaft, and the machine losses: the iron (hysteresis and
eddy current) losses, the rotational (friction and windage) losses and
the copper (stator and rotor) losses.

Consider length GL. This is the power component of OB and is the

no-load power input which makes up the rotational and stator iron
losses and a very small stator copper loss. The last is neglected but
GL = EH can be taken as a measure of the constant machine losses.

For the locked-rotor test all input power is converted into losses, i.e.
copper and iron losses. Here there is no rotational loss but since the
rotor frequency is now at full ‘mains’ value, it is assumed that
constant loss component EH, under this condition, is made up of the
iron losses, i.e. rotational loss is nil but the rotor iron loss increases to
replace it. Component AsE is a measure of the rotor and stator
copper losses under the locked-rotor condition. Next consider any
stator current value such as OA. Since the stator current is
proportional to the rotor current then

Total copper loss α (rotor current)2 i.e. α (AB)2

Now cos also cos

But BD is a constant i.e. AB2 = K × BG or AB2 α BG or the copper
loss α BG

We can thus deduce

(since similar triangles are involved)

Thus a line joining B to As cuts off the copper losses (to scale) for the
current considered KG, to scale, is a measure of total copper losses.

Output Line. Consider the power component AL of any current such

as OA. Length GL represents the constant losses. Length KG
represents the copper losses, and AK represents motor power output.
Line BAs is called the Output Line and any length of a power
component above this line is a measure of output (in watts). Note:
current must be multiplied by voltage and . Maximum output is
obtained by drawing a tangent to the circle parallel to BAs or the
bisector of BAs to cut the circle to give this tangent point. Length of
the vertical between this tangent point and the output line gives the
maximum output possible.

Example 8.8. The following test data refer to a 500 V, three-phase, 50

Hz induction motor. No-load Test: With 500 V applied, the current is
18 A and the power 1200 W. Locked-Rotor Test: With 250 V applied,
the current is 100 A and the power 11 kW. Estimate maximum power
output, the current and P.F. under this condition (2 decimal places).
The problem is worked for a three-phase condition, so motor
connection is immaterial.

Thus on no-load

Standstill test
Note. The solution is drawn with a 10 mm = 10 A scale. This is not
apparent in printed form due to photographic reduction. Students
should draw this solution for themselves.

Using the origin O, draw the P.F. quadrant (5 mm is used for 1

division). Draw OB = 18 A, i.e. 18 mm at 0.077 P.F. The horizontal
line cutting the quadrant is shown. Draw OAs = 200 A, i.e. 200 mm at
0.254 P.F. The horizontal line cutting the quadrant is shown. The
locked-rotor current value is deduced for full-voltage value, i.e.
.

Join BAs. Bisect this line and produce bisector to give point M on BD.
Draw the circle. Produce MS to cut the circle at T. Drop TU – this is
the output component, with TU = 73 mm = 73 A and output power
.

Join OT. The estimated line current given by OT is 128 mm, i.e. 128 A
at 0.73 P.F. (lagging).

Torque Line. Further work on the circle diagram (figure 8.10) allows
the determination of other values for any machine. To draw the
Torque line, stator and rotor copper losses are separated. For the
locked-rotor test, since voltage is reduced, iron losses are negligible
and the test is assumed to give the copper losses – deduced for the
full voltage condition. Furthermore, if Rs is the stator resistance per
phase then the stator copper loss during the test is and, Rotor
copper loss = .
▲ Figure 8.10

Thus the length ASE can be divided in the ratio

and if BC is joined, we have the torque line,

which is explained as follows:

AL is a measure of the power input to the machine.

GL is a measure of the constant loss.

GJ is a measure of the stator copper loss for the line current OA

being considered. It is deduced from the locked-rotor condition, using
the proportion given by similar triangles.

A J is a measure of the power passed across the air-gap from stator

to rotor, i.e. is the rotor input power and the torque can be deduced.
Any power intercept up to the torque line such as AJ, when multiplied
by the appropriate factors, gives the torque in ‘synchronous watts’.
Since we are concerned with the power put into the rotor, i.e.
produced by a rotating magnetic field, the synchronous speed N1
must be substituted for N when using the expression . Other

data can be obtained from the circle diagram such as estimated slip,
overall efficiency, optimum P.F., etc. The following example shows
how these can be deduced and the student should again undertake
the practical solution themselves.

Example 8.9. A 4-pole, 56 kW, 440 V, 50 Hz, three-phase induction

motor gave the following figures on test.

No-load Test.

Applied voltage 440 V. Line current 18.25 A. Input power 3.19 kW.

Locked-rotor Test.

Applied voltage 110 V. Line current 55.2 A. Input power 3.17 kW.

Construct the circle diagram and find (a) the line current, (b) P.F., (c)
full-load percentage slip and (d) the efficiency. At standstill rotor and
stator losses are equal.

For this solution (figure 8.11) a scale of 10 mm = 10 A is used.

Construction commences by drawing the P.F. quadrant, with 5 mm for
1 division.

From the No-load Test.

▲ Figure 8.11
Using the P.F. quadrant, draw in the line for an angle whose cosine is
0.23. Next on this line measure off OB = 18.25 mm.

From the Locked-rotor Test.

Using the P.F. quadrant draw in the OAs line by adjusting the locked-
rotor current to full voltage value, i.e.

Join As to B giving the output line, bisect this so the bisector cuts BD
at M. M is the centre of the circle, draw this in. For a 56 kW output the
power component .

From the output line erect two verticals X and Y = 73.5 mm and draw
the parallel to cut the circle at point A. Then OA = 114 mm or line
current = 114 A.

The operating P.F. will be 0.82 (lagging).

The next construction involves drawing the torque line.

Since Rotor loss = Stator loss. Bisect AsE = 62 mm

ASC = 31 mm = CE. Join BC. Draw in the vertical from point A,

marking points: K, J, G and L. Next Rotor copper loss = s × Rotor
input or in terms of the proportions of the power component of load
current:
The answers show the machine is overrated, i.e. slip is excessive and
efficiency low. Line current is also excessive and the P.F. should be
higher, a 37 kW rating being better.

Practice Examples
8.1 The input to a three-phase induction motor is 50 kW. The stator
losses amount to 0.8 kW. Calculate the rotor copper loss per phase
(3 significant figures) and the total mechanical power developed in
kW, if the slip is 3% (1 decimal place).
8.2 A 500 V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor develops 20
kW inclusive of mechanical losses, when moving at 990 rev/min,
and 0.85 P.F. (lagging). Calculate (a) the percentage slip, (b) the
frequency of the rotor e.m.f. (1 decimal place), (c) the rotor copper
loss (3 significant figures), (d) the input to the motor in kW if the
stator loss is 2.5 kW (1 decimal place) and (e) the line currents (2
decimal places).
8.3 A 4-pole, three-phase, 60 Hz induction motor is rated at 15 kW.
Its full-load slip is 4%. The stator loss is measured as 950 W and
the mechanical rotor losses = 830 W. Find the rotor copper loss in
kW (2 decimal places) and machine efficiency (2 significant
figures).
8.4 A 6-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase, wound-rotor induction motor
running on full load develops a useful torque of 162.7 Nm. A
moving-coil ammeter in the rotor circuit fluctuates at 90 complete
‘beats’ per minute. The mechanical torque lost in friction is 13.56
Nm and the stator losses are 750 W. Calculate (a) speed of motor
(3 significant figures), (b) brake power input (3 decimal places), (c)
 rotor copper loss (watts) (1 decimal place), (d) motor input in kW (2
decimal places) and (e) motor efficiency (2 significant figures).
8.5 A 75 kW, 440 V, three-phase, wound-rotor induction motor has a
rotor resistance and standstill reactance of 0.02 and 0.27 Ω/ph
respectively. The stator to rotor phase turns ratio is 3:1 and the
stator windings are connected in delta.
If the motor is started by means of a resistance starter with a
resistance of 0.25 Ω/ph, calculate the current taken by the motor
from the supply (a) at start (3 significant figures) and (b) under full-
load running conditions (1 decimal place) if full-load slip is 4%.
What would be the current taken from the supply if the motor was
accidently started with the starting resistance in the ‘run’ position (3
significant figures)? Neglect the no-load current, and stator winding
resistance and reactance. Assume the rotor to be star-connected.
8.6 Full-load torque is obtained with a 440 V, 12-pole, 60 Hz, three-
phase, delta-connected induction motor, when driving a main
circulating water pump at a speed of 576 rev/min. The slip-ring
rotor has a resistance of 0.02 Ω/ph and standstill reactance of 0.27
Ω/ph. Calculate (a) the ratio of maximum to full-load torque and (b)
the speed at maximum torque (revs/min) (1 decimal place).
8.7 A 440 V, three-phase, 10-pole, 50 Hz, boiler induced-draught fan
motor has a delta-connected stator winding and a wound rotor. The
resistance per phase of the rotor winding is 0.018 Ω and the ratio of
the stator conductors per phase to rotor conductor per phase is 4:1.
If the motor develops maximum torque when running at a speed of
540 rev/min, calculate the rotor current (3 significant figures) and
P.F. (3 decimal places) for the machine when running at full load,
with a slip of 4% and slip-rings short-circuited. Calculate the
developed full-load output power in kW (3 decimal places),
assuming mechanical losses are negligible. What starter resistance
per phase must be connected into the rotor circuit to give maximum
torque at start (3 decimal places)? Neglect stator winding
resistance and reactance.
8.8 A 37 kW, 12-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz squirrel-cage induction
motor as used aboard a tankship for driving a main circulating
water pump, gave the following test results:
 No-load Test.
Applied voltage 440 V. Line current 19 A. Input power 2.17 kW.
Locked-rotor Test.
Applied voltage 100 V. Line current 70 A. Input power 3.88 kW.
The ratio stator/rotor copper loss is 4:5. Construct a circle diagram
and find for full-load conditions: (a) Input line-current (3 significant
figures) and P.F. (2 decimal places), (b) percentage slip (2 decimal
places) and (c) percentage efficiency (1 decimal place).
8.9 During tests on a three-phase, 440 V at 60 Hz, 8-pole, 22 kW
induction motor, the following figures were obtained:
No-load Test.
Applied voltage 440 V at 60 Hz. Input line current 10.5 A. Input
power 1.82 kW.
Locked-rotor Test.
Applied voltage 113 V at 60 Hz. Input line current 50 A. Input power
3.92 kW.
Estimate for full-load conditions: (a) Input line current (3 significant
figures) and P.F. (1 decimal place), (b) percentage slip (2 decimal
places), (c) percentage efficiency (1 decimal place) and (d)
developed torque of the motor in Nm (2 decimal places). For this
motor the rotor copper loss under standstill conditions was found to
be the same as the stator copper loss.
8.10 Draw the circle diagram for a three-phase, 415 V, 37 kW
induction motor from the following test results:
No-load Test.
Applied voltage 415 V. Input current 40 A. Input power 3.6 kW.
Locked-rotor Test.
Applied voltage 83 V. Input current 80 A. Input power 3.45 kW.
Under standstill conditions rotor copper loss and stator copper loss
are equal. From the circle diagram deduce (a) the full-load current
(1 significant figure) and P.F. (1 decimal place), (b) the full-load
efficiency (2 significant figures), (c) maximum output in kW (1
decimal place) and (d) the ratio of full-load torque to maximum
torque.
 ‘O tell me, when along the line
From my full heart the message flows,
What currents are induced in thine?
One click from thee will end my woes’.
Through many an Ohm the Weber flew,
And clicked the answer back to me,
‘I am thy Farad, staunch and true,
Charged to a Volt with love for thee’.
Credited to James Clerk Maxwell regarding telegraphy

This chapter discusses several common control and operation

methods for A.C. power equipment. In considering the various A.C.
machines of previous chapters, no discussion was made of
operational procedures, or the practical problems of parallel operation
of alternators and load sharing. In shipboard work, it is common to
run more than one machine for ‘electrical power supplies’, and so
relevant theory must be considered, especially as there are
differences between the operating procedures of A.C. and D.C.
generators. In considering the overall aspects of operating A.C.
machinery, starting and speed-control methods for A.C. motors were
not mentioned. However, shipboard practice requires such attention
which is discussed in this chapter.

A.C. Generators
A.C. generators can be connected in parallel because they control
each other electrically by a circulating current which keeps them in
phase. Series connection of A.C. generators is not practicable unless
the machines are coupled together mechanically. Without such
coupling, since no provision for a circulating current exists, it is not
possible for machines to control each other. As series running is not a
feasible arrangement it will not be considered here.

A.C. generators in parallel

The reader is reminded that an A.C. machine, like its D.C.

counterpart, can function as either generator or motor if connected to
a supply source. Such a supply would be ‘live busbars’ which are
themselves supplied by an electrical power source, e.g. other
alternators.

D.C. conditions for parallel running were discussed in Chapter 4 (D.C.

Machines) where if the machine generated voltage under
consideration was higher than the busbar voltage it would feed
electrical power out, and be driven by the power source, contributing
power into the ‘common pool’ of the busbar system, to operate in
parallel with others already ‘on the bars’. If the machine generated
voltage was lowered below that of the busbars it would take electrical
power to function as a motor. In this condition it provides mechanical
power for driving associated machinery.

Similar conditions arise for A.C. generators, which may operate as an

alternator or synchronous motor. Control of a machine’s generated
voltage alters the operating mode but if parallel operation is needed,
unlike D.C. conditions, further adjustment of the prime-mover throttle
valve must be carried out on each machine of the parallel
arrangement, before load sharing is achieved.

SYNCHRONISING. As discussed previously an A.C. generator or

synchronous motor can only be connected to a live busbar system by
ensuring correct synchronisation prior to closing the paralleling switch
or circuit-breaker. If one machine is slightly out of phase it should
‘pull’ the other into step, but if the phase difference is too large there
can be huge damaging voltage and current variations. The
requirements for correct synchronising have been mentioned and are
now considered.

To ensure correct synchronisation the conditions are as follows:

(1) The voltage of the incoming machine must equal that of the
busbars.
(2) The frequency of the incoming machine must be the same as that
of the busbars.
(3) The e.m.f. of the incoming machine must be in phase with the
busbar voltage.
(4) The phase sequence of an incoming machine must be similar to
the busbars, and the switching arrangements made so that like
phases of the machine and busbars are connected when the
paralleling procedure is completed.

▲ Figure 9.1
If conditions for the busbars and incoming machine are represented
by the figure 9.1 phasors, synchronising requirements are seen, i.e.
(1) the respective voltage phasors must be equal, (2) phasors must
rotate at the same speed and frequency, (3) they must be in phase
with each other, i.e. corresponding line to line voltages must reach
their positive maximum values at the same instant and (4) phasors
must rotate in the same direction–same phase sequence. On land
switchboard installations are provided with a synchronising panel of
voltmeters, frequency meters and a synchroscope. In marine work it
is common to add ‘synchronising lamps’ as well.

The synchroscope

A synchroscope is an instrument used to establish phase angle and

frequency synchronisation between A.C. current power supplies. This
is a vital safety measure when A.C. power networks or generator
outputs are connected together. Synchroscopes are commonly
available in two arrangements: electro-mechanical or electronic.

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL TYPE. Electro-mechanical synchroscopes

use a digital microprocessor to indicate the degree of synchronisation
with digital or Light Emitting Diode (LED) displays. When combining 2
or more A.C. power supplies, it is of vital importance to ensure both
are at the same voltage, frequency and in phase with each other as
discussed. Connecting A.C. supplies when they are not balanced
may lead to severe damage to the network or connected A.C.
machines. The electro-mechanical type incorporates a pointer and
LED to indicate the synchronisation conditions. If the generator
frequency is higher or lower than that of the mains the pointer rotates
clockwise or anti-clockwise respectively. Speed and rotation direction
depends on difference in frequencies which guides the operator to
speed up or slow down the generator. The synchronisation condition
is determined by a dark lamp method, where the pointer coincides
with a synchronisation mark and the LED is unlit, but the LED glows
in accordance with phase difference, voltage frequencies and
amplitudes. The main benefits of this system are its rugged
construction, easy servicing and wide operating voltage range.

ELECTRONIC TYPE. This type incorporates a circle of LEDs which

glow sequentially in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction at variable
speed in accordance with the frequency difference in the 2 power
systems being linked. Synchronisation is indicated by the glowing
LED in the ‘SYNCHRO ON’ position. Anti-phase is indicated by the
glowing LED in the ‘SYNCHRO OFF’ at the bottom. The advantages
of this system are continuous operation, no moving parts, low power
consumption and the fact that it is visible in the dark.

SYNCHRONISING LAMPS. The error in the frequency of the

incoming machine as compared with the busbar frequency is shown
by the rate at which LEDs ‘darken’ or ‘brighten’. To understand
synchronisation operation, it is best to first consider the synchronising
of a single-phase A.C. generator where equality of voltage and phase
results in zero voltage across an arrangement of lamps which are
then totally dark. A difference of frequency causes lamps to brighten
and darken, the difference in frequency being shown by the rate of
pulsation. This ‘dark lamp’ synchronisation method makes it hard to
judge the mid-point of the dark period – the instant of closing the
paralleling switch. In practice, an engineer may find it difficult to
adjust the incoming machine speed, so modern use microprocessors
does this virtually instantaneously and automatically with
synchronisation relays, with an advantage over manual attempts.
Thus the moment for synchronising is determined exactly.

Parallel operation

There is a difference between parallel operation of A.C. and D.C.

generators and this speed difference is of great importance to marine
engineers as they may have to operate either A.C. or D.C. electrical
generating and distribution systems. The procedure for putting A.C.
machines on the ‘bars’ was discussed here and in Chapter 7 (The
Marine Alternator). Torque production to ensure a machine runs in
synchronism was also considered. Attention is now given to the
action required to make a paralleled alternator take its load share and
to study the effects of the 2 possible adjustments, namely: (1) field
regulator operation, i.e. excitation control and (2) throttle valve
operation, i.e. speed control.

With correctly designed D.C. generators, parallel operation and load

sharing are achieved by excitation adjustment. As field excitation of a
machine is increased, the machine generated e.m.f. rises so it takes
a larger portion of load. The increased load slows the D.C. generator
down and allows the power source to draw extra fuel, since a
governor is actuated, and the extra load condition is carried. With 2
alternators in parallel, an excitation increase of one machine raises
the generated e.m.f. and tends to make it take more load. However,
the machine cannot slow down since it is tied synchronously to the
system, and the governor of the power source is unaffected, thus no
action results to cause the machine to take more load. Operation of
the excitation control causes a wattless current to circulate in the
paralleled machines and busbar system, with a current which lags
generated e.m.f. by angle φ so the load = EI cos φ. The kW load
remains constant, maintaining an unvaried governor setting. To
change the load distribution between A.C. generators in parallel, the
throttle valves must be altered, so that for 2 alternators in parallel, as
the speeds (frequencies) must be identical, the kW loading on each
machine must be related to the power source input, i.e. the amount of
operation of the throttle valve, and cannot be controlled by the
excitation. The excitation effect and throttle control are considered
next, but 2 problems here revise the basics of A.C. load summation
and P.F. control.

Example 9.1. A factory takes 200 kW at 660 V from a three-phase

supply at a lagging 0.707 P.F. A synchronous motor is installed to
take an extra 100 kW. What must be the motor kVA rating to raise the
system P.F. to 0.866 lagging (1 decimal place)?

Total active power = 200 + 100 = 300 kW

Total apparent power at 0.866 P.F. (lagging)

Here cos φ = 0.866 and sin φ = 0.5

Total reactive power = –346.4 × 0.5 = –173.2 kVAr

Original apparent power of load =

Here cos φ = 0.707 and sin φ = 0.707

Original reactive power =

With the motor load, reactive power is reduced by: –200 – (–173.2) =
–26.8 kVAr

Thus the motor reactive power rating = 26.8 kVAr (leading), i.e. +26.8
kVAr

Example 9.2. Two three-phase, 660 V, star-connected alternators in

parallel supply the following loads: 40 kW at 1 P.F., 40 kW at 0.85 P.F.
(lagging), 30 kW at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) and 80 kW at 0.7 P.F. (lagging).
The armature current of one machine is 100 A at 0.9 P.F. (lagging).
Determine the armature current (3 significant figures), power output
(2 significant figures) and P.F. of the other machine (3 decimal
places).
Machine No. 1

Apparent power = 100 × 660 × = 114 kVA Active power = 114 ×

0.9 = 103 kW

Φ1 = 25°51 sineφ1 = 0.436 Reactive power = 114 × 0.436 = –49.8

kVAr

Machine No. 2

Active power = 190 – 103 = 87 kW Reactive power = –128.8 – (–

49.8) = –79 kVAr

Active power =

Current of machine No. 2

Active power output of machine No. 2 = 87 kW

P.F. of machine No. 2 = = 0.742 (lagging)

Parallel operation of A.C. generators may be studied under 2 distinct

headings. The first is parallel working with ‘infinite busbars’, as found
in shore-based power stations joined together through a national
transmission grid system. An ideal case of infinite busbars is one
where the system is so large, in comparison with a single alternator,
that its voltage and frequency are totally unaffected by an alternator’s
behaviour. The second consideration is of key importance for marine
engineers, as it relates to shipboard working. Here busbar voltage
and frequency can be altered by local conditions and the more
common case of 2 or more alternators run in parallel is given
attention in the study which follows.

(1) EXCITATION CONTROL. Assume 2 alternators paralleled

correctly. Voltage, frequency and phase of each are the same and
this condition is represented by the figure 9.2 phasors. V is the
busbar voltage, i.e. that produced by machine No. 1 generating an
e.m.f. of E1 volts and supplying the busbar load. E2 is the e.m.f. of
machine No. 2. The e.m.f.s of the 2 machines in parallel are in phase
relative to the external circuit, but in opposition when considered with
respect to each other as shown for the local circuit.

▲ Figure 9.2

In figure 9.2a, voltages are equal and opposed. As a result no current

flows in the local circuit between the alternators since the resultant
voltage is zero. In figure 9.2b, machine No. 2 excitation is increased.
The generated e.m.f. E2 is increased to , creating a resultant
voltage ER around the local circuit which is mainly reactive and the
resultant current I lags ER by nearly 90°. This current represents no
power flow either ‘from’ or ‘to’ the busbars and the alternator No. 2
power source is unaffected leaving the governor unchanged. The
machine supplies a lagging current to or takes a leading current from
the busbars which tends to neutralise the effect of a lagging load
current drawn from the busbars, so over-excitation of an A.C.
generator improves the paralleled system P.F. Figure 9.2c shows the
effect of decreasing machine No. 2 excitation, so altering excitation
does not really alter the busbar voltage either. This is explained by
the reactive current I, for condition (b) having a lowering effect on the
e.m.f. with lagging current having a demagnetising effect on the
alternator field strength. Hence E1 the generated e.m.f. of machine
No. 1 is increased and the circulating current makes E2 and E1 equal
to V – the busbar voltage.

Example 9.3. Two three-phase alternators in parallel supply 125 kVA

at 0.8 P.F. (lagging). Each machine supplies the same power at the
same current. If excitation of each machine is changed so the P.F. of
one falls to 0.5 (lagging), find the P.F. of the other. Note: as this is
reactive excitation control, power output is unaltered.

Original apparent power = 125 kVA cos φ = 0.8 and sin φ = 0.6

∴ Total active power = 125 × 0.8 = 100 kW

The active power supplied by each machine = 50 kW

Under the new condition.

For machine No. 1

cos φ1=0.5 and sin φ1 = 0.866

Apparent power

Reactive power = –100 × 0.866 = –86.6 kVA

Original reactive power = –125 sinφ = –125 × 0.6 = –75 kVAr

For machine No. 2

Reactive power = –75 – (–86.6) = 11.6 kVAr

Active power = 50 kW

Apparent power =

= kVA and (leading).

With the lagging kVAr of one machine made larger than the total
lagging kVAr, the kVAr of the other machine must be in anti-phase to
produce the final result. Thus as No. 1 alternator operates at a
lagging P.F., No. 2 alternator must operate with a leading P.F.

(2) THROTTLE CONTROL. Assume the governor control is altered

so machine No. 2 fuel valve is opened. Alternator No. 2 tends to
speed up and phasor E2 tries to overtake V (figure 9.3). In connection
with the local circuit, a resultant voltage ER immediately produces a
current I lagging almost 90° and nearly in phase with E2 so alternator
No. 2 develops power =E2I cos φ2. When power output equals the
input power increase (by throttle valve actuation through a governor)
power source No. 2 tends to speed up, and the alternator delivers
power to the load. Alternator No. 1, relieved of load, speeds up
slightly until its power source governor reduces input power and
brings about stable speed conditions.
▲ Figure 9.3

The final load distribution on each alternator is achieved by alternate

operation of both machine throttle controls until the required loading
is shown by each alternator wattmeter, and the voltage and frequency
of the system achieve the desired condition. If the driving power of
alternator No. 2 is removed, because of a mechanical fault (e.g. a fuel
stoppage), the conditions are as shown (figure 9.4). Voltage drops
behind the true synchronisation position by angle α'. There is now a
resultant voltage acting round the local circuit, producing a current
, almost 90° behind – a circuit comprising the machine armature,
being mainly reactive. Busbars now supply power VI' cos φ' to the
machine to keep it running as a synchronous motor. The drop back of
from the synchronous position is momentary and the machine then
accelerates back into synchronism.

If an increased mechanical load is added to alternator No. 2 while

motoring, the machine e.m.f. would drop back more and would
increase so the total power supplied from the busbars increases. This
is the basis of synchronous motor operation. Little work will be done
on an A.C. machine operating in this way, however it can be used as
a propeller motor for marine A.C. electric propulsion systems, and
warrants some mention.
▲ Figure 9.4

Reference was made to the synchronising current and this is now

taken further. Consider parallel operation (figure 9.5). Alternators
generate E1 and E2 volts to maintain a busbar voltage of V volts.
Although these voltages are in phase with respect to the load, they
are in direct opposition to each other. Suppose the excitations and
powers developed by the power sources cause currents I1, and I2 at
P.F.s of cos φ1 and cos φ2 respectively. The total load is the phasor
sum of I1, and I2, which are omitted from the diagram for clarity.
Assume the power input to No. 2 is increased which tries to
accelerate, advancing a small angle α. New load conditions are set
up, and E1, to produce ER acting round a local circuit. This causes
a circulating current, which under no-load conditions is the
synchronising current IS, lagging ER by 90°. IS can be added by
phasors to the original currents and combined with I2 to give a new
machine current . Is is received by machine No. 1 and reduces
current output to give the resultant of and Is.
▲ Figure 9.5

An increased No. 2 input makes it take more load so its speed settles
to that decided by the governor-actuated throttle-valve opening.
Meanwhile machine No. 1, now relieved of load, accelerates to a new
speed (frequency) determined in the last stage by the overall system
load. IS is a short-duration circulating current, created by transient
conditions arising from controls adjustment. Once the overall
paralleled system settles down, operating conditions are similar to
those found originally, except that I1, I2, cos φ1 and cos φ2 have new
values.

Load sharing

In summary increased machine excitation produces a wattless

circulating current so a generated voltage change relative to the
busbars changes the reactive kVA which a machine supplies. Varying
power input tends to speed up a machine with power output E2 I2 cos
φ2. Load sharing is now considered from 2 view points: (1) Sharing of
kW and (2) Sharing of reactive kVA.
kW LOAD SHARING. The speed regulation, i.e. governor
characteristics of the complete power source and alternator set,
determines the load proportions taken by paralleled machines. The
frequency/load characteristics of 2 sets are shown in figure 9.6.

▲ Figure 9.6

The characteristics of sets Nos 1 and 2 are assumed to be unequal

but since the 2 frequencies are tied together, the total load delivered
at any frequency is found by adding the individual loads at this
frequency. Here OR = OP + OQ. By repeating this addition for other
frequencies, a common frequency curve is obtained which indicates
the frequency drop with increase of total load and division of any total
load, such as OR, into OP (machine No. 1) and OQ (machine No. 2).
Thus the greater load proportion is borne by the machine having the
flatter governor characteristic. As for load-sharing problems with D.C.
generators, the characteristics can be plotted back-to-back (figure
9.7). The intersection point X, shows the load sharing and the
common frequency. Altering the governor settings of machine No. 1
raises curve L to L1 if curve L is raised to L2, the intersection point lies
to the right of the right-hand vertical and the condition is represented
when machine No. 2 is motored by No. 1, supplying both the total
load and the motoring power as well.
▲ Figure 9.7

Assuming straight line characteristics, a mathematical solution can be

found as follows. Assume 2 alternators Nos 1 and 2, of similar
ratings, with prime-mover power sources (having straight line
characteristics), so one drops a% and the other b% between no load
and full load (in kW). Assume their speeds equal N at some total
loading P (kW). Then, if load is increased by Q (kW), the load
increase will be shared so both alternators fall by the same speed.
Conditions are shown in figure 9.8.

▲ Figure 9.8

Let the increased load share taken by machine No. 1 be X kW, so No.
2 takes (Q–X) kW.
Hence

∴ Load gained or lost by No. 1 is and,

Load gained or lost by No. 2 correspondingly is

Example 9.4 Two large identical alternators each rated 1.25 MVA with
0.8 P.F. (lagging) supply a load in parallel. The governor setting on
the prime-mover of machine No. 1 drops from 50 Hz on no-load to 48
Hz on full load. The second machine (No. 2) drops from 50 to 47 Hz.
How will they share a load of 1.5 MW?

Machine No. 1 drops 2 Hz for 1000 kW (1250 kVA at 0.8 P.F.), i.e.
0.002 Hz per kW.

Machine No. 2 drops 3 Hz for 1000 kW (1250 kVA at 0.8 P.F.), i.e.
0.003 Hz per kW.

Let the load on machine No. 1 be X kW so the load on machine No. 2

= (1500 – X) kW

The frequency must be equal, as they are in parallel.

∴ 50 – 0.002 X = 50 – 0.003(1500 – X) and 0.002 X = 4.5 – 0.003 X

or 0.005 X = 4.5

∴ 0.5X = 4500 or Load on machine No. 1 = 900 kW

Load on machine No. 2 = 1500 – 900 = 600 kW.

This is a direct solution found by application of the expressions

deduced earlier.

Thus for machine No. 1, a speed change of 2 Hz in 50 Hz gives a =

4% and,
for machine No. 2, a speed change of 3 Hz in 50 Hz gives b = 6%

Here the load increase, i.e. from no-load to full load Q = 1500 kW

= 6 × 150 = 900 kW and Q – X = 1500 –

900 = 600 kW

kVAr LOAD SHARING. The way in which machines run in parallel,

sharing the reactive kVA, is largely governed by their relative internal
voltages. Voltage regulation characteristics of 2 machines are shown
in figure 9.9 plotted against the kVAr load.

▲ Figure 9.9

As for kW load sharing, the characteristics are plotted in figure 9.10.

The positions of the characteristics are determined by the amount of
excitation. An increase of this for one machine, e.g. No. 1, raises the
curve to L1. Machine No. 1 then takes a larger share of the kVAr load
and the busbar voltage raises. Condition L2 shows how machine No.
1 operates at a leading P.F. even though the total load lags. Figure
9.9 shows the machine with the flatter characteristics takes the
largest loading share.
▲ Figure 9.10

Example 9.5. Two alternators operate in parallel supplying a 1 MW

load at 0.8 P.F. (lagging). If the supply of machine No. 1 is adjusted
so it is loaded to 600 kW and excitation adjusted so that its P.F. =
0.707 (lagging) (a) find the P.F. at which machine No. 2 operates, (b)
if the load and supplies of both machines are unchanged and the
excitations altered so the P.F. of machine No. 2 is raised to 0.8
(leading). Find the new P.F. of machine No. 1.

Total active load = 1000 kW cos φ = 0.8 (lagging) and sin φ = 0.6

i.e. Total apparent power

Total reactive power –1250 × 0.6 = –750 kVAr

(a) Machine No. 1

Active power = 600 kW

Apparent power

∴ Reactive power

Machine No. 2
Active power = 1000 – 600 = 400 kW

Reactive power = –750 – (–600) = –150 kVAr

(b) Even with increased excitation, the active power output of

machine No. 2 is still 400 kW, although its P.F. now leads, i.e. there is
a positive kVAr condition.

∴ Apparent power

Reactive power = 500 × 0.6 = 300 kVAr

Thus for machine No. 1

Reactive power = –750 + 300 = –450 kVAr

Apparent power

(lagging).

The Synchronous Motor

The basic principles of an alternator’s ‘motoring action’ when
connected to busbars have been covered. Here attention is given to a
machine when mechanically loaded, i.e. when it takes electrical
energy to operate as a motor. This is used to advantage in larger
sized machines because the P.F. can be controlled by varying D.C.
excitation. When operated in this way it can improve the overall load
system P.F., such as in a factory, and when used as a ship’s
propulsion motor unity P.F. minimises current so the system copper
losses and associated equipment size will not be larger than that
required for the appropriate kW rating.

Operating action

Consider an alternator run up to speed and synchronised onto the

busbars. If the machine delivers no power it is said to ‘float on the
bars’. Suppose next the power source is disconnected. The machine
draws power from the mains, sufficient to overcome the no-load
losses and the rotor slips back through angle a1 having a phasor
diagram as shown in figure 9.11. The busbar voltage V and
generated e.m.f. E1 have a resultant ER and the motor draws a

current I1 from the supply. where ZS is the armature’s

synchronous impedance. I1 lags behind the applied voltage V by

angle φ1 and power input = VI cos φ1
▲ Figure 9.11

If the motor is loaded, the rotor drop back further to angle φ2. The
resultant voltage is then ER2 and the current increases to I2, lagging
as before, on V by angle φ2. Power input is now VI2 cos φ2 and α2
adjusts itself until sufficient power is drawn from the supply to
manage the load. The phasor diagram is drawn from the busbar point
of view and shown in figure 9.12.

To the basic voltage phasors are added the voltage drops in the
motor due to resistance and synchronous reactance. Here angle α is
the ‘angle of retard’. The total mechanical power developed by the
motor is E2 I2 cos(φ1 – α2) which to a first approximation is expressed
as V2 I2 cos φ2. Power available at the shaft is less than this due to
the iron, friction and windage losses. An increased load torque
causes angle α to increase, meaning a larger current. At the same
time φ increases and the P.F. cos φ diminishes. For small φ values I
increases at a greater rate than cos φ decreases, so the power
developed increases. A value of φ is reached at which I increases at
a lower rate than cos φ decreases, so a maximum power condition is
obtained. Thus, once the current increase is countered by a P.F.
decrease, power starts to fall and, if the load torque required is
increased further, the motor will pull out of step and stall. Under
normal operating conditions if P is the total mechanical power
developed in watts W, V the supply voltage, I the motor current, cos φ
the motor P.F. and Ra the effective motor resistance then P = VI cos
φ – I2 Ra.
▲ Figure 9.12

Example 9.6. A 500 V, synchronous motor develops 7.5 kW, with 0.9
P.F. (lagging). The effective armature resistance is 0.8 Ω. Iron and
friction losses are 500 W and the excitation loss 800 W. Find (a) the
motor current, (b) the input power and (c) the overall efficiency (all 1
decimal place).

Output power = 7.5 kW = 7500 W

Mechanical power developed = 7500 + 500 = 8000 W

∴ 8000 = 500 × I × 0.9 – I2 × 0.8

or 0.8I2 – 450I + 8000 = 0

Giving I = 17.2 A

Power input to motor = 500 × 17.2 × 0.9 = 7.74 kW

Total power input, inclusive of excitation loss = 7.74 + 0.8

= 8.5 kW

Overall efficiency

Example 9.7. The input to a 11 kV, three-phase, star-connected

synchronous motor is 50 A. The effective synchronous reactance and
resistances per phase are 29 and 0.95 Ω respectively. Calculate the
power supplied to the motor in kW and the induced e.m.f. for 0.8 P.F.
(lagging) (both 3 significant figures).

In figure 9.12 it is shown E2 is given by = (Vcos – IR)2 + (Vsinφ –

IXS)2

Resistance voltage drop per phase = 50 × 0.95 = 47.5 V

Reactance voltage drop per phase = 50 × 29 = 1450 V

Phase voltage

Then = {(6352 × 0.8) – 4 7.5}2 + {(6352 × 0.6) – 1450}2

= 50342 + 23612 = 106(5.0342 + 2.3622) = 106(25.4 + 5.57) = 106 ×

30.97

or E2 = 5570 V

Thus induced e.m.f.

Input power
= 762 kW.

Starting

Figure 9.13 depicts a polyphase, 2-pole stator winding fed with a

polyphase A.C. current. A synchronous rotating magnetic field of
constant strength is produced which is assumed to rotate clockwise.
Stator poles N1 and S1 occupy the positions shown at a particular
instant, the 2-pole rotor being stationary. Under these conditions, the
rotor will be urged to move anti-clockwise but a half-cycle later, the
stator poles will reverse and S1 will now be at the top and N1 at the
bottom. The rotor now tends to move in a clockwise manner and, as it
cannot respond to an alternating torque, remains at rest and so the
motor is not self-starting.

▲ Figure 9.13

If the rotor is run at synchronous speed, the opposite stator and rotor
poles ‘lock-in’ and the motor continues to run as considered earlier
under the heading of Operating Action. Thus, to operate, the motor
must be brought up to speed, by some external means and
synchronised onto the supply as was the alternator. There are various
practical methods of running a motor up to speed and the following
are among the most usual.
(1) An A.C. or D.C. pony motor (a small motor that gets a larger
motor started) is coupled to the main machine of sufficient power to
drive the latter up to slightly above synchronous speed, running up a
synchronous motor. In one arrangement the D.C. exciter is used as
the pony motor to drive the main machine above synchronous speed.
It is then switched off and reconnected as a D.C. generator, to supply
the main motor’s field. As the latter slows down and passes through
synchronism, paralleling is affected and the load to be driven is then
taken up.

(2) A synchronous motor can be provided with a cage winding on the

rotor to run the machine up to speed as an induction motor. The D.C.
field is applied and the rotor pulled into synchronism. This is the
method employed in A.C. ship-propulsion propeller motor systems.
Since propeller speed is controlled by the main alternator speed, i.e.
by the supply frequency, procedure is as follows.

Consider a 3 kV system.

An alternator runs up to say speed, with or 375 V generated.

As induction motor torque is proportional to the square of supply

voltage, a voltage reduction to normal produces a torque of

normal. This reduced torque cannot provide much power at the

propeller, which may not even turn – thus the need for double
excitation. At this stage, the motor is connected to the alternator, and
speed raised until near speed, when only = 600 V is

generated, double excitation is applied to the alternator field. Thus if

the alternator field is rated for 110 V D.C., 220 V will be applied. As
field strength is doubled, 2 × 600 = 1200 V is generated, sufficient to
run the propeller motor up to speed as an induction motor. When
synchronism is approached, the motor D.C. field is applied and the
propulsion motor pulled into step to operate as a synchronous motor.
From now on, as the alternator speed is raised its excitation is
reduced, so by the time normal operating speed value is reached, the
alternator field is reduced to the rated value, i.e. 110 V in this
example. The induction motor cage winding is made up of copper
bars embedded in the rotor pole faces. These damper bars are
connected together by short-circuiting rings carried round the rotor
circumference.

Induction Motors
Induction motors are included under the heading of ‘operation’, as
little has been said about their starting and control, and consideration
is now given to their operating requirements. As the three-phase
induction motor is the A.C. machine invariably used in marine
applications, attention is given to usual marine operational practice.

Starting

Cage-type motors are the most common and are considered first.
Since the torque produced is proportional to applied voltage squared,
direct application of line voltage has some advantages. Unlike D.C.
motors, which, under standstill conditions, offers low resistance to the
line voltage, A.C. motors have enough inherent impedance to limit
current to say 4–7 times the full-load current value. Thus a rheostatic
starter (which during starting cuts out successively one or more
resistors in the rotor circuit), as used for D.C. motors, is unnecessary
and A.C. motor-starting methods, for cage machines, takes 3 forms.

(1) DIRECT-ON-STARTING. Even though the starting current may be

7 times higher than the full-load value, current will not necessarily
burn out a machine, if it is limited to only a short period. This starting
method is usual for small motors, up to about 5 kW in shore practice
but in marine work, when appropriate alternators are installed, i.e.
those arranged to maintain a fairly constant terminal voltage when a
large starting current is drawn, direct-on starting was developed for
motors rated up to 200 kW or more. Starting current depends on
motor size and design. The motor must accelerate quickly and
current must fall rapidly. The main objection to this starting method is
the large voltage drops in the cables which can affect other
connected machines. High starting currents produce large heating
effects and direct-on starting is not used for repeated operations if a
cooling interval is not provided. Starting is effected with a contactor,
actuated by a push-button or control switch, connecting the motor to
the supply. The contactor usually has a built-in isolator and High
Rupture Capacity (H.R.C.) fuses included for short-circuit protection.
Over-current protection is provided by an overload unit of 3 series
current coils but a thermal trip can be substituted to ensure a cooling
period between ‘starts’. Full-voltage working for the closing coil, push-
button circuits, etc. is used, but for marine work it is common practice
to incorporate an auxiliary 110 V voltage transformer, for control and
indicator lamp circuits.

(2) STAR-DELTA STARTING. A 2-step starter is used with a motor

whose phase windings are normally delta connected. All 6 ends of
the phase windings are brought into the starter which is of the ‘2-
position’ type. The first position connects the motor phases in star so
the starting voltage per phase is supply voltage and starting

torque is that obtained by direct starting. Changeover from star to

delta is made by contact arms or segments in the manually operated

starter or by contactors in an automatic starter. Starting current is
reduced since it is phase value or of the corresponding direct

switching value. A reduced starting current is shown in example 9.8

and is the method’s main advantage.

British practice rarely uses the star-delta starting method for marine
work due to the interval between change-over; the motor is
disconnected from the supply and any induced e.m.f. falls in value
and frequency. When supply reconnection is made, transient currents
flow which may have peaks larger than those resulting from direct-on
switching. High current conditions can occur and yet torque is of

that obtained by direct starting. The method is considered poor for

marine work because: (a) if alternators can be designed to cope with
the direct-on starting current peaks, the reduced star-delta starting
conditions offer little advantage, (b) reduced starting torque limits this
starting method mainly to centrifugal pump and fan motors.

Example 9.8. The stator winding of a three-phase motor is arranged

for star/delta starting. If a motor is rated at 7.5 kW, voltage is 440 V,
full-load efficiency 85%, 0.8 P.F. (lagging) and the short-circuit current
equals 4 times the full-load current, calculate the current taken from
the mains at the instant of starting (2 decimal places).

Full-load output = 7.5 kW = 7500 W

Full-load input

Short-circuit current = 4 × 14.5 = 58

Current in start i.e. of direct-on starting.

(3) AUTO-TRANSFORMER STARTING. With a tapped three-phase

auto-transformer, any supply voltage fraction can be applied to a
motor without changing the motor connections. A reduced voltage
results in a certain motor current and the mains current is further
reduced by the transformer turns ratio. For example, with a 50%
tapping a motor will take half the current of one direct started and the
mains current will be that of the motor current. So mains current is

times the motor current if direct started. Torque is proportional to

the square of applied voltage, i.e. a quarter that obtained by direct

switching. This starter type is expensive and for marine work is only
used for large motors. If switching as described above is used motor
connections are broken when the tapping switches are moved and
current surges or transients as described for ‘star-delta’ starting
occur. To overcome this, methods often use a Korndorfer starter,
especially for automatic starters. This starter is used for reduced
voltage starting with three-phase auto-transformers, with newer
devices providing full automatic operation.

Figure 9.14 shows the typical main circuit scheme for such a marine
auto-transformer starter type. An electrically controlled switch is used
for switching the power circuit, which is similar to a relay, except that
it is used with higher current ratings. With operation of the ‘on’ push-
button–auxiliary circuits not shown, contactors A and B close first.
The motor receives a reduced voltage depending on the transformer
tapping used. Time-lagged switches in the auxiliary contactor closing-
coil circuits are fitted and after a short period, contactor B opens. The
motor now receives an increased voltage with a section of the
transformer winding used as a series reactor. After a further time
interval, contactor C closes and contactor A opens. Thus the motor is
connected to the supply direct and the transformer disconnected.
Circuit protection for over-current and under-voltage is built into
contactor C since it is the main circuit or ‘running’ contactor.
▲ Figure 9.14

Example 9.9. A cage-type induction motor which, if started directly on

line, would take a current surge 6.5 times the normal full-load current
developing 70% of normal full-load torque, is started with an auto-
transformer on a 75% tapping. Calculate the 0starting current in
terms of normal full-load current and torque.

With a 75% tapping as current is proportional to the voltage motor

current = 0.75 × 6.5 times normal full-load current. Mains current is
reduced because of the transformer ratio.

∴ Starting current, as drawn from the mains times normal

full-load current or 3.65 times normal full-load current. On a 75%

tapping since torque is proportional to voltage squared the new
torque times full-load torque 0.394 times the

full-load torque. For a wound-rotor induction motor, theory shows this

machine may develop maximum torque at starting and during
acceleration. Rotor resistance can be used for speed control but
resistor units are not usually rated for such a duty. The starter usually
comprises a normal three-phase contactor, with the usual protection
features to control the stator supply. The rotor resistor controller is
interlocked with this contactor to ensure starting can only be
attempted with maximum resistance in the rotor circuit. For marine
work, if speed control is needed as for some A.C. winch or ‘barring’
motors, resistors are cut out by a drum controller or regulator similar
to those used for D.C. machines. Rotor resistors are rated
accordingly, although a cage-type 2-speed machine is often favoured.

Speed and torque control

The method by which such control is achieved for the wound-rotor

motor has been considered. For a cage-type motor, some control is
obtained by rotor design variations. Cage resistance and reactance
can be adjusted, and as little has been said about its constructional
details, the chapter will end looking at different cage construction
features.

STATOR. Construction of an induction motor stator for both wound-

rotor and cage types is similar to the A.C. generator as it consists of
low-loss electrical steel laminations pre-stamped with slots,
compressed and secured into a fabricated steel or cast-iron frame to
form the body of the machine. Air circulation space is provided
between these laminations and the frame, and radial air ducts
arranged, if required, by fixing the stampings in stacks, separated by
spacers. Stator slots are usually of a semi-enclosed type and, since
the induction motor is a small air-gap machine, the bore of the stator
is usually turned or ground true.

Windings are similar to those described for the alternator, usually of a

single layer or concentric type. For relatively large output low-voltage
motors, one can use a double layer, 2 bars per slot winding with the
following advantages. It is more rigid mechanically and due to the
possibility of short-chording, overall machine length can be reduced
to save copper. Leakage reactance is also reduced in this way.

For medium-sized motors, windings can be either wire or a

rectangular bar. If wire coils are used they can be former wound and
then roughly shaped, slot portions being untapped. Wires are
introduced into the slots one at a time and end sections pulled into
shape by hand creating the common ‘Mush’ winding, a type of A.C.
armature winding with an odd coil span of long and short conductors
with connections made between a long and short conductor only.
Coils are made from copper wire covered with abrasion-resisting
synthetic enamel and insulated from the core slots. Coils are made
for a tight fit in the slots closed by fibre wedges. The stator is
impregnated with a high-grade thermosetting resin varnish, to prevent
coil movement and is resistant to moisture, salt spray and oil vapour.
End windings are taped and the insulation reinforced with suitable
fibrous material before varnishing. For large low-voltage motors,
when bar windings are used, the conductors of a one-turn coil can be
of copper strip, insulated with tape – varnished and baked, or
moulded under pressure directly onto the conductors. These can be
pushed through slots from one end only, a method to ensure high
mechanical strength. Connections are thus all on one side, accessed
for testing and inspection.

ROTOR. A standard cage rotor is designed for optimum running

performance and used for applications where normal starting current
and torque values are acceptable. Such a rotor develops 120–150%
full-load torque with 600–800% full-load current if direct started.
Where a smaller starting current and/or higher starting torque is
needed, alternative rotor construction exists to give the desired
characteristics. Because of the many performance variations it is hard
to distinguish between ‘standard’ and ‘high-torque’ motors but
appropriate examples are considered under these headings. Typical
marine drives for cage motor include centrifugal pumps, fans and
hydraulic steering-gear. High starting torque can be specified for a
motor but in most cases starting is light and a standard rotor is
satisfactory.

The core of a cage rotor is built up under pressure from similar

materials as is the stator core. A laminated cylindrical core is keyed
direct to the shaft for small motors, and to a cast-iron or cast-steel
rotor hub or spider, itself keyed to the shaft, for larger machines. The
core has slots which may be semi-enclosed or totally enclosed round
its outer periphery. Ventilating ducts are arranged to lie opposite
corresponding ducts in the stator core along its length. Slots are
usually skewed to ensure smooth starting and to avoid magnetic
noise. The rotor periphery is accurately machined to ensure a
minimum air-gap between rotor and stator, consistent with good
design. The shaft is of good quality tensile steel to withstand torsional
effects and mechanical shocks which may be transmitted from driven
machinery. The rotor is finally dynamically balanced after the cage
winding is inserted.

STANDARD-CAGE ROTOR. For small motors a winding consists of a

die casting of special aluminium alloy. Bars, end-rings and cooling
vanes are cast in one piece to avoid joints and to produce a higher
starting torque, due to the slightly higher resistance of aluminium
compared with copper.
▲ Figure 9.15

Larger machine rotor windings consist of solid copper or bronze bars

brazed to end-rings of the same material (figure 9.15). Bars are
driven into the slots and the profile and material, as for the end-rings,
modified to give desired start and running characteristics. Low cage
resistance is a good feature for efficient running and small slip, but
disadvantageous for starting. Starting currents are large, P.F.s low
and starting torque poor. A standard-cage rotor, with minor
modifications, is common since most drives start light, and current
can be limited by various starting arrangements, e.g. the star-delta or
auto-transformer starter.

HIGH-TORQUE CAGE ROTORS. The advantages of wound-rotor

motors with external resistance provide improved starting to some
extent without losing the robust construction and good running
properties of a standard-cage motor. This is achieved by special
constructions, and 2 methods are considered.

(1) Shaped and Embedded Rotor Bars. By appropriately dimensioned

slots and conductors, a high starting characteristic is possible as for
large A.C. currents. Conductors are of large cross-section solid
copper, so large eddy currents develop and an electromagnetic effect
operates, forcing current upwards in the conductors towards the slot-
openings. Current density can rise over part of any one conductor,
resulting in excessive copper loss. This increases the conductor’s
resistance, since a large part of its cross-sectional area is current
free. The effect’s size depends on frequency, the higher it is the more
pronounced the current localisation. As the slip decreases and rotor
frequency falls, the effect disappears, producing a high resistance
value on starting which is further increased by conductor shaping
(figure 9.16 examples). The apparent increase in cage bar resistance
during starting results in a desired starting torque increase.

▲ Figure 9.16

(2) Double-Cage Rotors. The aim here is to achieve a variable rotor

resistance to combine the high starting torque and low starting
current provided by a motor more like the inner cage of figure 9.17
with the low normal operating slip and high motor efficiency more like
the outer cage of figure 9.17. The solution is provided by having 2
cages with the overall result produced by the sum of the two. Here 2
circumferential rows of holes in the rotor iron constitute the conductor
slots. The outer row is spaced from the inner by narrow radial air-
gaps linking slot pairs and continues through to the outer rotor
surface. The arrangement is shown in figure 9.18 where the radial air-
gap ensures the stator flux links with the bottom conductors and does
not take the shorter path which would exist if no radial air-gaps were
added. Outer cage conductors are of high resistance (bronze) and
low reactance while the inner cage is made of high conductivity
copper with high reactance.
▲ Figure 9.17

▲ Figure 9.18

On starting, the rotating magnetic field links mainly with the outer
cage conductors as the rotor frequency is the supply frequency and
the large reactance of the inner, more highly inductive cage limits
current. The outer cage high resistance is thus more operative and
the corresponding torque higher.

As the motor accelerates, rotor current frequency falls, inner cage

reactance decreases and more current flows until it takes over the
main part of the driving torque. Figure 9.17 shows a double cage
rotor torque/slip curve. Adjusting the separate torques through rotor
slot design yields a combined characteristic that can be made to suit
any desired condition.
 Speed adjustment

The cage motor is a single-speed machine and best suited to

constant speed drives. It is possible to design a ventilating fan or
pump, permitting single-speed operation with no efficiency loss. If
single speed is unacceptable, 2 or more speeds can be obtained with
a pole-change cage motor, a development of the standard motor
providing a convenient and efficient speed changing method at low
cost. It is similar to a standard motor but by arrangement of multiple
stator windings: 2, 3 or 4 definite speeds are possible. Two-speed
motors are provided for marine work and these are considered next.

TWO-SPEED MOTORS. These can be built as (1) dual wound or (2)

consequent-pole machines.

(1) A dual-wound arrangement has been used for many years in

marine duties – general service pumps and forced fans, consisting of
a standard motor with 2 separate windings, one for each speed.
Windings are pitched to divide the stator into 2-pole systems, with
double the number of the other. One winding only is connected into
the circuit at any time and the usual forms of starting: direct-on, star-
delta or auto-transformer used.

(2) Consequent-pole machines have only one winding, tapped and

connected to appropriate terminals. These motors can only be direct-
started or used with auto-transformer starters. The arrangements for
speed control are effected by suitable switching and the control gear,
being more complicated than the dual-wound motor, is not favoured
for marine duties so further comment will not be made.

Example 9.10. On full-load, a 4-pole, 50 Hz, wound-rotor induction

motor operates with 5% slip. Find the resistance inserted into each
phase of a rotor circuit to reduce speed to 1200 rev/min, if torque
remains constant. The ratio of stator standstill reactance to resistance
is 6:1.
Let mR2 be the new value of rotor resistance per phase
New resistance = mR2 = 4R2

∴ Additional resistance = 3R2

Practice Examples
9.1 A synchronous motor with a power consumption of 50 kW is
connected in parallel with a load of 200 kW having 0.8 P.F.
(lagging). If the combined load has 0.9 P.F. (lagging), what is the
leading reactive kVA supplied by the motor (1 decimal place) and at
what P.F. is it working (3 decimal places)?
9.2 Two 3.3 kV, star-connected alternators when operating in parallel
supply the following loads: (a) 800 kW at unity P.F., (b) 600 kW at
0.707 P.F. (lagging). The current of one machine is 150 A at 0.85
P.F. (lagging). Find the current output (3 significant figures) and the
other machine’s P.F. (2 decimal places).
9.3 A ship’s electrical system is supplied by 2 identical three-phase,
star-connected alternators operating in parallel. The machines
share a total load of 1000 kW at 440 V, 0.8 P.F. (lagging). If the kW
loadings of the machines are equal and one machine supplies a
1000 A lagging current, find (a) the current supplied by the second
machine (3 significant figures), (b) each machine’s P.F.s (3 decimal
places) and (c) the reactive current circulating between two
machines (3 significant figures).
9.4 Two alternators A and B operate in parallel. When tested
individually, the frequency of machine A falls from 50 to 48.5 Hz
 when the load is 150 kW, while machine B falls from 50 to 48.5 Hz
when the load is 220 kW. If the total load is 200 kW, find the
frequency of the paralleled system (2 decimal places), and the load
on each machine (2 and 3 significant figures respectively).
9.5 A 15 kW 440 V, three-phase star-connected synchronous motor
has an armature of 0.4 Ω effective resistance per phase. It gives
full-load output at 0.9 P.F. (leading). If the iron and friction losses
are 500 W, find the armature current (1 decimal place).
9.6 A 220 V, single-phase, synchronous motor has a synchronous
impedance of 5 Ω and an effective armature resistance of 0.5. Ω.
Calculate (a) the minimum armature current (2 decimal places), (b)
the generated e.m.f. (3 significant figures) and (c) angle of retard
for a total load of 5 kW (in ° and '), which includes the motor’s iron
and friction losses.
9.7 A three-phase, 440 V, 37 kW induction motor has 82% efficiency
operating at 0.85 P.F. (lagging). When ‘direct-on’ started the motor
takes a current 6 times full-load current and produces a torque =
1.5 times full-load torque. Calculate the current taken from the
supply (2 decimal places), and the ratio of starting to full-load
torque if the motor is started with an auto-transformer with a 75%
tapping.
9.8 Find the ratio of starting to full-load current for a 15 kW, 415 V,
three-phase, induction motor with a star-delta starter, given full-load
efficiency is 85%, the full-load P.F. is 0.8 (lagging), the short-circuit
current is 60 A at 220 V and the magnetising current negligible.
9.9 A 440 V three-phase wound-rotor induction motor has a rotor
resistance and standstill reactance of 0.02 and 0.27 Ω per phase
respectively. The stator to rotor phase turns ratio is 3:1 with the
stator windings connected in delta. If the motor is started with a
resistance starter of resistance 0.25 Ω per phase, calculate the
current taken by the motor from the supply (a) at starting and (b)
under full-load running conditions if the full-load slip is 4%. What
would be the current taken from the supply if the motor was
accidently started with the starting resistance in the ‘run’ position?
Neglect the no-load current, resistance and reactance of the stator
windings (3 significant figures).
9.10 A 6-pole, three-phase induction motor on full load develops a
useful torque of 162.4 Nm and the rotor e.m.f. makes 90 complete
cycles per minute. Calculate the power in kW (2 significant figures).
If the frictional mechanical torque lost is 13.6 Nm, find the rotor
copper loss, the input to the motor in kW (2 decimal places) and
the efficiency (1 decimal place). Assume the stator loss is 750 W.
 Give us the tools to finish the job.
Sir Winston Churchill

A knowledge of basic electronics concepts is now essential for all

engineers, and students are reminded that in spite of the emergence
of semiconductor devices, and the rapid development of associated
optoelectronic and spintronic technologies, its impact on power
engineering and device applications is still significant. Large solid-
state motor starters, controlled rectifiers and static inverters have
been introduced into ship engine-rooms, as well as smaller but highly
sophisticated instrumentation and control apparatus like monitoring
and alarm systems, supervisory units and routine data loggers.
Because of the complexity of such equipment, specialist knowledge is
needed in the event of inevitable breakdowns and malfunctions but
electronic diagnostic tools and replacement of diagnosed faulty
components by maintenance staff is now routine, especially in
modern military equipment, but elsewhere repair is generally
performed by an engineer.

An introduction to modern electronics is made in this chapter,

covering key common components such as the thermionic diode,
triode, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) which is now being replaced by
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and plasma displays which will be
discussed fully towards the end of the book in Chapter 14.
Nonetheless, understanding the function of the anode, cathode and
gate electrodes (triode) is essential to see how the operation of
semiconductor technology devices arose and is more than just a
review of superseded valve technology. Chapters 11 and 12
respectively will introduce the diode and the transistor, both essential
components of solid-state maritime electronics.

John Ambrose Fleming (1849–1945) invented the thermionic valve

(1904), taking advantage of the particle-like behaviour of electrons.
As its name indicates a valve acts like a tap in a water system, which
can be turned on and off to permit electricity to flow one way only.
The first valves were used in radio circuits detecting radio signals and
had 2 elements – a wire and a metal electrode surrounding it, both
placed within a vacuum. Lee de Forrest (1873–1961) added a third
element, the gate, to the valve producing the triode, allowing greater
electrical current control. The triode even provides a small
amplification, i.e. making a weak signal stronger, thus fabricating the
first crude electronic amplifier. For the first time speech, radio and TV
signals could be amplified for the accelerating growth in global
communications. However, despite significant improvements valve
devices were generally bulky, high on power consumption and
somewhat unreliable. It was the invention of the transistor, a
semiconductor device with at least three terminals, by Bardeen (the
only double Nobel winning physicist), Brattain and Shockley in 1947
that made possible the development of digital electronics and
integrated circuits containing millions and millions of ‘invisible’
electrical components.

Electron Emission
Electrons associated with the atoms of a metal are normally confined
to shells, as described in Volume 6. At a metal surface, ‘free’
electrons in the outer shells may leave the surface due to their
increased velocity. However, they are attracted back by the
unbalanced electric field created which sets up a potential barrier. If
these free electrons can break through the potential barrier, a process
termed electron emission results. Electron emission arises from
various sources and is described by one of the following processes:
(1) thermionic emission, (2) photoelectric emission, (3) secondary
emission or (4) cold or field emission. Of these thermionic emission is
considered first in some detail due to its relevance to various
common electron-related devices operation and laying the principles
for solid-state devices. Photoelectric and secondary emission will be
discussed with respect to modern image intensifiers for ‘night vision’
while cold emission will not be discussed as significant here.

Thermionic Emission
When a metal is heated, energy is transferred to it and electrons
acquire increased random velocities which may permit some to
escape the metal surface’s potential barrier, in a similar manner to a
rocket needing a certain minimum velocity to escape earth’s
gravitational attraction. Such electrons can also be likened to vapour
globules given off from a boiling water surface, where unless some
means of collecting electrons as they are emitted is found, they will
lose their velocities, forming a space charge. Such space charges or
electron clouds give rise to a –ve charge which repels further
electrons. We can picture electrons leaving a metal surface, repelled
by the space charge which has built up, subsequently returning to the
metal. To enable electrons to leave a heated metal surface, an
additional electrode is placed adjacent to, but insulated from, the
metal within a vacuum enclosure. A vacuum is needed as
atmospheric pressure prevents electrons moving between –ve
cathode and +ve anode. This electrode, the anode, is made +ve with
respect to the heated surface, the cathode. This arrangement was
first introduced in Volume 6 and is essential for the operation of radio
valves, CRTs, mercury-arc rectifiers and discharge lamps.

For most modern electronic equipment, thermionic valves have been

replaced by semiconductor devices but a basic understanding of the
operation of the former is vital in appreciating the functioning of
semiconductor devices and other thermionic devices for which no
substitute has been found, or in military equipment designed to resist
Electro Magnetic Pulses (EMPs). One thermionic example is the CRT
used in oscilloscopes, computer video displays or within older TV
sets. Here the principles of rectification and amplification were
developed in stages with various valve devices and although we now
have solid-state components, nonetheless knowledge of the
characteristics and limitations of the former assists when the latter
are studied further.

The Vacuum Diode

A charged plate is placed near the thermionic electron emission
source in the valve. One plate is made positive with respect to the
electron emitter so electrons are attracted to it and so a space charge
does not accumulate. The most basic valve is the vacuum diode, with
2 electrodes sealed in an evacuated glass envelope. One electrode in
the shape of a wire is heated by a current flowing through it, resulting
in thermionic emission from the wire or filament . The other electrode
is a cylinder surrounding the filament, the anode, +ve with respect to
the filament or cathode, and attracts emitted electrons. Current flows
from the anode to the cathode inside the valve as long as the anode
is +ve with respect to the cathode. However, if the anode is made –ve
with respect to the cathode, emitted electrons are repelled and any
current stops. Thus the diode is a unidirectional (one-way) conducting
device, i.e. it allows current to flow in one direction only, functioning
as a one-way valve. Figures 10.1a and 10.1b show valve construction
and its equivalent electrical circuit.

▲ Figure 10.1

In practice, the cathode is heated by passing a separate current

through the filament electrode or through a heater next to the
cathode. Figure 10.2 shows the diode valve’s circuit symbols and its
circuit position.
▲ Figure 10.2

For an indirectly heated arrangement, a cathode is composed of a

nickel tube sprayed with barium or strontium oxide (materials with a
low work function that easily release electrons). The heater wire is
looped inside and insulated from it. For A.C. radio sets, a low-voltage
heater-transformer energises the heater and any other valves.

Figure 10.3 shows the test circuit used to determine diode valve
characteristics. Conduction is only possible when the anode is +ve
with respect to the cathode and the more +ve the anode, the greater
the number of electrons reaching it, i.e. the larger the anode current.
However, the anode current cannot increase indefinitely, as there are
only a limited number of electrons leaving the cathode every second
and will reach a saturation value shown on the characteristic at a
point where, when anode voltage is increased beyond a certain
value, no increase of anode current is obtained and the curve bends
over to the horizontal. To obtain more anode current, cathode
temperature must be increased to increase electron emission.
▲ Figure 10.3

The valve characteristic, i.e. relationship between anode voltage Va

and anode current Ia, is obtained by varying the High-Tension (H.T.)
voltage applied to the anode, with an adjustable contact on a
potentiometer resistor. Plotting Voltmeter and milliammeter readings
gives the graph shown. Certain diode factors are derived from the
characteristics to help select valves for specific applications. Thus a
diode can be used as a rectifier, but its internal resistance in the
conducting direction must be known. This resistance value is
obtained from the characteristic but it is now important to distinguish
between static and dynamic operating conditions. In the circuit (figure
10.3), the valve anode is not connected in series with a load, such as
a resistor. The voltage across the anode and cathode is set to a
known value during the test, a condition different from that when a
valve is loaded or operates dynamically. The second condition is
examined and the characteristic considered as (1) static and (2)
dynamic.

Static characteristics

Departure from Ohm’s Law in terms of diode behaviour shows that its
internal resistance varies with voltage. If a part of the static
characteristic, obtained from a test, is examined, it is seen (figure
10.4) that, for any anode current there is a fixed ratio of voltage to
current, the anode DC resistance.
▲ Figure 10.4

Thus for point P the D.C. resistance= a value also obtained

from the reciprocal of the slope of the line through the origin, i.e. .

Point P is the ‘operating point’ and the D.C. resistance value relative
to this point.

Although diode operation under A.C. conditions is not considered to

any extent, we introduce the term A.C. resistance or slope resistance,
whose symbol ra is considered when triode valve operation is
described.

Assume that the alternator in figure 10.5 generates a sinusoidal

voltage of maximum value Em, small compared with the battery H.T.
voltage, applied to the diode’s anode. The battery is assumed to offer
little resistance to the A.C. voltage and an A.C. current flows
superimposed on the D.C. current, so the total current fluctuates
between maximum and minimum values. As deduced from figure
10.6, the valve offers a resistance value different to that for D.C.
working. If a diode is used in a circuit with a steady D.C. current,
anode D.C. resistance is used, but if the anode current varies
between limits, an A.C. value is used instead. Using the
characteristic, note the limits Q and O between which the operating
point oscillates. Voltage and current changes are found by drawing
triangle XYZ. Hypotenuse ZX is the tangent to the curve at point P.

▲ Figure 10.5
▲ Figure 10.6

The graph’s slope gives conductance but it is more

practical to use resistance or the reciprocal of the slope. Thus the

slope’s reciprocal or A.C. resistance value (ra) is given by:
.

So ra = the ratio

The sign δ here signifies a small change and in limit is written:

A.C. resistance is less than the D.C. resistance over the working
range and example 10.1 shows comparative values.

Example 10.1. A diode’s anode current–voltage static characteristic is

drawn from the following test values. Deduce the A.C. and D.C.
resistance for anode current values of 5 and 10 mA. The A.C. voltage
is 2.5 V.

The Ia/Va characteristic is plotted as shown (figure 10.7).

▲ Figure 10.7

Then for the 5 mA value:

D.C. resistance: Point

A.C. resistance: The A.C. voltage of 2.5 V is superimposed on the

52.5 V for a standing current of 5 mA. Draw a small right-angled
triangle as shown. Anode voltage varies between 50 and 55 V and
the corresponding currents will be 4.6 and 5.5 mA.

Or

For the 10 mA value similarly:

D.C. resistance: Point

A.C. resistance: The A.C. voltage is 2.5 V. For a standing current of

10 mA the corresponding voltages will be 77.5 ± 2.5 = 80 V and 75 V.
The currents will be 10.6 and 9.5 mA or .

Dynamic characteristics – load line

A valve is often used with a load which, in simplest form, is a resistor

in the anode circuit. Even though the H.T. voltage V is constant, when
anode current varies the voltage drop across resistor R will vary and
the resulting voltage applied to the anode changes. The valve now
operates under dynamic conditions, i.e. with a load and, to investigate
the correct circuit conditions, the dynamic characteristic rather than
the static characteristic is used. The former is obtained from a test
circuit similar to that shown in figure 10.3 except that a load resistor is
included and the voltage drop across it is measured at each anode
current value.

A construction method can obtain a dynamic characteristic from a

static characteristic. Refer to figure 10.8, let P be a point on the static
characteristic. Then Ia = OB and the valve voltage drop equals OA.
For the same current, the resistance voltage drop = IaR = VR, so the
H.T. voltage V = Va + VR and point P obtained on the dynamic
characteristic. If the procedure is repeated, the complete
characteristic is obtained and then used to find current and voltage
values for any H.T. voltage operating condition. There is a separate
dynamic characteristic for each value of R and the characteristic
approximates to a straight line as load-resistor value increases.
▲ Figure 10.8

LOAD LINE. As shown, the voltage-drop condition in a diode’s anode

circuit with a resistor in the circuit is expressed: V = Va + VR or Va = V
– VR. As the voltage drop across the resistor is proportional to the
anode current, the relationship is a straight-line graph which results
from the expression:

If the line is superimposed on the static characteristic (figure 10.9),

we see a ‘negative slope’, i.e. it slopes in the opposite direction to the
valve characteristic because an increase in Ia results in a decrease in
anode voltage. The line cuts the static characteristic to give a point
which shows the respective voltage-drop conditions across the valve
and resistor for indicated current values. The straight-line graph or
‘load line’ is different for various values of R and is used in the next
problem.
▲ Figure 10.9

When the loading condition for one value of R at a specific H.T.

voltage is needed, it is not necessary to construct a dynamic
characteristic but just to draw the load line. Referring to figure 10.9,
point A is obtained by assuming Ia = 0. Under this condition any
voltage drop across R is zero and Va is the full H.T. voltage V. Point B
is obtained by finding the current which flows if anode voltage is
reduced to zero, i.e. if the diode developed a short-circuit between
anode and cathode. Under this condition anode current is given by:
. Example 10.2 shows the full treatment and with figure 10.9, the

two solution methods.

Method 1 involves plotting the static characteristic and the load line.

Method 2 involves deducing the dynamic characteristic, its values

determined from a table. This method is more useful if the operating
conditions for various values of H.T. voltage are considered.

Example 10.2. Using the test values of example 10.1, deduce the
dynamic characteristic for a 4 kΩ load-resistor. Find the circuit current
for a H.T. voltage of 110 V and the resistor’s voltage drop.

Method 1. If the dynamic characteristic was not required, this method

gives the required answer. Consider figure 10.9. Plot the static
characteristic and obtain the load line thus:

Point A at 110 V, as Ia = 0. Point .

Valve resistance is assumed to be zero. The intersection point gives

the answer. Circuit current = 9.1 mA. The voltage drop across the
resistor = 9.1 × 10–3 × 4 × 10 3 = 36.4 V.

VR = IR = V – Va = 110 – 36.4 = 73.6 V.

Reading from the graph: VR = 74 V and Va = 36 V.

Method 2. This involves deducing the dynamic characteristic as

plotted. Consider one such point with a current of 4 mA, then Va = 46
V and the resistor voltage drop = 4 × 10–3 × 4 × 103 = 16 V. The H.T.
voltage = 46 +16 = 62 V, i.e. the value for the dynamic characteristic.
The following table is deduced.

For a H.T. voltage of 110 V, the circuit current is 9.1 mA and the
voltage drop across the resistor = 110 – 74 V = 36 V.

The Vacuum Triode

We now add a third electrode into the diode assembly and vary its
potential. Electron flow is controlled by this electrode which may take
the form of an open spiral of wire wound closely round the cathode,
an arrangement shown in figure 10.10. This third electrode is called
the grid electrode. The circuit symbol for the vacuum triode is also
shown. The grid is positioned in the region of the ‘space charge’ and
made –ve with respect to the cathode. By altering the grid potential
the space charge is modified and the anode current controlled. The
principle of a gate electrode is of fundamental consideration to
semiconductor device operation, as will be seen in the next chapter.

▲ Figure 10.10

Consider figure 10.11 which shows the potential gradient between

cathode and anode for 3 different grid voltage values. In Curve 1, the
grid is only slightly –ve with respect to the cathode. In Curve 2, the –
ve grid potential is more negative. In Curve 3, the potential is
changed to make the grid very –ve with respect to the cathode. By
considering potential gradient, we will deal with electric field intensity,
the magnitude of electric force acting on a charge within the field
between 2 electrodes. An electron has –ve charge and if emitted from
the cathode experiences a force moving it from a point of low to high
potential.

▲ Figure 10.11
The force magnitude is directly proportional to the potential gradient.
If the gradient is +ve, the force is towards the anode and if –ve, the
force is towards the cathode. For Curve 1 most of the emitted
electrons from the cathode pass the zero potential gradient value and
accelerate towards the anode to give a large anode current. For
Curve 3, only a few electrons have sufficient velocity to pass the point
of zero potential, most return to the cathode. The few electrons which
pass the point of zero potential gradient proceed to the anode to give
a small anode current. By altering grid potential the anode current is
controlled and may be optimised. As the grid is invariably kept at a
potential –ve to the cathode, electrons do not reach it and no current
is drawn from the grid voltage supply source.

Static characteristics

The circuit in figure 10.12 shows how a triode can be tested and
anode current controlled by (1) variation of grid voltage and (2)
variation of anode voltage. Curves when plotted from the test results
divide into 2 static characteristic groups: (1) the Mutual
Characteristics, which show the change in anode current Ia for a
change in grid voltage Vg, the anode voltage Va kept constant, and
(2) the Anode Characteristics which show the variation of anode
current Ia with a change in anode voltage Va, the grid voltage Vg kept
constant.

▲ Figure 10.12

MUTUAL OR TRANSFER (Ia/Vg) CHARACTERISTICS. By keeping

anode voltage constant, the effect on anode current of a variable grid
voltage is investigated by the figure 10.12 circuit. If the results of such
tests are plotted a family of curves, as those shown by figure 10.13a,
provide information similar to that from the anode characteristics.
Manufacturers provide information on particular valve types in the
form of such curves allowing 3 coefficients or parameters to be
determined, which specify a triode’s circuit behaviour and each
parameter, or ‘valve constant,’ represents the relationship between
the changes in any 2 variables, the third kept constant.

▲ Figure 10.13

ANODE OR OUTPUT (Ia/Vg) CHARACTERISTICS. By keeping the

grid at cathode potential, i.e . Vg = 0, a characteristic curve relating
anode current to increasing anode voltage is obtained, as shown in
figure 10.13b. If the grid has a small –ve potential and the test
repeated, a curve of similar shape is obtained displaced to the right,
marked as Vg = –2 V. The displacement is due to the fact that the
anode must reach a minimum +ve potential to overcome the repelling
force of the grid on emitted electrons. The higher the –ve grid
potential, the more the anode characteristic moves to the right. A
family of such curves at various –ve grid voltage values is obtained in
the manner as shown.

Valve parameters
These are derived from the slopes or change conditions of the graphs
and obtained by constructing small triangles as shown. As a straight
position of a graph is needed, the sides of a triangle are kept as small
as possible and referred to as ‘a small change of’ with the sign δ
used as previously.

(1) INTERNAL RESISTANCE. As for the diode, the anode

characteristic slope, e.g. (figure 10.13b) gives conductance

. It is more convenient to use valve resistance or the

reciprocal of the slope , other terms are slope or anode

resistance, internal resistance or A.C. resistance. The symbol ra is

used and defined as: ‘Slope or A.C. resistance (ra) is the ratio of the
small change of anode voltage to the small change of anode current
produced, the grid voltage kept constant’.

Thus or , Va being

constant.

In the limit, mathematically the above is written as: .

Triode internal resistance for a particular operating condition is found

from either the anode or mutual characteristics and illustrated by the
examples which follow.

(2) MUTUAL CONDUCTANCE. The influence of the control-grid

voltage on anode current is determined by the slope of a mutual
characteristic curve. For example, (figure 10.13a) gives the

second parameter, termed the mutual conductance. The symbol

gm is used and defined as: ‘Mutual conductance is the ratio of the

small change of anode current to the small change of grid voltage
producing it, the anode voltage kept constant’.

Thus or , Va being constant.

Either anode or mutual characteristic determines gm. Examples show

the unit as or milliSiemens (mS) but use of per volt or

mA/V is common.

(3) AMPLIFICATION FACTOR. This is the third parameter, which

represents the maximum theoretical voltage gain obtained from a
valve, and is a ratio of 2 voltages without units. The symbol used is μ
and defined thus: ‘Amplification factor is the ratio of the change in
anode voltage to the change in grid voltage when both have the same
anode current change’.

Thus or , Ia being constant.

The amplification factor is determined from either the anode or mutual

characteristics. A relationship connecting ra, gm and μ is deduced, so
the third constant is determined if the other two are known. The
examples extend use of the parameters and characteristics.

Parameter relationships

The relationship between the 3 valve parameters is now considered.

As equality still exists if written as:

Thus giving μ = ra × gm or

Amplification factor = anode A.C. resistance × mutual conductance.

Example 10.3. In a triode, anode current is 5 mA with an anode

potential of 220 V and grid potential of –3 V. When anode potential is
increased to 260 V, current rises to 7 mA and a change of grid
potential to –4 V restores the current to its original value. Determine
the valve constants (all 2 significant figures).

Here

or with the relationship: μ= ra× gm = 20 × 103 × 2 × 10–3 = 40.

Example 10.4. A triode’s static characteristic test values are as

follows.

Plot the anode characteristic and determine: ra, gm and μ (all 2

significant figures).
▲ Figure 10.14

Anode characteristics are shown in figure 10.14. With data given in

this form, the most convenient solution method is to erect a triangle
making contact with an adjacent curve as follows.

Check μ = ragm= 15 × 103 × 2.667 × 10–3 = 40.

Ionisation
In Volume 6 when ionisation was mentioned, it was stated that if an
electron is ‘lost’ from an atom, the latter acquires a +ve charge to
become a +ve ion. Ionisation of gas atoms is often accompanied by
monochromatic light emission, i.e. a single colour whose wavelength
depends on the gas ionised. It is unlike light given off by a tungsten-
filament lamp which covers a broad spectrum of visible white light.
Gas ionisation is mainly the result of the collision of fast, freely
moving electrons with gas atoms. We saw how electrons are emitted
from metal surfaces by thermionic emission, and how such electrons
travel at high velocity towards an electrode. If the latter is made +ve
with respect to the emitter, the higher the p.d. between anode and
cathode, the greater the electron velocity. If these collide with gas
atoms with velocity sufficient to remove further electrons from the
parent gas atoms, ionisation may cause light emission. The extra
electrons, subject to the electric field between the electrodes,
accelerate towards the anode, colliding with further atoms to maintain
ionisation. An electron ‘stream’ makes its way to the anode, with
current flowing from anode to cathode. The electronic device,
whether a gas-filled valve or discharge tube, depends on ionisation
for conduction. When electrons reach the anode, they displace further
electrons in the conducting metal of the circuit, which is why a current
is drawn from the mains to maintain operation. The +ve gas ions,
being heavier than electrons, move slowly to the cathode, combining
with electrons around the circuit. The ionised gas current consists of
electrons moving from cathode to anode and +ve ions moving from
anode to cathode. The +ve ions, moving to the cathode, will
neutralise any space charge and, if the voltage across the electrodes
is too high, may strike the cathode with velocity sufficient to damage
it. Proton mass is some 1850 times bigger than an electron and the
heat generated at the cathode by ion bombardment, under normal
operation, ensures that the temperature is high enough for electron
emission to continue.

Let’s now consider the practical applications where electron emission

and ionisation feature. The cold-cathode discharge tube was
described in Volume 6, Chapter 3 (where electron emission is
induced by an electrostatic field and usually from a metal surface into
a vacuum). However, many electronic devices, other than
semiconductors, rely on thermionic emission. Light given off in most
types of discharge is mainly in the Ultra Violet (U.V.) which is
invisible, so the tubes or glass envelopes are coated internally with a
phosphorescent powder which glows or fluoresces when subject to
the U.V. generated through ionisation.

The hot-cathode discharge lamp (low pressure)

Figure 10.15 shows the basic hot-cathode construction. The lamp

envelope or tube is long (typically 30 cm to 2.4 m) compared with its
diameter (1.5 to 3.8 cm). The tube’s interior is coated with a
phosphor, and mounted at each end are small tungsten wire spiral
electrodes, usually oxide-coated to enhance electron emission.
Guard electrodes may also be fitted. The tube contains small
amounts of mercury and argon gas which, under warm working
conditions, is some 10–6 bar or 0.1 Pa. Low working pressure allows
a lamp to run at a temperature without affecting the phosphor coating.
Argon gas helps initiate discharge through the low pressure mercury
vapour, and although the white light given off is small, 65% of the
input is converted into radiant U.V. energy which acts upon the
fluorescent powder to radiate visible light.

▲ Figure 10.15
At start-up, current passes through both electrodes, heating them,
making them suitable for electron emission and reducing the start-up
voltage. The current sets up a small potential between the ends of
each filament, ionising gas and vapour near the electrodes, assisting
the main discharge ‘strike’. When electrodes are hot, the heating
current is broken by a starter-switch and a momentary surge voltage
(700–1000 V) is set up by a capacitor sufficient to start the main
discharge, and then maintained by the normal mains voltage. The coil
has two purposes, initially it gives a high-voltage impulse to strike the
tube, but then acts as a voltage dropper to maintain the correct p.d.
across the tube. ‘Instant-start’ fluorescent lamps are used ashore, but
marine systems often have circuits with a starter-switch. Its function is
to preheat the lamp electrodes, and apply a striking voltage. When a
control-switch is closed, the supply is applied to the circuit and as the
starter-switch closes, current flows through the filaments giving
sufficient electron emission to start ionisation. At a predetermined
time, the starter-switch opens automatically to interrupt the main
circuit. A collapsing field around the coil induces a high voltage
across the tube, causing it to strike. Once the main discharge current
flows, the voltage drop across the coil results in the correct p.d.
applied across the tube, and a stable running condition results. Lamp
efficiency is measured by comparing the lumens out for every watt in.
Fluorescent lamp efficiency is typically 40–50 lumens/watt which
compared with a tungsten filament lamp is some 14–16 lumens/watt.

The hot-cathode discharge lamp (high pressure)

This lamp type is relatively compact and mostly used for outdoor
installations on docks, wharfs and for some deck illumination. The
commonest hot-cathode discharge lamps are sodium and mercury-
vapour, with a sodium lamp illustrated in figure 10.16. When the
supply is switched on a 450 V voltage is applied from the secondary
winding of a high-reactance transformer connected across the lamp
electrodes causing a low discharge through the discharge tube so the
neon glows red. Heat produced gradually vaporises the metallic
sodium and the sodium vapour ionises to give a bright golden-yellow
discharge. A vacuum jacket thermally insulates the discharge tube to
improve sodium vaporisation. As the emitted light is monochromatic,
a fluorescent coating is not needed. High-pressure mercury-vapour
lamps are more often used than sodium lamps to illuminate deck
working-spaces and are briefly described in figure 10.16 in
conjunction with figure 10.17.

▲ Figure 10.16

As a lamp operates at normal mains voltage, no step-up transformer

is needed. The inner tube is made of quartz glass to withstand the
high operating temperatures and contains mercury with a little neon
or argon in an evacuated outer glass envelope which may be coated
inside with a fluorescent phosphor. There are 2 main electrodes and
a starting electrode next to one of them. When the supply is switched
on discharge occurs in the inert gas between the main and secondary
electrode. The initial discharge ‘triggers’ discharge between the 2
main electrodes by ionising mercury vapour.

▲ Figure 10.17
Once the main discharge strikes, electrodes are kept at their working
temperature by bombardment of +ve mercury ions. Having started the
lamp, the auxiliary electrode has no further purpose, and current flow
through it is minimised by a high ohmic value series resistor. A main
circuit stabilising coil also prevents excess build-up of current after
the discharge starts. Emitted light is mostly U.V., hence the
fluorescent coating. The main electrodes, without a preheating
current, are a spiral wire with barium or strontium oxide, which helps
increase electron emission when electrodes are heated. The lamp
takes several minutes to warm-up, as mercury vaporises and the
pressure rises to atmospheric pressure (1 bar). One disadvantage of
high working pressures is that a lamp will not restrike immediately
after switching off, and must cool down, allowing the pressure to fall,
before both discharge can recommence.

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

One historically important thermionic electron display device is the
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) developed for a variety of
shipborne and land-based applications. In its most basic form, the
CRO can measure voltage in magnitude and time. By displaying a
luminescent, mobile spot on a fluorescent screen, a deflection trace
and/or waveform is both observed and measured. A suitably scaled
graticule is often present, and with further amplifiers and transducers,
any measurable quantity may be converted into voltage and
displayed. Suitable calibration allows the quantity to be measured in
appropriate units. This device will be described in some detail in
Chapter 14; however construction of a CRO or CRT basically consists
of 4 distinct parts:

(1) A system of electrodes, to produce an electron beam of high

velocity and to control the beam intensity.
(2) A means of concentrating the beam, by electrodes to sharply
focus the spot on screen.
(3) A deflecting system, to move a focused beam to any part of the
screen.
(4) A screen, coated with fluorescent material, emits light when hit by
a stream of high-velocity electrons.

As with other vacuum electronics devices the whole arrangement is

enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope.

Image intensifiers

Another very important vacuum electronic device variant in the

marine environment is the now popular Image Intensifier. Modern
image intensifier systems provide ‘Night Vision’ and are used
regularly during Bridge Watchkeeping, utilising 2 further electron
emitting processes: the Photoelectric effect and Secondary Emission.
Modern electro-optic systems incorporating image intensifiers are
used by Naval, Coastguard and paramilitary forces in maritime
operations. Both thermal and image intensifiers are generically
referred to as ‘Night Vision’ but they operate in different ways. Image
Intensifiers or Night Vision Goggles (NVGs) amplify low-level visible
light and Near Infra Red (NIR) radiation some 20 000–1 million times,
but they only amplify light and NIR and so cannot function in total
darkness. However, even on relatively dark nights, there is often
some light available allowing the device to operate. An image
intensifier requires no artificial light source and is often termed a
‘passive’ device. The first proposed imaging tube was fabricated by
Holst and De Boer in 1928, leading to the first NIR converter in 1934.
During the 1930s the first inverting image intensifier (Generation 0)
was developed. The discovery of more effective photocathode
materials (caesium-antimonide) led to Generation 1 devices sensitive
in the visible (to 650 nm). Generation 2 Micro Channel Plate (MCP)
devices used multialkalis (e.g. potassium-caesium-antimonide) and
were developed from late Generation 1 systems to provide extended
red and reduced blue response. The same technology used to
produce optical fibres produced the MCP, a thin glass wafer with an
electrode either side with a p.d. of up to 1 kV applied. Generation 3
materials provided higher sensitivity, while recent military Generation
4 developed the first filmless image tubes (which have suffered
setbacks due to ion bombardment issues).

Image intensifier device operation

An objective lens projects an image on to a cathode (photocathode)

where the Photoelectric effect causes electron emission (figure
10.18). An anode, at about +10 000 V, accelerates electrons to the
MCP where electrons are multiplied by Secondary emission, which
will be discussed shortly. Many energetic electrons exit the MCP, hit a
phosphor screen where light is emitted, producing an image on the
screen through the inverse photoelectric effect.

▲ Figure 10.18 Schematic Diagram of Generation 2 Image Intensifier

Photoelectric Effect
Electron emission is explained if light is considered to consist of
energy packets or photons . In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
showed that light could be thought of as discrete quanta, or photons,
rather than waves. Based on Max Planck’s theory of black-body
radiation, Einstein proposed that photon energy was equal to its
frequency multiplied by a constant, later called the Planck’s constant.
Einstein states that a photon above a minimum threshold frequency
has sufficient energy to eject an electron. This discovery led to the
quantum revolution in physics and rightly earned Einstein the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1921. In the Photoelectric Effect electrons are
emitted from a metal surface when a metal absorbs energy from
electromagnetic radiation of high-frequency radiation, acquiring more
energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the
material, and is ejected. However, if photon energy is too low,
electrons cannot escape. The photoelectric effect requires photons
with energies above a few electron volts in elements of high atomic
number. Electrons emitted in this way are called photoelectrons and
they were first observed by Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) in 1887.
Understanding the photoelectric effect led to the conceptual
development of the quantum nature of light and electrons, influencing
ideas such as wave-particle duality.

Photon energy (E) is given by E = hf, where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant

(6.6 × 10–34 Js) and ‘f’ is the wave frequency. High-frequency (short
wavelength) photons carry the most energy, and so if the photon
energy is more than the photocathode’s Work Function (φ), a material
parameter, it can eject electrons and give them some kinetic energy,
i.e.

E = hf = φ + (½ mv2)max

where ‘m’ is the mass of the electron and ‘v’ is its speed.

As photon frequency decreases, so does the emitted photon energy

and also its Kinetic Energy (K.E.). Eventually a frequency is reached
where an electron is just emitted with zero K.E. This frequency, fα, is
the threshold frequency and given by:

E0 = hf0 = φ

A typical image intensifier gathers low-level visible and NIR light

through the objective lens which is focused onto the pixelated surface
of the input fibre optic window. Light entering a particular fibre optic
stays within the fibre until it reaches the photocathode surface where
if it has sufficient energy an electron will be emitted. Emitted electrons
are emitted which are accelerated towards the anode but enter the
MCP which as discussed produces a shower or avalanche of
electrons which exit the pixelated discrete channels of the MCP.
These electrons then strike an output phosphor screen to produce
visible light (usually green as the human eye is most sensitive to
green light).

Secondary Emission
Some materials when bombarded by ‘primary’ electrons successfully
emit several ‘secondary’ electrons. An MCP usually has several
million small channels parallel to each other between the plate
surfaces (figure 10.19). Each channel has a diameter of only a few
microns and releases several electrons for every electron strike upon
it. In this way each channel acts as a separate electron multiplier.
When the alternating power supply is reversed the emitted electrons
are accelerated and provide further secondary emission through
subsequent ‘strikes’. Thus 1 electron rapidly becomes first 3, and
then 9, 27, and so on. A typical MCP may be composed of over 5
million individual narrow collimated channels which helps to reduce
image blurring due to bright light sources.

▲ Figure 10.19 Micro Channel Plate

Modern MCP Image Intensifiers and photomultipliers use secondary

emission, which limits the spreading out of a bright light source
across a screen, a big problem for early 3-stage Cascade Image
Intensifiers. It is the benefit of many separate channels that improves
the spatial resolution. Individual channel walls have a limited
secondary electron supply so if they accept large numbers of
‘primary’ electrons they saturate, but do not affect other nearby
channels. Image intensifiers have several advantages, first the
photocathode is sensitive to visible and NIR radiation so these Night
Vision devices can use the NIR present in the night’s sky. Secondly
they are small and lightweight, and being ‘passive’ require only
limited battery operation. A green phosphor is used because the
human eye is most sensitive to green.

However they do have some disadvantages, being reliant upon

visible and NIR, they cannot ‘see’ through fog, mist or smoke. They
also cannot see without some visible light or NIR present.
Nonetheless, they have found wide-spread applications for night
observation, driving sights and flying goggles. They can be readily
fitted to (TeleVision) TV cameras or low light level Closed Circuit TV
(CCTV) systems which makes them ideal for use in dock and wharf
surveillance.

Practice Examples
10.1 A diode valve’s anode power dissipation is 336 mW. The anode
to cathode voltage is 160 V. Find the anode current (2 significant
figures).
10.2 When a 58 V anode voltage is applied to a 2-electrode valve the
anode current is 6 mA. Calculate the dissipated anode power (2
significant figures).
10.3 When the linear part of the Ia/Va characteristic of a diode valve is
examined, the slope is 1.64 mA/8.13 V. Find the valve’s A.C.
resistance (2 significant figures).
10.4 The Ia/Va characteristic of a diode valve shows an increase of
anode voltage from 75 to 129 V and current from 12 to 22 mA. Find
the valve A.C. resistance and the D.C. resistance for each voltage
condition (2 significant figures).
10.5 The Ia/Va curve of a diode valve is given by:

Plot the curve and find the A.C. resistance over the straight line
region (2 significant figures).
10.6 A vacuum diode has the following forward characteristics:

The diode is placed in series with a 300 Ω resistor load and the
combination fed from a 60 V D.C. supply, connected to make the
diode conduct. Determine the current flowing and the power
dissipated in the load resistor (2 significant figures both).
10.7 The following readings were obtained from the linear portions of
a triode valve’s static characteristics.

Find the valve’s A.C. resistance, mutual conductance and

amplification factor (all 2 significant figures).
10.8 Explain how the photoelectric effect and secondary emission are
used in a practical modern MCP Image Intensifier.
10.9 If the work function of a surface of barium on barium oxide is
2.22 eV what frequency will just cause photoelectric electron
emission to take place in a vacuum (2 decimal places).
10.10 If an electron is emitted from a photocathode having a work
function of 2.1 eV what will be the speed of the electron near the
metal surface if the surface is illuminated by radiation of
wavelength 200 nm (4 significant places)?
Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10–34 Js.
 An amplifier using semiconductors rather than vacuum is in
principle possible.
William Shockley (1939)

Semiconductors
This chapter introduces the semiconductor diode, a device
comparable in function to the thermionic diode in the electronic
circuits as discussed in Chapter 10. Semiconductor materials have
properties allowing their use for many device applications in response
to temperature, pressure, stress, light, magnetic and electric fields.
As such they are used frequently as sensors and transducers. The
term ‘semiconductor’ includes all solids whose electrical conductivity
lies between that of metals and insulators. Germanium and silicon,
and gallium arsenide are perhaps the most important semiconductor
materials of current working device choice, but graphene, a
substance made from pure carbon, with atoms arranged in a regular
hexagonal pattern similar to graphite but only one atom thick, may
provide novel new commercial devices in the near future. However,
before investigating the electrical properties of current materials such
as germanium and silicon, it is worth recalling the history of
semiconductor development in electrical work. The electrical
properties of semiconductor materials will then be examined, without
which diode and transistor operation will not be understood.

‘Solid-state’ devices, as their name might suggest, are not vacuum

devices like the thermionic valve, and it is their ability to control
conductivity without the need for bulky yet delicate glass bulbs that
make solid-state devices so attractive for most practical purposes.

The rectifying properties of the diode had been grounded in the

fundamental work of the late nineteenth century onwards also
providing the advent of radio through the thermionic valve and the
rectifying crystal. In 1833, Michael Faraday discovered that silver
sulphide had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Austrian physicist Braun (1874) investigated the resistance properties
of various contacts between metals and their oxides, using a wire as
a point contact, and noted that resistance depended on the polarity of
the applied voltage. He also observed the rectification effects of
selenium. Point contact rectifiers were used for a considerable period,
in fact they were used in the early days of wireless up to the 1920s.
The rectifying crystal, a natural semiconductor diode, was later
replaced by the valve which in time became the triode and used for
detection, rectification and amplification. The crystal also became
popular as a detector in the early days of broadcasting because of its
cheapness and the device was often called the cats-whisker . Use of
the crystal lapsed once more as valves became widely available and
were adapted for ‘mains’ use, but the crystal was redeveloped
eventually for frequency stability use in radar. Various solid-state
diodes have now been designed that perform the same required
functions of early valve devices such as multi-stage A.C. amplifiers
and multi-electrode valves (such as the tetrode and pentode valves)
but no recourse to these will be made here as this technology is now
largely obsolete and of specialist historical interest only.

Simple metal or plate rectifiers, made of new semiconductor layers

such as cuprous oxide or selenium bonded between metal
electrodes, were introduced into industry between the 1920s and late
1930s even though little was known about their functioning theory at
this time. With the advent of World War II, the silicon point-contact
detector was developed for radar and other ‘spin-off s’ included the
discovery of the properties of germanium and the improved crystal
sensitivity arising from ‘doping’ a crystal. By the end of the war,
research into semiconductors was well advanced, and the junction
diode was demonstrated in 1941. To-date the most remarkable
achievements have been in the fields of electronic equipment, power
control devices and in miniaturisation of electronics, notably valued in
the Apollo Space Programme in order to minimise the platform’s
overall launch mass. To understand the action of a semiconductor,
diode reference is once again made to electron theory, and the
concept of electric current as an electron flow. The fundamental
concepts are summarised as an introduction here to basic
semiconductor theory.

Basic theory

The atom of a material consists of a nucleus (+ve charge) and

planetary electrons (–ve charge). The nucleus has nearly all the mass
of the atom and consists of both protons and neutrons with no
electrical properties, but as forces of repulsion exist between +ve
charged protons, the neutrons have the function of ‘holding’ the
nucleus together. An atom contains equal numbers of protons and
electrons with charges cancelling to make the atom neutral overall.
Atoms of various elements contain different numbers of protons,
neutrons and electrons and the greater the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus, the greater the density of the substance.
Electrons may be considered to move in planetary orbits and for the
larger atoms, these electrons are arranged in various shells. The
atom’s chemical properties may be explained in terms of the number
and grouping of the planetary electrons. These ‘quantum shells’ are
considered for simplicity to be concentric and 7 in number,
distinguished by the sequential letters: K, L, M, N, O, P and Q
respectively. The K shell is the closest to the nucleus and the
maximum number of electrons possible in each of these shells is 2, 8,
18, 32, 18, 13 and 2 respectively. As germanium is of special interest
here it is noted that its 32 electrons are arranged in the K, L, M and N
shells thus 2, 8, 18 and 4. Silicon, also of semiconductor diode
interest, has 14 electrons arranged in the K, L and M shells thus 2, 8
and 4.

A solid in its smallest particle form consists of many crystals joined

together and built up from a regular structure of atoms which repeats
itself continually to form a lattice. Electrons in the innermost shells of
an atom do not play a part in the crystal lattice structure, but those in
the outer shells are important, as they decide the atom’s electrical
and chemical properties and are known as ‘valence electrons’. The
chemical nature of an atom is revealed by the way the atom
combines with other atoms to form molecules. Valency is a chemical
term and is explained as ‘the property of the atom of an element
which enables it to enter into chemical combination with another
atom’. Thus when the molecules of a substance are formed from 2
different atoms, this is done by the electrons in the unfilled external
quantum shells or valence electrons. The valency of an element is
determined by the electron relationship between these 2 outermost
shells. Note that 2 shells are involved because a combination of
atoms is achieved by the gain or loss of electrons, so it appears that
all the outermost shells are complete. The planetary electrons of an
atom can thus be divided into 2 classes: (1) valency electrons, those
available for linking atom to atom and (2) the core, those which retain
their configurations or orbits in all compounds of the element, which
are unaffected by the formation of bonds between atoms.

CO-VALENT BONDING. One way in which an atom may combine

with other atoms and bring about a change in the number of electrons
in its outer valency shells is by co-valent bonding. A co-valent bond is
the sharing of a pair of electrons by 2 atoms, each atom contributing
one electron to form a shared pair with a consequent strong bond
between them. Consider hydrogen which has one planetary or
valence electron. The K shell electrons should be 2. Thus the
hydrogen molecule contains 2 hydrogen atoms, with the nuclei linked
by the valency electrons to form a pair, as illustrated by figure 11.1a.
▲ Figure 11.1

Consider germanium whose outermost shell contains 4 electrons. To

obtain stability, the atoms of the element build up into a molecular
structure giving combinations as shown by gure 11.1b. It is seen that
fi
one valence electron of the 4 goes to make up a ‘shared pair’
between 2 adjacent atoms. Shared pairs of electrons can be depicted
by double lines as shown by gure 11.2a or alternatively the crystal
fi
structure which leads to a regular arrangement of atoms throughout
the lattice (in 3 dimensions), represented by gure 11.2b for
fi
germanium.
▲ Figure 11.2

Conduction control

Pure germanium and silicon have crystalline structures and their

atoms arranged in a crystal lattice are depicted in gure 11.2b, which
fi
show these materials to be similar to carbon in its diamond form. The
arrangement is frequently called a ‘diamond lattice’ and it is seen that
there are no free electrons except for any freed by application of heat
or light, this effect, termed ionisation, is considered later. The
conductivity of pure germanium, e.g. is poor except when heated, but
is improved by injecting an impurity. For semiconductors conduction
is a function of (a) temperature, and (b) impurity content, which is
very important, and an increase of both (a) and (b) which increases
conductivity will now be considered.

INTRINSIC CONDUCTIVITY. Near –273°C (Absolute Zero) pure

germanium has no free electrons as all the valence electrons are
rmly attached to their respective atoms. If the crystal is supplied with
fi
energy, such as heat or light, bound electrons can then absorb
energy and escape from the atom. Thus electrons leave the atoms
and move freely in the crystal, increasing conductivity as more energy
is supplied. The places from which the electrons leave are known as
holes. If a crystal is subjected to a potential gradient, a current will
flow, with the electrons and holes acting as charge carriers. Holes are
regarded as +ve charge carriers moving towards the negative
terminal (or cathode) while electrons, being –ve charge carriers,
move towards the positive terminal (or anode). Thus although
electrons move in the opposite direction to conventional current flow,
hole movement is in the same direction as conventional current flow.
In summary, intrinsic conductivity is associated with the movement of
equal numbers of oppositely charged carriers.

IMPURITY (EXTRINSIC) CONDUCTIVITY. As already stated, the

conductivity of a pure semiconductor material can be controlled by
the addition of a known impurity such as antimony or indium. The
process is known as ‘doping’ and gives a result which can be
considered under one of the two following headings.

N-type germanium. When a pentavalent atom (an atom with 5

valence electrons), such as antimony or arsenic, is introduced into a
crystal lattice of pure germanium or silicon, one impurity atom
electron is free to become a –ve charge carrier as shown in figure
11.3b. The pentavalent atom, when bonding with germanium, only
uses 4 valence electrons and so one impurity atom electron is not
held by covalent bonding. This ‘excess’ electron has sufficient energy
to migrate through the lattice structure as a charge carrier. The
impurity atom is considered as a donor of electrons or an N-type
impurity since it provides an electron. The adulterated or doped
germanium is called N-type germanium.

P-type germanium. If a trivalent impurity atom (an atom with 3

valence electrons) such as indium or aluminium is introduced into the
crystal lattice, bonding is imperfect in that a ‘hole’ is left in the lattice.
The term +ve hole is given to a deficiency created in the bonding
arrangement, since the valence electrons of the impurity atom can
only pair up with 3 of the electrons in its adjacent 4 germanium
atoms. A hole exerts an attractive force on any electron which has
been liberated from a germanium atom by ionisation and will ‘capture’
it, as it happens to pass near the hole. Thus, as an electron moves
from the orbit of 1 germanium atom to fill a deficiency in another, it
leaves a similar ‘hole’ in its original orbit. The hole will appear to
move in the opposite direction to the electron and as the process is
continuous throughout the germanium it constitutes an effective flow
of +ve charge carriers in the direction of conventional current flow.
The arrangement is shown in figure 11.3b. A ‘hole’ has the
characteristics of a +ve charge and can be regarded as a free,
mobile, +ve charge. Trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptors, as
they accept electrons from covalent bonds and in so doing create
holes or +ve charge carriers, which are also termed P-type impurities
and the doped germanium, containing such an acceptor impurity, is
called P-type germanium. Silicon will behave in a similar way if doped
with either pentavalent or trivalent impurity atoms.

▲ Figure 11.3

IONISATION. Electrons can be liberated by the action of heat, light or

other radiation, through ionisation. The total charge in a particular
material is always zero, since for every charge carrier produced by
‘doping’ or ionisation, there is an incomplete atom or ion carrying a
charge of opposite sign remaining. However, some dissociation or
breakdown of the covalent bonds will occur for both P- and N-type
materials, even at room temperature, and so a few holes may occur
in N-type material along with an equal number of extra free electrons.
Free electrons will predominate in N-type material and are called the
majority carriers, while holes are known as the minority carriers.
Similarly for P-type material, holes will be the majority carriers and
any free electrons are similarly the minority carriers.

The P-N Junction

The junction diode consists in its simplest form as a section of P-type
material and N-type material grown together to form a continuous
crystal. At the junction electrons from the N-type region diffuse across
into the P-type region to combine with the holes neutralising them.
Similarly some holes from the P-type region diffuse across the
junction into the N-type region to combine with the electrons. If the
overall current I is made up of two components, a forward current IF
and a reverse current IR, we may say that:

I = IF – IR = 0.

This action results in a narrow depletion layer on either side of the

junction and due to both sides losing some of their majority carriers,
the P-side will exhibit a slightly –ve charge while the N-side will
exhibit a slightly +ve charge. The +ve charge of the N-side relative to
the P-side tends to attract electrons so migration ceases and does
not continue inde nitely. Similarly the –ve charge of the P-side
fi
relative to the N-side attracts holes back also to limit migration. The
nal charge distribution results in a potential barrier set up across the
fi
junction which is likened to a battery connected in the sense as
shown ( gure 11.4). The potential barrier is normally referred to as
fi
the Junction barrier.
▲ Figure 11.4

In summary for the arrangement shown, few charges can cross the
barrier unless they have an energy level high enough to overcome
the junction barrier’s potential. The +ve charge of the N-type will
however attract the minority carrier electrons from the P-type side
and the –ve charge will attract the minority carrier +ve holes from the
P-type side. The resulting current I = IF – IR will be zero and since
there is no external voltage applied the junction will be in equilibrium
with charges and potentials as shown. Semiconductor diode
behaviour will be investigated for the condition of an external
electromotive force or applied electric potential.

The junction diode

FORWARD BIAS (GOOD CONDUCTION). If a battery is now

connected across the junction diode with opposite polarity to that of
the barrier, the barrier potential is reduced, the effective resistance
decreases and a current of several milliamperes is able to ow. A
fl
forward voltage of about 0.2 V can produce 4 to 5 mA. The barrier
potential having been reduced, the majority carriers in the P-type
material are reinforced by the +ve potential and the forward current
increases, overcoming the reverse current. The forward current is
thus considerably larger than the reverse current or I = IF – IR. The
conditions being discussed are shown by figure 11.5.
▲ Figure 11.5

REVERSE BIAS (VERY POOR CONDUCTION). If the external

battery is now reversed, i.e. connected across the P-N junction so as
to assist or add to the existing barrier potential, the latter will be
increased. As shown in gure 11.6 the action increases the effective
fi
resistance of the junction considered to ‘reverse’ or to be ‘back
biased’ by the battery. The reverse current is of the order of a few
microamperes (millionths of an ampere) due to electrons released by
ionisation, i.e. ‘intrinsic conductivity’. For this reverse-bias connection,
the minority carriers are reinforced and the reverse current, although
small, dominates, remaining substantially constant over a wide range
of applied reverse potentials.
▲ Figure 11.6

At a large reverse voltage a breakdown region occurs where the

reverse-biased P-N junction will conduct, this value being known as
the Peak Inverse Voltage (P.I.V.) which may be very large. There are
two causes of this sudden conduction: the avalanche effect and the
zener effect. The avalanche effect occurs when minority carriers,
travelling at high velocity through the junction’s barrier layer,
‘displace’ electrons from the parent atoms which, in turn, displace
further electrons from their atoms. The zener effect, however, is
caused by the potential difference (or electric eld) applied across the
fi
narrow barrier layer becoming large enough to force electrons away
from their parent atoms. Breakdown is not necessarily permanent and
if the voltage is reduced below the P.I.V. the reverse-biased diode will
operate as previously discussed. However, if the applied potential
greatly exceeds the P.I.V. irreparable breakdown of the device may
occur. When a diode is used as a one-way conduction device it is
vital to pay attention to the diode’s maximum circuit voltage and the
P.I.V. rating for this reason just as one needs to consider the current
rating of a fuse. An explanation of what is happening in the device is
possible if we consider one side of the junction to have only holes as
charge carriers and the other side to have only electrons.
The arrangement is shown in figure 11.7. If a potential is applied so
the P-type end is +ve with respect to the N-type end, then a current
due to this potential consists of either electrons moving right to left or
holes moving left to right. Since the N-type side contains free
electrons and the P-type side contains holes, current will readily flow
across the junction. If the applied voltage is reversed, the current
direction would occur either by electrons moving from left to right (and
there are no electrons available), or by holes moving from right to left
(similarly there are no holes available) and so no current can flow.

▲ Figure 11.7

DIODE CHARACTERISTIC. If a test circuit is arranged, as in figure

11.8a, and the results of applied voltage plotted against diode current
for increasing current values, the semiconductor junction is observed
to act like a thermionic diode when the latter conducts. The general
shape of the current/voltage characteristic is shown by figure 11.8, it
resembles the vacuum diode, but it is noted that when the applied
voltage is reversed, a minute reverse current will continue to flow.
This reverse current is due to the release of electrons by ionisation,
i.e. thermal agitation which gives the P-type side a few electrons and
the N-type side a few +ve holes. If the reverse voltage becomes too
large, there is a breakdown of the covalent bond structure and the
current will increase very rapidly. For a semiconductor diode, the
electrode to be connected to the +ve terminal of the supply for
forward conduction is clearly marked for this reason and must be
connected correctly. As for a diode valve the terms anode and
cathode are used accordingly.
▲ Figure 11.8

The characteristic shown is typical of a small semiconductor diode.

Note the change of current scale for the reverse graph, which shows
the limit where the reverse current saturation value is broken down,
where the ‘zener effect’ occurs, and the semiconductor becomes a
conductor. Unlike the vacuum diode the semiconductor diode reverse
operation is exploited for various circuits and the zener diode, as it is
called, is used for voltage regulation and stabilisation, for meter
protection, cut-off, limiting and in clipping circuits and will be
considered later.

Recti er operation
fi
Since the junction diode requires no heater supply, it is easily
introduced directly into circuit arrangements to allow both half-wave
and full-wave recti cation. The characteristic shows the device is
fi
suitable for a recti er and if an alternating voltage of about 1 V (peak
fi
to peak) is applied to a P-N junction, the potential barrier will
alternatively increase and decrease over time to allow recti cation.
fi
The reverse current is considered negligible. Silicon is used in
preference to germanium for most large power rectifiers as it can
carry large currents and operate at higher temperatures and its
reverse current is also lower than that for germanium with similar
forward current values.

The advantages of semiconductor rectifiers over earlier ‘metal’

rectifiers such as selenium lie mostly in their smaller size, longer life
and improved regulation and efficiency. The latter features are the
result of the low forward resistance and voltage drop and the fact that
fewer elements are required in series to handle a given voltage.

Example 11.1. The following values refer to a germanium diode.

Plot the anode characteristics for the diode and determine from it (a)
the ‘forward’ D.C. resistance when the current is 3 mA and (b) the
forward anode voltage when the D.C. resistance is 200 Ω.

(a) From the graph of figure 11.9 the forward D.C. resistance

(b) Construct the 200 Ω D.C. resistance lines as shown. Current = 1

mA. The applied voltage will be 1 × 200 = 200 mV. Plot this point P.
Draw the voltage drop line to cut the curve. Hence the forward anode
voltage will be 272 mV as illustrated.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC OPERATION. It is seen from the Ia/Va curve

that, for the thermionic diode there was a definite voltage to current
ratio for any anode current value, and it is applied here to the solid-
state semiconductor junction diode. This is the anode D.C.
resistance, determined for any point on the characteristic by dividing
the anode-voltage value by the corresponding anode-current value.
Operation of the semiconductor diode for A.C. conditions, as when
used as an RF demodulator, will not be considered here. The slope or
A.C. resistance value for any working range can be determined, as
for the vacuum diode, by the ratio:

▲ Figure 11.9

When used as a rectifier, the solid-state semiconductor diode is

loaded or operated dynamically. It is apparent that a dynamic
characteristic will be obtained either by direct testing or deduction in a
manner similar to that used for the encapsulated diode valve as
discussed in Chapter 10. As a separate dynamic characteristic is
required for each value of R, the load resistance using a ‘load line’ is
more appropriate for solving some problems, as illustrated by the
following example.
Example 11.2. The characteristic of a germanium diode is shown by
figure 11.10. If the value of load resistance = 100 Ω and the average
value of applied voltage = 2 V, find the average value of the terminal
voltage (2 decimal places) and the corresponding load current (4
significant figures).

The characteristic is plotted and the load line drawn for 100 Ω thus:

With no current flow the full 2 V is applied across the diode and point
A obtained. With a diode D.C. resistance of zero, the maximum
current which could possibly flow will be . Thus point B is

obtained. The point of intersection between the load line and

characteristic shows that the terminal voltage will be about 2 – 0.48 V
= 1.52 V and the load current will be 15.25 mA.

▲ Figure 11.10
 Rectifier Circuits
Most electronic circuits operated from a D.C. supply will likely obtain
their voltage supply from batteries while at sea. However, as batteries
discharge, continuity of voltage supply cannot be assured and
reliability of the equipment falls. Rectifier circuits, using the
unidirectional conduction properties of junction diodes, are often
incorporated in electronic units which are to be connected to A.C.
supplies. The rectified output can thus be either half or full-wave
arrangements, which are now considered in turn.

Half-wave

When a diode is connected in series with an A.C. supply and resistive

load, current is seen to flow in only one direction. Each alternate A.C.
half cycle is thus ‘blocked’ and a series of positive ‘pulses’ occurs as
shown in the output waveform (figure 11.11). A small reverse current
will flow but for most practical purposes this may be ignored. If a low-
voltage D.C. output is required from a mains A.C. supply, a
transformer with a suitable step-down ratio is incorporated with the
rectifier circuit connected to the secondary output.

▲ Figure 11.11

Full-wave

(1) BI-PHASE CIRCUIT. With the arrangement shown in figure 11.12

using 2 diodes and a centrally tapped transformer, the full A.C.
waveform will conduct in a positive direction. During the alternate half
cycles each diode will conduct in turn producing an output as a series
of unidirectional pulses over each half-cycle.

▲ Figure 11.12

(2) BRIDGE CIRCUIT. The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit illustrated

in figure 11.13 eliminates the need for a centrally tapped transformer
but requires 4 diodes. During each half cycle alternate pairs of diodes
conduct once again producing a series of unidirectional pulses. The
alternating nature of the unidirectional output to the load is
undesirable for most electronic circuits. To reduce this problem,
smoothing circuits are generally incorporated. The simplest method
connects a capacitor in parallel with the D.C. load (figure 11.14).
However, the capacitor must have a high capacitance value and is
usually of the electrolytic type as discussed in Volume 6.

▲ Figure 11.13

▲ Figure 11.14

During the half cycle in which a diode conducts, capacitor C will

charge up to the peak value of the D.C. load voltage. During the next
half cycle, when the diode is not conducting, the capacitor discharges
through the load. Mention was made in Volume 6, Chapter 8, that the
charge stored by a capacitor depends upon both the voltage and the
capacitance values. Hence, for a given D.C. voltage, if a much larger
capacitor is used, more charge can be stored to maintain the load
voltage. Figure 11.15 shows the output waveform for such an
arrangement.

▲ Figure 11.15

The output voltage has a definite ripple, the ripple voltage, but the
ripple is reduced with the use of increasingly higher capacitance
values. A capacitor used in this way is sometimes referred to as a
storage or reservoir capacitor. The time taken to fully charge a
capacitor is still very small and decreases as the capacitor value
increases. Thus for practical purposes, it is assumed to charge up
instantaneously. In a half-wave rectifier circuit the capacitor may be
assumed to discharge in the time taken for a complete cycle .

Similarly with a full-wave rectifier the circuit discharges in only half

this time as shown (figure 11.16).

▲ Figure 11.16
Example 11.3. A full-wave rectifier with capacitor smoothing,
operating from a 50 Hz A.C. supply, produces a D.C. output of
maximum value 60 V. The capacitor has a value of 2000 μF.

Find the peak to peak value of the ripple voltage when delivering 250
mA to a resistive load (2 decimal places).

Quantity of electricity stored during charge Q = CVr

Quantity of electricity given out during discharge Q = It, i.e. CVr = It

I = Discharge current = 250 mA

t = Discharge time =

Ripple voltage ∴ Ripple voltage = 1.25 V

In many cases this ripple does not actually affect the load operation
but in some electronic circuits its presence is undesirable and should
be eliminated. Connecting a capacitor across the load will affect the
P.I.V. developed across the diode, because when the diode is in a
non-conducting mode, the voltage developed across it is the peak
value of the supply PLUS the peak value of the capacitor voltage.

Example 11.4. A 240/20 V transformer feeds a half-wave rectifier

circuit which has capacitor smoothing. Calculate the maximum output
voltage and the diode’s minimum P.I.V. rating. Note. A.C. voltages are
expressed in r.m.s. values:

i.e.

Output voltage Vm = 28.28 V

P.I.V. = Peak value of supply + Peak value on capacitor (which just

before discharge when the diode is not conducting is the peak value
of the D.C. load)

P.I.V. = 28.28 + 28.28 volts = 56.56 V

Diode P.I.V. rating = 56.56 V minimum

Filter Circuit
The storage or reservoir capacitor may not completely eliminate
ripple and, if complete ripple suppression is needed, another
capacitor and an iron cored inductor should be connected as shown
in figure 11.17.

▲ Figure 11.17

Capacitor C1 acts as a smoothing capacitor, which produces a

unidirectional potential difference across it with a definite ripple.
Inductor L and capacitor C2 act as a filter for the circuit, separating
out the steady D.C. voltage from the ripple A.C. component of voltage
across C1. This occurs because the inductor L offers greater
impedance to the A.C. component but little resistance to the D.C.
component, so most of the unwanted ripple voltage is developed
across it. As the capacitor resistance is very high the D.C. component
is established between its plates. A small D.C. voltage drop will occur
across the inductor L due to its resistance.

Voltage Doubler Circuit

Another circuit using the storage charge capacity of a capacitor
together with semiconductor diodes is the voltage doubler circuit, an
arrangement used in circuits requiring a high voltage, but with low
D.C. current from a lower voltage A.C. supply. The circuit requires 2
diodes and 2 capacitors connected as shown in figures 11.18a and
11.18b.

▲ Figure 11.18

During the positive half cycle of A.C. voltage, C1 charges up to the

peak value of the A.C. voltage Vp. During the negative half cycle C2
charges and C1 discharges. However, the voltage now developed
across the load comprises both the discharge voltage of C1 and the
voltage V2 (i.e. VL = V2 + VC1 = 2Vp).

During the next positive half cycle C2 discharges and C1 charges, so

the D.C. load voltage this time comprises the discharge voltage of C2
and voltage V1 (i.e. VL = V1 + VC2 = 2Vp).

Stabilised power supplies

The rectifier circuit D.C. output, even though it may be smoothed with
a capacitor, may vary due to peak value variations of input voltage
Vm, which are often encountered as the A.C. mains voltage changes
due to supply variations or fluctuations. Similarly as the D.C. load is
increased the increased current causes the output voltage to fall due
to voltage drops in the circuit. These effects are undesirable in
electronic control and monitoring devices and can be effectively
reduced by a stabilising circuit which incorporates a zener diode as a
voltage reference to provide a steady output voltage.

The zener diode

It has already been shown that a P-N junction diode will break down
at a definite voltage when reverse biased. This breakdown, or zener
effect, occurs at a definite voltage determined by the manufacturer. A
junction diode continuously operated with reverse bias is called a
zener diode.

▲ Figure 11.19 Zener diode symbol

Below the breakdown voltage or zener voltage level the diode

resistance is very high, hence the reverse current will be extremely
small, and is usually ignored. However, beyond the breakdown
voltage the resistance falls to a low value and a rapid increase of
current will occur. The reverse-biased diode will conduct above the
fixed zener voltage as shown in figure 11.20. Beyond this breakdown
point the voltage developed across the diode is the zener voltage VZ
plus the voltage due to the resistance voltage drop across the diode.
▲ Figure 11.20

Series Stabilisation
To produce a stabilised voltage the zener diode may be connected
across the load as shown in figure 11.21. The zener diode voltage
rating is then determined by the D.C. voltage across the load.

▲ Figure 11.21

Under all conditions when the zener diode is conducting VI = VO +

IRS. The zener diode conducts when the voltage VZ is reached. At
this position it will draw extra current from the unstabilised supply, and
increase the voltage drop across RS, bringing the output voltage near
to the VZ value depending upon the actual zener resistance and
current. As VI rises, IZ increases and the series resistance voltage
drop will increase keeping VO constant. As the load current changes
the current IZ will change inversely but the voltage across the series
resistor will also stay nearly constant, so the load voltage stays
virtually constant. However, this only occurs if the maximum load
current is not exceeded, as beyond this value the voltage drop across
the series resistor RS will be excessive and the output voltage will fall.

Example 11.5. A zener diode has a breakdown value of 9.1 V and,

beyond this voltage, will have a resistance of 15 Ω. It is connected in
a stabilising circuit, with a series resistor of 500 Ω to an unstabilised
D.C. supply voltage of 30 V. When the load current is 30 mA calculate
the zener diode current, the load voltage and the power dissipated in
the diode, refer to figure 11.21 (all 3 significant figures).

VO = VZ + IZ × RZ

VO = 9.1 + 15 × IZ

VI = I × RS + VO

30 = 500 (0.03 + IZ) + 9.1 + 15 × IZ

30 = 15 + 500 × IZ + 9.1 + 15 × IZ

Diode current IZ = 11.5 mA

VO = 9.1 + (15 × 11.46 × 10–3)

Load voltage VO = 9.27 V

PZ = VO × IZ = 9.272 × 11.46 × 10–3 W

Power dissipated in diode = 106 mW

USE AS A VOLTAGE STABILISER. The circuit (figure 11.22) shows
one arrangement commonly used to produce a constant output
voltage VO for a varying load current IO or varying input/supply
voltage VI. These conditions are considered in turn.
▲ Figure 11.22

(1) If the load is varied so that IO rises then II will tend to rise with a
consequent larger RS voltage drop, VZ will fall but a small decrease of
VZ causes a large decrease in IZ and compensates for the increased
IO. II will remain constant as will the RS voltage drop and the output
voltage VO.

If the load current falls, II will tend to fall reducing the voltage drop
across RS. A small increase of VZ will cause a large increase of IZ
which counters the effect of a reduced IO. The RS voltage drop is
fairly constant and so VO remains fairly constant. When no load
current is taken, maximum load current plus IZ(min) flows through the
zener diode, while on full load the zener conducts IZ(min).

(2) If the supply voltage varies, VI rises and VO will rise. VZ will rise
causing a large increase of IZ. The RS voltage drop will get larger and
compensates for the rise of supply voltage to keep VO largely
constant. Conversely if the supply voltage VI falls, VO and VZ will fall,
causing a large decrease of IZ resulting in a smaller RS voltage drop
offsetting the fall of VI, so VO will tend towards minimising change. VZ
will remain constant provided IZ(min) flows continuously.

VOLTAGE REGULATION. The rise in terminal voltage when a load is

removed is termed voltage regulation, expressed as a ‘per unit’ or a
‘percentage’. This rise in voltage is caused by the load current IO
passing through the zener when the load circuit is opened.

The Per unit voltage regulation = IO × RZ

and the Percentage voltage regulation =

STABILITY. The following assumptions can be made if VO is kept

constant by zener action. If VI is fairly constant then II is constant and
given by . If VI rises by 1 volt then II rises by

amperes. The current rise is diverted through the zener, with the IZ
rise equalling the increase of II and the voltage rise
.

Stability is defined by ‘the output voltage when the input voltage rises
by 1 volt’. This stability value is obtained from the ratio .

Practice Examples
11.1 The following data represent the forward characteristics of a P-N
junction diode.
 Estimate (a) the forward D.C. resistance when the current is 1.5
mA and (b) the voltage and current for a forward D.C. resistance of
1.75 kΩ.
11.2 On test, a full-wave, silicon semiconductor rectifier is found to
give a constant forward voltage drop of 0.7 V, independent of
current. Calculate the power dissipated in the rectifier diode for a
D.C. current of 5 A. If the rectifier dissipates heat, at the rate of 0.1
J/s/°C rise in temperature, find the maximum D.C. output current
rating if the temperature rise is to be limited to 70°C.
11.3 The following values refer to a germanium diode.

Plot the anode characteristics for the diode and determine from it
(a) the ‘forward’ D.C. resistance when the current is 3.45 mA (2
decimal places).
11.4 A half-wave rectifier with capacitor smoothing is fed from a 230
V, 50 Hz supply via a 12:1 step-down transformer. The volt drop
across the diode when conducting is 0.75 V. Calculate the peak
value of the D.C. output voltage and the P.I.V. rating of the diode.
11.5 An electronic circuit requires 350 mA D.C. from a half-wave
rectifier circuit which incorporates a 1800 μF capacitor for
smoothing. If the supply voltage is 50 V, 60 Hz, calculate (a) the
peak value of the D.C. output voltage and (b) the peak to peak
value of the output ripple voltage.
11.6 A D.C. load is to be supplied from a 250/40 V, 50 Hz transformer
and bridge rectifier circuit with a 2000 μF capacitor for smoothing.
 Determine (a) the P.I.V. Rating of each diode and (b) the peak to
peak value of the ripple voltage when supplying 250 mA.
11.7 An A.C. supply of 50 V is connected to a voltage doubler circuit
as illustrated in figure 11.18. Calculate the peak voltage across the
load resistor assuming the diodes to have negligible forward
voltage drop.
11.8 The output from a rectifier circuit with capacitor smoothing is 25
V ± 20%. A zener diode series stabilising circuit is connected to this
supply to provide a stabilised output from which currents up to 50
mA will be drawn. The zener diode has a breakdown value of 9.7 V
and for stability it must carry a minimum current of 1 mA. The diode
resistance above 9.7 V is 12 Ω. Determine (a) a suitable value of
series resistance and (b) the stabilised voltage.
11.9 A zener diode has a breakdown value of 8.2 V and, beyond this
voltage, will have a resistance of 12 Ω. It is connected in a
stabilising circuit, with a series resistor of 400 Ω to an unstabilised
D.C. supply voltage of 40 V. When the load current is 40 mA
calculate the zener diode current, the load voltage and the power
dissipated in the diode (all 3 significant figures).
11.10 Figure 11.23 illustrates a rectifier circuit incorporating capacitor
smoothing and zener stabilisation. The zener diode has a
breakdown value of 24 V and requires a minimum current of 1 mA
for stable operation. For values of voltage above 24 V the slope
resistance is 14 Ω. For a stabilised D.C. load current of 60 mA
calculate (a) the peak to peak ripple voltage measured across the
capacitor, (b) the required P.I.V. rating of the diodes, (c) the
minimum value of RS for stable operation and (d) the power rating
of the zener diode.

▲ Figure 11.23
 The transistor is the information engine of the digital age.
Chris Lavers

The Transistor
This chapter continues our discussion of solid-state electronics by
introducing the transistor. The transistor is a semiconductor device
used to amplify and switch electronics signals and electrical power
and has quite simply revolutionised electronics. It is composed of a
semiconductor material with at least 3 terminals, for connection to an
external circuit. A current or voltage applied to a pair of the
transistor’s terminals changes the current flowing through another
pair of terminals acting as a controllable electronic switch. Because
the controlled output power can be significantly higher than the
controlling input power, a transistor can be viewed as an electronic
amplifier of a signal. Today, transistors are available as separate
devices, or more commonly as one of millions of similar components
within integrated circuits.

By the end of World War II, research into semiconductors had

advanced rapidly during the short period of the war years, with the
first junction diode demonstrated in 1941 and the first transistor made
at the Bell Laboratories, New York, Christmas Eve 1947, by J.
Bardeen and W. Brattain, part of a team working under Dr W.
Shockley. The first public demonstration of a transistor took place in
June 1948 on a point-contact transistor with an output power greater
than the input, substantiating Shockley’s early peace time theories.
This was followed by the junction transistor which he also designed
and worked in accordance with his theoretical expectations.

The next key step forward was the development of the junction-alloy
transistor which made the point-contact transistor obsolete by 1956.
Physical electronic theory had by then progressed to the stage where
a range of different semiconductor junction possibilities could be
fabricated. Shockley proposed a 4-layer P-N-P-N device and a
different class of uniplanar devices based on the ‘field-effect’
principle. In fact a wide range of solid-state devices are now
available, covering various ‘families’ of such devices, but the chief
among these is still the junction transistor, the subject of this chapter.
This family is split into 2 sub-groups covering P-N-P and N-P-N types.
Another family covers the field-effect devices which can also be
divided into 2 groups – the Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET or
FET) and Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET) more
commonly known as a Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
and refers to its construction from metal layers (the gate), the oxide
(the insulator) and a semiconductor. Further families cover 3-junction
devices like the thyristor, diac and triac, while developments in
diffusion techniques, metal oxide processing and nano-scale
photolithographic etching have created the integrated circuit with
transistors, resistors and capacitors formed better during
manufacture. Study of these now numerous devices includes in no
particular order: Schottky, Avalanche, Darlington transistors, carbon
nanotube FET, organic FET and FETS used to sense the
environment, and the Single Electron Transistor (SET) which would
require in-depth discussion, and so we return to our discussion of the
junction transistor.

The junction transistor

This device consists of a ‘sandwich’ of 3 layers, being either of P-type

material, i.e. rich in +ve charge carriers (holes) or N-type material, i.e.
rich in electrons. Adulterated or doped germanium was the first
material used but it has since been replaced by silicon which results
in lower device leakage currents and has the ability to withstand
higher temperatures (180°C) when compared with germanium (75°C).
It also has a higher voltage rating. Silicon transistors generally do not
operate above 1 kV, while SiC can operate well above 10 kV.
Although the first junction transistors were of Ge and Si construction
advances in microwave devices employ the semiconductor material
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy Silicon
Germanium (SiGe). GaAs has the highest electron mobility making it
useful for high-frequency applications. Modern Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJT) are of a planar-epitaxial type. Bipolar means that
current is conducted by the 2 charge carriers: electrons and holes.
Planar-epitaxial refers to its uniformly flat-layered construction.
Although the junction transistor is treated in terms of the simple
diagram shown (figure 12.1), practical assembly is more in accord
with figure 12.2. Figure 12.2a shows a section of an early junction
transistor. Figure 12.2b shows a section of the planar-epitaxial
transistor where N-type silicon disc is first oxidised, a window
photolithographically etched, cleaned chemically and then an
impurity, e.g. boron, fused into the window to form a P-type silicon
region and an N-P-N transistor. The window is closed by oxidation
and a smaller window etched in. Chemical cleaning is repeated and
phosphorus is fused into the P-region to convert it into N-type. The
window is then closed by oxidation and the disc cut into thin sections
to provide millions of transistor chips. Connections are bonded by
aluminium fused into the silicon and each chip enclosed inside a can.
A P-N-P transistor on the other hand is made in a similar way except
different doping elements are used to reverse the polarities. Impurity
fusion is achieved by Chemical Vapour Deposition (C.V.D.) which is
accurately controlled and combined with mass production methods so
some million transistor chips can be produced from one original 300
mm diameter disc or wafer, with the most recent wafer size of 450
mm now coming into production with Intel and Samsung. However,
not all of these transistors may work and various factors will affect the
final device yield.

▲ Figure 12.1
▲ Figure 12.2

OPERATION. Figure 12.3 shows a basic P-N diode and a basic P-N-
P transistor arrangement, the latter consists of a region of N-type
material sandwiched by P-type material regions. The N-type material,
the base, is rich in electrons but is very thin (0.005–0.05 mm). The
outer regions – the sandwich ‘slices’ – the emitter and collector, are
both rich in +ve charge carriers or holes. An N-P-N transistor will
have the materials reversed. Amplifying action is obtained because
the current between the emitter and base influences the current at a
higher power level between the collector and base. Before describing
this action in detail, we will revise the explanation of junction diode
operation by remembering that on one side there are only holes
(figure 12.3a), while on the other side there are only electrons.
Application of a voltage across the junction, so the P-end is +ve and
the N-end is –ve, results in current flow since holes move left to right
and electrons move from right to left. Reversal of applied potential
results in no current flow since there are no holes free to move right
to left or electrons free to move left to right. The junction provides an
‘easy’ path in one direction only and is virtually open circuit in the
other direction. With a +ve potential applied to the P-side and a –ve
potential on the N-side, the diode is forward biased and current
readily passes provided the voltage is above the barrier potential,
typically 0.6 V for silicon, and 0.2 V (smaller) for germanium.
▲ Figure 12.3

Consider figure 12.3b. The arrangement shows 2 P-N junctions close

together or ‘back to back’ in a single piece of semiconductor. It should
be no surprise to the reader that current through one junction
influences the current passing through the other junction and the
arrangement constitutes a transfer-resistor or transistor (a term
created by John R. Pierce), whose action is understood by
considering the action of the device in 2 stages.

Consider the collector-base junction only. If the collector is made –ve

with respect to the base, the arrangement will be that of a diode with
reverse bias. The only current is due to minority carriers, i.e.
electrons from the P-type collector and holes from the N-type base.
Minority carriers are small and so the resulting current is small.
Consider next the emitter-base diode. If the emitter is made +ve with
respect to the base, the arrangement is that of a forward-biased
diode and current will be large, being due largely to majority carriers.
For a modern bipolar transistor both P- and N- type materials are
heavily doped, so current is conducted by both carrier types. Holes
injected into the base from the emitter collect in high concentration at
the junction and because of the base thinness diffuse quickly towards
the collector junction. If a large –ve potential is applied across the
collector-base junction, any holes that reach this barrier are rapidly
swept across, reaching the collector and increasing the collector
current. Note that not all the injected holes from the emitter reach the
collector because some combine with electrons in the base. However,
by keeping the base thin – only a few microns – the electrons
available for recombination are reduced and most of the holes leaving
the emitter reach the collector. For a typical transistor for every 1 mA
leaving the emitter, the collector current is about 0.99 mA.
Amplification occurs because of the different impedances in which
these currents flow. The emitter current is in the direction of ‘easy’
flow, so the impedance may be less than 50 Ω, while the collector
current is in the direction of difficult flow and resistance may be above
1 MΩ or more. To make up for electrons lost in the base by
recombination with holes, the base requires a small electron flow, i.e.
a conventional current flow from the base is needed. Current flow
from the base is regarded as a flow of holes, the result of such a flow
is reduction of the base positive charge and the greater the flow, the
greater the base-collector junction depletion layer is reduced. This is
equivalent to reducing junction resistance, so the collector current
increases. A base current increase results in a collector current
increase. This condition must be kept in mind when transistor
operation in various configurations is considered. Some of these
configurations are described shortly. The diagrams of figure 12.1
show the P-N-P transistor arrangement, the standard circuit symbol
and an illustration symbolising hole flow. The conditions for an N-P-N
transistor are shown in figure 12.4.

▲ Figure 12.4

CURRENT TRANSFER RATIO. All transistors behave like a control

unit in that current, in one part of a device, can alter the current in
another part of the circuit. Early research showed that the
effectiveness of this control depended on the thinness of the base
region, which ensured that the base current value is only a small
fraction of the total emitter current so the ratio of these currents is
largely constant. The ratio value varies quite considerably for different
individual transistors of the same type due to the mass production
methods used. Consideration of the diagrams (figures 12.1 and 12.4)
leads to the deduction that Ie = Ic+ Ib, Ie is the emitter current, Ib the
base current and Ic the collector current. is used as a measure of

the device control effectiveness and given the term current-transfer

ratio and the symbol hF. If as Ic is less than Ie, then α will be

less than unity. Here manufacturing improvements have resulted in

smaller Ib values leading to a reduction in the difference value
between Ic and Ie and α will approach unity. A more useful ratio is

– symbol β. A simple relationship between α and β is deduced but it

is noted that, as for the thermionic valve, characteristic curves are
obtained and the linear parts of these give values for α and β. It is
useful to consider small changes of current instead of actual current
values, so we write:

and . Also since Ie = Ic + Ib

Then δIe = δIc + δIb and δIb = δIe + δIc

Substituting in

. Thus
With the ‘forward current transfer ratio’ , similarly β is given

the term ‘forward current transfer ratio’ or .

These current ratios are defined by the static value of the short-circuit
forward current ratio with the symbol hF. Another subscript is added
to indicate the configuration, hence the above hFB and hFE.

Transistor use shows that any value of α must be specified accurately

and this requires a symbol which states within limits, the conditions
the value was measured under. To show α was measured in
‘grounded emitter’ mode it is stated . To show it was measured at
zero frequency (D.C.) it is written . If measured at large current
values, it is written as αo etc. Use of h with subscripts to define the
operation modes gives clearer information but it is noted that other h
values are given in manufacturer’s data; e.g. hFE (small-signal gain,
i.e. change of Ic for unit change in Ib). Such h hybrid parameters are
termed small-signal parameters and related to circuit theory involving
special circuits, etc. Symbols α and β are used for basic study, with
reference made to the h representation as appropriate.

Example 12.1. For a base current of 0.1 mA in a transistor, the

corresponding collector current under short-circuit conditions was
recorded as 1 mA. What is the transistor’s common base short-circuit
current gain?

Here δIb = 0.1 mA and δIc = 1 mA ∴δIe = 1.1 mA

δIe is deduced from the fact that emitter current = collector current +
base current.

Transistor characteristics
Transistor performance can be investigated by making suitable tests
and from the results and the characteristics of each configuration
drawn. These are the (1) Input Characteristic, (2) Output
Characteristic and (3) Transfer Characteristic. The last can be
deduced from the first two but a test is useful in that an average value
for the forward current transfer ratio is obtained directly. In figure 12.5
the emitter arrow indicates the conventional current direction, i.e. the
direction in which +ve holes are injected into the base. For N-P-N
transistors, the current carriers (collector current) consist of electrons
flowing from the N-type emitter into the P-type base. Conventional
current (hole) flow is in the opposite direction, hence the arrow
reversal on the emitter which points away from the base. Device
polarities are reversed with the collector +ve with respect to the base
and the emitter –ve biased. N-P-N transistor use has increased, as
diode manufacturing techniques have improved unit cost reduction.

▲ Figure 12.5

CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION. Transistor electrodes are of course

digital analogies of those found in the thermionic triode, the device
whose miniaturisation the transistor was designed to replace. The
emitter corresponds to the cathode, the base to the grid and the
collector to the anode. Like the valve, the device is used in one of 3
different circuit configurations, and as for the valve, attention will be
given to the most commonly used.

Figure 12.5 illustrates the 3 circuit configurations and the

corresponding triode valve connections given alongside for
comparison. The first and most commonly used (a) is the ‘common or
grounded emitter’ where the cathode is ‘earthed’, the grid is the input
electrode and the anode the output electrode. The second
configuration (b) is the ‘common or grounded base’ mode which as
for the triode is rarely used. Mode (c) shows the ‘common or
grounded collector’, mainly used for impedance matching, e.g. where
an amplifier must be coupled to a low-impedance load, as this mode
has high input impedance and low output impedance.

The features of the various transistor modes are as follows:

(1) Common or grounded emitter. Medium impedance for both input

and output circuits. The battery +ve line is common (as the
capacitors, see figure 12.15b, connect the emitter to the +ve line for
A.C. signals), the emitter is also common to input and output
circuits. There is a phase shift of 180° and A.C. current and voltage
gains are high.
(2) Common or grounded base. Low input impedance to emitter, high
output impedance from collector. Capacitors (figure 12.9) allow
A.C. signals while blocking D.C. ones. The base is grounded to
A.C. and common to input and output signal circuits. The phase
shift is zero and A.C. current gain less than 1 with A.C. voltage gain
high.
(3) Common or grounded collector. This device configuration has a
high input impedance but low output impedance. The battery offers
negligible impedance to A.C. signals and the input is applied
between base and collector and the output taken from the emitter
and collector. The corresponding phase shift is zero while A.C.
current is high, providing a voltage gain of less than 1.
COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION. The circuit for testing a
transistor is connected in the common-base mode as shown in figure
12.6.

▲ Figure 12.6

The ‘input characteristic’ is obtained by keeping the base-collector

voltage Vc constant and recording the emitter current Ie for various
emitter-base voltages Ve. Voltage adjustments are made with a circuit
potentiometer and graphs, of the form in figure 12.5, are plotted from
test results. Graphs can be plotted as Ie against Ve or more
commonly Ve against Ie, which allows input impedance to be
determined for all working conditions. Thus the slope of the graph in
figure 12.7a is and the input impedance is the reciprocal of the

slope or . Thus input impedance . The slope of the

graph of figure 12.7b gives the input impedance directly.

▲ Figure 12.7

So Input impedance .

The ‘output characteristic’ is obtained by holding Ie constant and

obtaining Ic for various base-collector voltages Vc. A family of curves,
(figure 12.8b) is found which resemble the thermionic pentode’s Ia/Va
curves, as intended from semiconductor manufacture. The key
difference is that each curve is for a separate value of emitter current
instead of grid voltage, demonstrating that transistors are current-
operated devices.

▲ Figure 12.8
The reason for the shapes of the curves is that the collector will
always collect holes if it has a –ve bias. Current Ic is almost
independent of applied voltage, because it is a reverse current, and
depends only on the minority carriers (+ve holes) which are available,
themselves depending on Ie. The ‘transfer characteristic’ is found by a
direct test, holding the base-collector voltage at a fixed value and
varying Ie. The effect on Ic is noted, as shown in figure 12.8b, and its
slope is a measure of α or hFB – the forward current transfer ratio
(current gain), whose value is deduced directly from the output
characteristic. For this mode for a fixed value of Vc, the

change in Ic noted for a change in Ie, and current gain deduced. For
example (figure 12.8a) for a constant Vc value of –4 V, when the
emitter current is raised from 2 to 4 mA (difference 2 mA), the
collector current rises from 1.9 to 3.8 mA (1.8 mA difference). Thus
(approx.). Difficulties arise in achieving the required

accuracy for α, when using this method, and a more reliable result is
achieved by plotting the transfer characteristic.

Amplification. A single-stage amplifier arrangement, connected in

common-base configuration, is shown (figure 12.9). Battery polarity is
vital and a P-N-P transistor considered.

▲ Figure 12.9

Assume a 10 mV supply voltage is applied to the emitter to produce a

1 mA current of which 0.98 mA passes to the collector and 0.02 mA
to the base. Transistor supply voltages are often multiples of 1.5 V
and even the smallest voltage unit may give too high a current if
applied directly to the emitter. RE is included to limit the emitter
current to a few milliamperes. By inserting a load resistor RL in the
collector circuit, amplifying action is obtained. With no A.C. input
signal a steady emitter current flows, limited to a convenient value
(e.g. 1 mA) by RE. If the input signal varies by 5 mV to produce an
emitter current fluctuation of 0.5 mA, the collector current will vary by
about 0.5 mA (some 0.5 × 0.8 = 0.49 mA). If RL = 1000 Ω, the output
voltage A.C. fluctuation = 1000 × 0.5 × 10–3 = 0.5 V. Thus a voltage
amplification of output to input voltage of about
is obtained.

Figure 12.10 shows the phase relationship between the input and
output voltages; they are in phase which is the opposite of that
observed for a valve where the input and output voltages are 180° out
of phase. In the common-base mode, the transistor’s full abilities are
not exploited, in that control by the base current of the collector
current is not used. The configuration gives a current gain of less
than 1 and amplification is only achieved by the different impedance
levels in the emitter and collector circuits. It is convenient to deal in
terms of voltage gain, but true amplification is considered in terms of
a power gain and this aspect is important for transistor work. Thus for
the circuit of figure 12.9, the forward-biased transistor emitter-base
diode is of low impedance, e.g. 15 Ω. If a 0.5 mA current change
takes place, the power change = 0.52 × 10–6 × 15 = 3.75 μW. In the
collector circuit, a corresponding change of 0.49 mA takes place with
an impedance of say 1000 Ω. Thus power change is 0.492 × 10–6 ×
103 = 0.492 × 10–3 = 0.24 × 10–3 or 240 μW, giving a power gain of
(approx.).
▲ Figure 12.10

To achieve this gain, it is vital to match the signal source to the input
impedance and the load to the transistor output impedance. In the
common-base mode current amplification cannot be obtained as ‘a’ is
less than unity. Voltage amplification is possible because the emitter-
base junction has a low resistance and if a large load resistance
value is used in the collector circuit, a high-voltage gain results.
Power gain can be large, as shown, and is mostly used for R.F.
circuits.

Example 12.2. For a common-base arrangement (figure 12.9)

assume RL = 50 kΩ and transistor current gain = 0.95. Find the
voltage gain if an input signal causes a 100 μA emitter current
change (3 significant figures). Transistor input resistance = 100 Ω.

Since then ∴δIc = 0.95 × 100 = 95 μA

Input-signal voltage variation = 100 × 10–6 × 100 = 10–2 = 0.01 V

Output-voltage variation = 95 × 10–6 × 50 × 103 = 475 × 10–2 = 4.75 V

∴ Voltage gain .

In the circuit of figure 12.9, the emitter resistance RE is shown. An

explanation for its presence is useful, in case it is confused with the
value of 100 Ω given in the example for the input resistance. Input
resistance is a transistor value and does not refer to RE. Tests show
voltage applied between the emitter and base causes a normal
current flow of about 100 mV. If a fixed voltage is applied, then as a
result of temperature variation, emitter current will alter since the
effective emitter base resistance decreases with a temperature rise.
To overcome this, a resistor RE is included in emitter circuits with a
value much greater than the emitter-base resistance so the current
will vary little with temperature change. This technique comes under
the heading of ‘stabilisation’ and prevents ‘thermal run away’.

COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION. Figure 12.11 shows a test

circuit for obtaining transistor characteristic curves connected in
common-emitter configuration. Potential adjustments for both input
and output circuits are made by means of resistance potentiometers.

▲ Figure 12.11

One set of characteristics is obtained for constant collector voltages

Vc, by varying the base-emitter potentiometer to give a series of
different values of Vb, current is Ib noted for each value of Vb. A
typical curve for this ‘input characteristic’ is shown in figure 12.12a,
plotted as Ib against Vb or, Vb against Ib. The latter is more common –
figure 12.12b.
▲ Figure 12.12

Example 12.3. The ‘input characteristic’ of figure 12.13 is of a typical

transistor connected in grounded-emitter mode. Find the input
impedance when Ib = 40 μA and Vc is kept constant at –4.5 V. Point P
is determined on the characteristic and a tangent drawn to determine
the slope, giving an input impedance or A.C. resistance.
▲ Figure 12.13

A further set of graphs are termed ‘output characteristics’. The

collector current/collector voltage curve is plotted by obtaining
corresponding readings for Ic and Vc, while Ib is held constant for
each set of readings. Typical curves are shown in figure 12.14.

▲ Figure 12.14
A ‘transfer characteristic’ is obtained by plotting Ic against Ib, with Vc
constant. This can be deduced from the output characteristic and is
shown in figure 12.14b.

Curves obtained from the tests are static characteristics. When a

small A.C. signal is applied between base and emitter, the effect is
shown on the input characteristic – figure 12.12a. The varying signal
causes a small swing of Ib and Vb over part of the curve (shown by
PQ). The reciprocal of the slope PQ gives the input A.C. resistance.
With a working point of 93 mV voltage input varies to give points P
and Q. With US a straight line through PQ, the working points’ A.C.
resistance is obtained as the slope’s reciprocal.

Thus

Input resistance depends on the working D.C. bias value because the
gradient of the curve changes with Vb, with output resistance
obtained from figure 12.14a given by the slope of the appropriate
curve. Output A.C. resistance will be high and nearly constant for a
given Ib value if the working conditions are beyond the curve’s turn-
over point. When Vc is small, i.e. below this value, output resistance
is much reduced. The reader’s attention is drawn to the deduction
made earlier: β or or .

Example 12.4. If the change of collector current is 2 mA when the

emitter current (in a common-base circuit) changes by 2.2 mA
(collector voltage being constant), calculate the transistor current gain
when connected in a common-emitter circuit (1 decimal place).

For the common-base mode , where δIc = 2 mA and δIe = 2.2

mA
 also . Thus .

Amplification. The arrangement for a single-stage amplifier connected

in common-emitter configuration is shown in figure 12.15. The base
and collector are made –ve with respect to the emitter. In figure
12.15b base bias is obtained by a voltage drop along RB as RB forms
a bias potentiometer with the base-emitter resistance in series.

▲ Figure 12.15

The common or ground-emitter arrangement often takes advantage

of a transistor’s high current gain. Here is the current gain as the

base current is now the input current. As Ib is very small, the ratio is
large with a value of about 50. Figure 12.15 shows how supply
voltage is applied between emitter and collector and circuit current is
controlled by base current. As stated earlier α' or β is used for
common-emitter ‘current-gain’ but hFE is recommended, i.e. the
‘forward current transfer ratio’, with values between 20 and 100. The
transfer characteristic slope (figure 12.14b) gives this value. It is easy
to explain the high gain for this mode. Two separate current paths are
seen in figure 12.15. For one, a current flows into the emitter and out
through the base. For the other, current flows out of the collector and
returns via the supply to the emitter. The collector current is less than
the emitter current by the very small base current. Alternatively, the
base current is the difference between the emitter and collector
currents: Ib = Ie – Ic. Any change occurring in Ie or Ic leads to a
change in Ib equal to this difference. Thus for a transistor with a
common-base gain factor α = 0.98, when Ie is increased by 1 mA, Ic
changes by 0.98 mA and the resulting change in Ib is 0.02 mA. Here
a certain base current change is associated with a change in the
collector current which is 49 times bigger, and there is a current gain
between the circuits.

Example 12.5. The ‘output characteristic’ of figure 12.16 is that of a

typical transistor mentioned in example 12.3 connected in a
grounded-emitter mode. Find the output impedance when Vc = –4.5 V
and Ib = –40 mA. Also find the current gain for this point. Point P is
determined on the –40 mA characteristic and the slope found, Slope
= .

▲ Figure 12.16

Since output impedance is the reciprocal of the slope then output

impedance ,

the current gain . For a voltage value of –4.5 V a base current

change of (60 – 40) = 20 mA or 20 × 10–6 A is associated with an Ic
current change of (3.4 – 2.25) = 1.15 × 10–3 mA.

or current gain

= 57.5.

Example 12.6. A 50 μA transistor base current is shown in the

common-emitter amplifier (figure 3.15b), the collector supply voltage
= 10 V. Find the single resistor value RB used to provide the bias
current. Ignore the base-emitter forward conduction voltage drop.

As Ib = 50 μA and the base-emitter voltage is neglected the base is

10 V positive with respect to the –ve line, i.e. the full 10 V is dropped
across RB.

The amplification action is similar to the common-base arrangement.

Here operation is applied to the circuit of figure 12.11. A change of
emitter-base signal voltage of 10 mV produces a base current change
δIb, e.g. 0.05 mA and because of the high β value for this mode, a
large change in current Ic occurs. Suppose this current change δIe =
2.5 mA, then almost all the current appears in the collector current Ic
and if it passes through a high load resistor RL, say 1 kΩ, A.C. output
voltage change across this resistor will be:

δIc × RL = 2.5 × 10–3 × 103 = 2.5 V

A voltage amplification of about is obtained. From figure

12.17 waveforms, an inversion of output to input voltage is seen,

similar to common triode valve operation where the input and output
voltages are 180° out of phase. Transistor inversion occurs because
on application of a small alternating voltage signal across the base-
emitter junction, the base current fluctuates, with such variations
resulting in similar collector current variations. Thus a rise of input
voltage produces an increase in collector current. Voltage drop
across the load resistor RL increases and the amplifier output voltage
falls as a result. Similarly a fall in input voltage produces a fall of
collector current and a rise of output voltage. Considering the Power
in = 10 mV × 0.05 mA = 0.5 μW, and the Power out = = 2.52 × 10–
6 × 1000 = 6.25 × 10–3 V = 6250 μW.

▲ Figure 12.17

Thus power gain .

COMMON-COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION. This arrangement is

little used and is given no further attention here.

Load lines

Use of a load line, in conjunction with the transistor characteristics of

a particular mode, follows valve procedures. Example 12.7 shows
how it can be constructed and applied.
Example 12.7. Figure 12.18 shows a transistor’s typical common-
emitter characteristic. From the information available draw the load
line for a collector load resistance = 4 kΩ and supply voltage = 15 V.
Assume it is possible to swing a sinusoidal signal over the full range
of the load line, state a suitable Ic value and calculate (a) the D.C.
power dissipated in the load resi stor, (b) the A.C. power available
and (c) the gain. Estimate the saturating value of Vc (4, 3 and 2

significant figures respectively).

▲ Figure 12.18

The load-line is drawn using the expression Vc = Vs – IcRL. Vc is the

collector-emitter voltage, VS is the supply voltage, and RL the load
resistance.

when Vc = 0, then

Mark Point A on the diagram for Vc = 0 and Ic = 3.75 mA. When Ic = 0

then Vc = VS or the voltage on the collector is 15 V, giving point B on
the diagram. Join A and B to give the load line. The saturating value
of Vc for this condition is about 0.7 V. The collector current is 3.6 mA
(approx.).
A suitable value for the quiescent point O will be

(1) The D.C. power dissipated will be

(2) The power available

(3) The gain is determined for working about the operating point O

between 20 and 30 μA base current characteristics

We have β or .

Leakage current

It is noted from example 12.7 (figure 12.18) that collector current

values are shown for the Ib = 0 characteristic, i.e. a current of
increasing magnitude flows for rising values of Vc. This is the normal
diode junction reverse current and usually its effect can be neglected,
especially for silicon transistors. However, leakage current even for
silicon transistors can cause concern when operating temperatures
exceed 100°C and its effect must be taken into consideration when
designing circuits.

The practical amplifier

Figure 12.19 shows a practical circuit for the commonest transistor
amplifier, in a common-emitter configuration, one battery source with
components’ values obtained from transistor static characteristics,
and knowledge of a circuit’s current-flow directions. R1 and R2
provide the base-emitter bias by acting as a potential divider. The
function of R3 is covered under ‘stabilisation’.

▲ Figure 12.19

STABILISATION. One of the main difficulties found in transistor circuit

operation is a tendency for operating conditions to alter or ‘drift’. Drift
is caused by temperature changes and action must be taken to
reduce this. As germanium resistance falls as temperature rises, a
larger current will flow which, in turn, increases transistor heating –
even destroying it in extreme cases. Such destruction is called
‘thermal runaway’ and is minimised by circuit stabilisation methods.

One efficient and common method of stabilising the base bias uses a
potential divider made up from R1 and R2. As the current I1 in the
series resistors is more than the base current, the base potential is
held fairly constant in spite of base current variation when A.C. input
signals are applied. Use of resistor R3, inserted between the emitter
and the battery +ve terminal, was explained in relation to example
12.2 for resistor RE. Its value is much larger than the transistor
internal emitter resistance and the current is largely unaffected when
transistor temperature changes, so thermal runaway is avoided. Use
of silicon, instead of germanium for semiconductor devices, is mainly
to raise operating temperature and stabilising circuit techniques are
still used for silicon transistors.

The transistor as a switch

This device can operate as a highly efficient switch at very high

speed (micro-seconds). Furthermore it may be powered with a
fraction of the main current it controls. It is highly sensitive and can
operate with various transducers to sense tiny physical changes of
temperature, pressure, strain and light. For the switching function, the
device is used in common-emitter mode with high current gain. As the
resistance between collector and emitter is controlled by the base
bias, if the base is made +ve with respect to the emitter, the base-
emitter junction is reverse biased and will not emit, so no collector
current flows. With the base made –ve with respect to the emitter,
both a base current and collector current will flow. As the base is
made more negative, collector current increases until it is limited by
the collector supply voltage and load resistance. Under this condition
only a fraction of a volt is dropped across the collector-emitter
junction, so full supply voltage will be available for the load. The
transistor is thus seen as a switch. With a +ve bias on the base the
switch is open and with a –ve potential of suitable magnitude, the
switch is closed.

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT. A simple circuit is shown in figure 12.20.

Current only passes between the emitter and collector when the base
is 0.7 to 1 V negative with respect to the emitter. The easiest way to
achieve this is shown in figure 12.20 using related sub-circuits (a) or
(b).
▲ Figure 12.20

The arrangement in figure 12.20a is a simple remote control switch

where a circuit is closed by a rising water level. The appropriate bias,
decided by the value of series resistor RX, is applied and the
transistor TR1 turned on. Current then flows via R1 through the
emitter-collector junction. The potential at the top of R1 will be about –
1 V and TR2 is turned hard ‘on’ causing a relay to operate. With the
remote switch open, no bias is applied to the base of TR1 and the
transistor is ‘off’ ensuring that TR2 is ‘off’.

For arrangement in figure 12.20b the bias on the base of TR1 is

decided by a potential divider. A thermistor is connected in series with
a variable resistor. The potential of point B varies according to the
thermistor’s resistance value, which varies with its temperature, i.e.
resistance decreases as temperature increases. The potential of B
and thus the base of TR1 alters with temperature and control is
effected. The series variable resistor RX helps adjustment of the
operating point. Another example of a switch would be as a lighting
component.

The thyristor

This 4-layer device is termed a Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR),

and is mainly used as a semiconductor switch for controlling
application of voltage to a load. It is provided with 3 terminals, the
anode, cathode and gate or trigger. Figure 12.21 illustrates its general
construction and the appropriate symbols. It is seen that 2 types are
available, namely N- and P-gates. The latter is almost universally
used with the anode made +ve with respect to the cathode. Theory
shows how a thyristor conducts in one direction only although
bidirectional thyristors or ‘triacs’ are still available.

▲ Figure 12.21

If the anode of a P-gate thyristor is made –ve with respect to the

cathode, the 2 outer diodes of the 4-layer sandwich, see figure 12.22,
are reverse biased and conduction does not occur. With the anode
made +ve with respect to the cathode, the centre diode only has a
reverse bias which prevents conduction if no input is applied to the
gate. The gate’s function causes the device to conduct or ‘fire’ when
an appropriate potential is applied. Current carriers from the outer
layers flow to the centre junction. When this occurs, anode and
cathode are considered to be connected so a Short-Circuit (S.C.)
occurs across the device. Once the gate has initiated conduction,
current carriers from the outer layers maintain the main current even
when the gate input is removed. Thus to ‘switch off’, the current must
be interrupted with an external means or circuit condition. This is
achieved if an A.C. voltage is controlled as the current value at the
end of a half-cycle falls to zero. The applied voltage potential then
reverses and a condition of non-conduction is obtained. The thyristor
switches off at the end of a +ve half-cycle and will not conduct again
until another +ve gate impulse is applied during another +ve half-
cycle of mains voltage across the anode-cathode terminals. When
operating to control a D.C. circuit, extra circuitry is required. Usually a
second thyristor is connected in parallel with the main device with the
anodes capacitively coupled. Triggering the second thyristor switches
a load off at the period of capacitor charging.

▲ Figure 12.22

THEORY OF OPERATION. A thyristor is represented by a 4-layer

sandwich (figure 12.22). If the centre P-N section is split to give the
arrangement shown, we can develop the 2 complementary transistor
analogy. TR1 is a P-N-P device and TR2 an N-P-N device. Assume a
short positive current pulse to be applied to the base of TR2. With the
correct bias on the base of TR2, the transistor is ‘turned on’. The TR2
collector current is drawn from the base of TR1. Since the emitter-
base diode of TR1 is forward biased this unit is also ‘turned on’. TR1
collector current now supplies the base of TR2 and gate current is no
longer required. Both transistors now continue to conduct as long as
the supply polarities to anode and cathode are correct and anode
current does not fall below the holding current value.

▲ Figure 12.23
If a thyristor’s current/voltage characteristic is considered (figure
12.23), further explanation of the holding current can be made. With
no gate connection, if an increasing voltage is applied between the
anode and cathode, a small but constant current flows through the
device between the terminals. At a certain voltage value, the
Breakover Voltage (VBO), current suddenly increases in value,
limited only by load conditions. The device has switched itself into a
state of low impedance by internal electron-hole rearrangement and
stays in this state until current is reduced below the holding value.
The thyristor then reverts to its ‘blocking state’. With the gate
connected and an electrical bias of the correct relation to the anode
applied, it is found that the VBO value can be controlled but, as
stated, once the thyristor has ‘fired’ the gate has no further effect.

CONTROL METHODS. The load-current value can be controlled by

the duration the thyristor conducts and this can be varied in one of 2
ways: (1) Phase-shift Control, or by (2) Burst-fire or Burst-triggering
Control.

(1) Phase-shift Control. Figure 12.24 illustrates the method. The

device is triggered by a short-duration current pulse applied to the
gate during each +ve half-cycle of the supply voltage to the anode,
cathode and load circuit. The instant of pulse application or triggering
can be altered in relation to the start of a supply voltage half-cycle so
the conduction time for the half-wave can be controlled and the
average current value through the load is varied. A triggering circuit
usually involves a variable potential divider and capacitance circuit
with variable time constant. The voltage value built up across the
capacitor initiates conductance through a transistor which then
discharges through a resistor, thus applying a pulse to the thyristor’s
gate. Figure 12.24 shows how this control method can trigger a
thyristor at an instant when the supply voltage is high and a large
current can be switched suddenly. This condition can give rise to
radio interference and suitable suppression arrangements are
needed.
▲ Figure 12.24

(2) Burst-fire Control. Figure 12.25 shows the method. The thyristor is
switched on for several consecutive positive half-cycles. Conduction
is thus for one or more half-waves of load current with periods of non-
conduction interposed. The method is suitable for large loads where
thermal or mechanical inertia ensures that the effect can be
smoothed out to equate to that of a smaller constant (averaged)
current. A gate pulse is applied by a timing circuit at the instant just
before the start of a +ve half-cycle of the main circuit voltage and as
the latter rises from zero, load current rises in a sinusoidal manner
and falls similarly. This occurs for each conducting half-cycle and
radio interference will be minimised. The number of conduction cycles
can be varied by the duration of pulsing the gate but the heating at
the gate electrode must be taken into account by the circuit designer.
Since the gate supplies current during the pulsing period, this source
of added temperature rise can be reduced using a H.F. supply for the
trigger circuit.
▲ Figure 12.25

Practice Examples
12.1 A transistor connected in a common-emitter circuit shows
changes in emitter and collector currents of 1.0 and 0.98 mA,
respectively. What mA change in base current produces these
changes (2 decimal places), and what is the current gain of the
transistor (2 significant figures)?
12.2 In a certain transistor, a change in emitter current of 1 mA
produced a change in base current of 0.1 mA. Calculate the
common-emitter and common-base short-circuit current gains (both
1 decimal place).
12.3 A certain transistor has a common-emitter short-circuit current
gain α' or β = 50 or β = 50. Calculate the common-base short-
circuit current gain (2 decimal places).
12.4 For a common-emitter transistor, the transfer characteristic is
given by the values:

Find the current gain (2 significant figures).

12.5 From the output characteristic shown in figure 12.16, deduce the
transfer characteristic, and hence find the current gain for the
transistor when connected in the common or grounded-emitter
mode (1 decimal place).
12.6 The data given in the table refers to a P-N-P transistor in the
common-base configuration. Draw the collector-current/collector-
voltage characteristic for the various values of emitter current and
calculate the resistance of the transistor in kΩ (3 significant
figures).

12.7 From the data given for example 12.6, plot the collector
current/emitter-current or transfer characteristic for Vc = –30 V and
hence calculate the current gain α (2 decimal places). From this
value deduce the current gain (β) for the common-emitter mode (2
significant figures).
12.8 The data given in the table refers to a P-N-P transistor in the
common-emitter configuration.
 Plot the collector current/collector voltage characteristic for base
currents of –20, –40, –60 and –80 μA and using these determine
(a) the output resistance of the transistor for the Ib = –60 μA
condition, in kΩ (1 significant figure) and (b) the current gain when
the collector voltage is –6 V (2 significant figures).
12.9 From figure 12.26, calculate the value of the bias resistor to give
a standing base current of 40 μA in kΩ (3 significant figures). The
supply voltage is 9 V and for the transistor VBE = –0.2 V and VCE =
–5 V.

▲ Figure 12.26

12.10 Figure 12.27 is given for a typical common-emitter amplifier. If

the current through the emitter resistor is 0.5 mA, determine the
battery voltage (1 decimal place). Assume a base-emitter voltage
drop of 0.1 V.
▲ Figure 12.27
 We have always been taught that navigation is the result of
civilization, but modern archeology has demonstrated very
clearly that this is not so.
Thor Heyerdahl

Previous chapters have looked at both the theory and application of

A.C. and D.C. machines and transformers, before introducing solid-
state semiconductor devices. In these last two chapters we will
introduce recent developments in electronic aids for navigation and
modern display devices which present relevant navigational
awareness information to the maritime user, concluding this present
volume of Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers.

Probably the most important non-human sensor to date for Officers

on civilian and naval vessels is the use of modern radar systems,
discussed in a little detail in Volume 14 Stealth Warship Technology
in the chapter titled ‘Radar’. Prior to the introduction of electronic and
inertial navigation, navigation was a hazardous affair relying upon a
combination of piloting, dead reckoning, experience and celestial
navigation to cross the unknown oceans of the world. Radar gave a
sudden step change in capabilities, but pulse delay range radar
shows only a contact without providing a target image, unlike thermal
imagers and Near Infra Red (NIR) Image Intensifier ‘night vision’
devices. Laser Ranging systems, using the same operational
principle as radar ranging, now routinely maintain safe distances
during Replenishment at Sea (RAS) and both basic theory of laser
operation and ship deployment of such a RAS system will be
discussed.

We will briefly examine the history of radar and marine radar

applications before discussing the Automatic Radar Plotting Aid
(ARPA) which allied with the use of Electronic Chart Display and
Information Systems (ECDIS) in the civil domain offer a
sophisticated layered approach to charting, mirrored by the use of
War-fighting ECDIS (WECDIS) in the military sector to provide
further war-fighting layers in such a database approach.

Further vessel positional information is provided by use of now

common place Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and Automatic
Identification of Ships (AIS), as well as Emergency Personal
Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB). Radio navigation related aids
arising from the creation of wide area interference patterns, based
on the use of multiple transmitter systems such as DECCA, OMEGA
and LORAN-C, will be introduced, but electronic navigation aids are
more fully discussed in Volume 15, Electronics, Navigational Aids
and Radio Theory for Electrotechnology Officers.

Several generations of display devices now exist side by side from

the bulky older Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to the modern Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD), as well as Plasma, Organic Light Emitting
Diode (OLED) displays, as well as Electroluminescent and
holographic displays which are still some way off from shipborne
deployment but offer exciting possibilities for future for marine
navigation applications and will be discussed in our final chapter.
 Radar
Radar, the first sensor mentioned, was secretly developed by several
nations as a matter of urgency both immediately before and during
World War II. The term RADAR was first coined in 1940 by the U.S.
Navy as an acronym for ‘RAdio Detection And Ranging’ being
synonymous with the British system developed at the same time
termed ‘Radio Aid for Direction finding And Ranging’. There are
many varied modern uses of radar, including commercial marine and
naval radars to locate other ships, hazards and landmarks, ocean
surveillance systems, Air Traffic Control (ATC), as well as space and
land-based systems and even ground-penetrating radar.

Maritime development of radar arose from the work of a German

inventor Christian Hülsmeyer who was the first scientist to use radio
waves to detect distant metallic maritime objects. In 1904 he
demonstrated the ability to detect a ship in dense fog, and patented
this device although he was unable to provide valuable ranging
information. A little later in 1922 Hoyt Taylor and Leo Young,
researchers for the U.S. Navy, with a transmitter and a receiver on
opposite sides of the Potomac River discovered that a ship passing
through the beam caused the received signal to fade in and out as
the ship interrupted the direct path between transmitter and receiver.
Taylor suggested that this could be used to detect ships in low
visibility, but the Navy was slow to take this work forward.
Nonetheless, prior to World War II, researchers notably in the United
States, Nazi Germany, the United Kingdom, Japan, Holland and the
Soviet Union developed several technologies that led to the
inception of radar. In 1934, following systematic studies on the
microwave generating magnetron, the research branch of the
Compagnie Generale de Telegraphie Sans Fil (CSF) headed by
Maurice Ponte developed an obstacle locating radio apparatus, part
of which was installed on the Normandie liner in 1935 with the first
radar pulsed system demonstrated in December 1934 by American
Robert Page working at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.
In the 1930s with the rearmament of Nazi Germany and the
significant expansion of the German Luftwaffe the British
government became alarmed at these developments and recognised
the urgent requirement for an effective aircraft warning system to be
developed quickly and deployed in the imminent likelihood of war in
Europe. Driven by fears of such a German Luftwaffe attack on
mainland Britain Robert Watson-Watt was approached in January
1935 as to whether radio might be used to detect aircraft
approaching the shores of England. He wrote a memorandum to the
Air Defence Subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial Defence to
promote developments of radio Direction Finding (DF). From this a
concentrated radar development programme began with the first
prototype radio DF station (latterly called the Chain Home Command
system) built at Bawdsey Manor near Felixstowe, Suffolk, under the
control of the Air Ministry in 1937 for the Royal Air Force (RAF)
operating at a relatively low frequency of 22 MHz. His team’s work
resulted in the design and installation of the aircraft detection and
tracking Chain Home Command System along the entire South and
East coasts of England just in time for the outbreak of World War II in
1939. The system provided vital advanced information that helped
the RAF win the Battle of Britain. Under good atmospheric conditions
it could detect propeller-driven aircraft as far away as 150 km at
3000 m elevation providing sufficient time for successful interception.

Marine radar applications

The information provided by radar includes both range and bearing,

providing precise location information for any object along the sea
surface, but insufficient for an aircraft or missile at an unknown
elevation, thus the requirement for some sort of height finding
device. Although the first use of radar was intentionally for military
purposes – to locate air, ground and sea targets, through technology
transfer – it has now migrated into similar civilian applications for
ship and aircraft movements.
Ship radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships
to prevent collision with other ships, to navigate safely and to fix their
position at sea when within range of shore or other fixed references
such as light houses and islands. In port or harbour, vessel traffic
service radar systems monitor and regulate ship movements in busy
sea lanes.

In essence a radar system has a transmitter that emits a focused

beam of radio waves in a specific direction. When these come into
contact with an object some of the waves may be reflected or
scattered in different directions. Radar signals are reflected very well
by materials of high electrical conductivity, such as metals, seawater
and wet land. It is the radar signals that reflect back towards a
transmitter that most radar use. In addition if an object or ‘target’
moves either towards or away from the radar transmitter there will be
a small change in the returned radio wave frequency, caused by the
Doppler Effect which can help discriminate against unwanted
background returns.

Radar receivers are usually but not always located in the same place
as the transmitter and are termed monostotic radar. Radar with a
separately located receiver are known as bistatic radars, and where
multiple receivers are used the term multistatic radar is used. For the
case of marine radar we will only discuss monostatic radar and so
bistatic and multistatic systems will not be discussed further. The
reflected radar signal detected by even a relatively large ship’s
search radar is usually very weak, but can be amplified significantly
using sophisticated electronic amplifiers and digital signal processing
methods and with modern display systems now provide a
surprisingly high degree of accuracy. However, it must be pointed out
that there are many things which do not show up on radar displays
and the information provided by the radar on its own provides at best
an incomplete tactical picture and situational awareness of the
navigational and possible war-fighting scene.

Radar is without doubt regarded as an essential component for

safety at sea both near and far from shore. A ship’s officer needs to
be able to manoeuvre his ship within feet in the worst of conditions
and to navigate ‘blind’. One student I taught returning to Brunei,
during periods of the worst forest fires in that region, spent the best
part of a month navigating blind using instrumentation and without
visible contact. In commercial ships radar is fully integrated into a
suite of marine instruments including chart plotting aids, sonar, two-
way VHF radio (and other bands) and emergency locators such as
EPIRB. Use of radar is an essential aid to avoiding collision and is
used to get the most accurate information of ship movements and to
assess the risk of collision in terms of bearing, distance, Closest
Point of Approach (CPA) and to display other ships in its vicinity.
Marine radar systems provide useful and highly accurate radar
navigation information for navigation officer on-board ships, and ship
position can be fixed by the bearing and distance information of land
targets on the radar screen. Shipborne radar will typically have
performance adjustment controls for brightness and contrast, gain,
swept gain, methods to reduce sea and rain clutter, minimise
interference and noise reduction. Common controls consist of range
scales, bearing and distance cursors, and range markers. As radar
relies on its own transmissions it is available 24/7 and in almost
every weather condition. However, radar use from a military
perspective is very much a double-edged sword, as radar operation
can reveal its presence to another vessel in a conflict.

Radio and the visible part of the spectrum provide two ‘windows’ of
good atmospheric transmission where the weak absorption of radio
waves by the atmosphere enables radar to detect targets at
relatively long ranges, ranges at which other electromagnetic
wavelengths, such as visible light and NIR, are much too strongly
attenuated. Weather phenomena such as fog, clouds, rain, snow,
sleet and volcanic ash that block visible light are often transparent to
radio waves. From an aircraft perspective volcanic ash is a deadly
hazard as it does not show up well at usual radar frequencies.
Certain radio frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water
vapour, rain drops or atmospheric gases such as oxygen are
generally avoided when designing radars, except when their
detection is intended, i.e. for weather radar.
Radar waves scatter in many different ways depending on the
relationship between the size of the radio wave and a target’s size
and shape. If the wavelength is much smaller than the target’s size,
waves will reflect in a similar way to light reflected from a mirror. If
however the wavelength is much bigger than the target size it may
not be visible at all due to poor reflection. Low-frequency radar also
depends strongly on resonances for detection, and cannot provide
direct target identification.

Short-wave radio waves reflect from corners in a way similar to

optical reflection from smooth glass, so most reflective targets for
short wavelengths have 90° angles between the reflective surfaces.
A corner reflector consisting of 2 or 3 flat surface meeting as within a
box has a structure which reflects waves directly back to the source
over a broad angle range. They are commonly used as radar
reflectors to make otherwise difficult to detect vessels, easier to
‘see’. Consequently corner reflectors on boats make them more
detectable to avoid collisions or helping during search and rescue.
For military reasons, platforms intending to avoid detection are
designed to remove such surfaces and edges in anticipated threat
directions, leading to the unusual shapes of modern stealth ships
and aircraft and use of sophisticated metamaterials. These
precautions do not completely eliminate reflection because of
diffraction, especially at the longer wavelengths. Half wavelength
long wires or strips of conducting material, such as chaff, are very
reflective but do not direct the scattered energy just back to the
source. The extent to which an object reflects or scatters radio
waves is called its Radar Cross Section (RCS), a measure of the
detected signal compared with a reference target.

The basic principle of radar, or more strictly echo location, is quite

simple. Visible light, with which we are all familiar, is simply part of a
wider family of waves which form the electromagnetic spectrum
covering waves such as X-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation
which all have more energy than visible light, and also waves of
longer wavelength such as Infra Red (I.R.) heat, radar and Very Low
Frequency (VLF) waves used to communicate with submerged
submarines with energies less than visible light.

If these radar frequency electromagnetic waves are sent out as short

duration directional pulses from a ship’s navigation radar they may
strike an object with a flat surface, so that some of the wave energy
transmitted by the radar is reflected back to the radar receiver (figure
13.1).

▲ Figure 13.1

If the elapsed time t from transmission of the short radar pulse to the
time the echo is received is measured electronically knowledge of
the wave speed allows the contact range to be calculated accurately.
Since electromagnetic waves travel close to the speed of light in
vacuum, and only a little less in our planet’s thin atmosphere, with a
value of c = 3 × 108 ms–1, the distance they travel may be given as
follows: distance = ct. Hence contact range R, which is half the total
distance, is given by: R = ct/2. If the elapsed recorded time from
pulse transmission to reception is 1 ms the radar range from the
transmitted to the reflecting target will be given by: R = 3 × 108 × 1 ×
10–6 / 2 = m.

This relationship is used in pulse radars to measure contact range,

and the method is commonly referred to as ‘pulse delay ranging’.
Other important radar parameters include the transmitted radar
frequency f, the Pulse Repetition Frequency or PRF (the number of
pulses transmitted per second), the pulse duration τ and the
Antenna Rotation Rate (ARR) measured in Revolutions Per Minute.
 Maximum Detection Range (MDR) and Radar
Cross Section (RCS)

An individual search radar’s Maximum Detection Range (MDR)

depends on several factors such as transmitted power, a ship’s
reflecting properties, the antenna or aerial size and the receiver’s
sensitivity. The shipborne MDR is given by simplifying the standard
radar range equation, to provide the maximum range a radar will
detect a chosen ship (or target) of a given size.

Here P is the average transmitted power, G the antenna gain, i.e. the
ship’s RCS (a measure of the contact size seen by the radar beam),
tot is the time the radar contact is illuminated by the rotating radar
beam, Aeff is the effective size of the receive antenna and Smin is the
minimum signal energy required for detection by the receiver.
Changes to any of these parameters will alter the MDR. Generally
wave loss increases with increasing frequency and so the MDR falls.
Clearly a ship’s search radar has control of all but the elusive RCS of
the vessels around it and the environmental conditions.

Not all ship platforms, from a navigation or search radar perspective,

may have good radar reflecting surfaces. This may arise due to the
materials from which a ship is made, e.g. Glass Reinforced Plastic
(GRP) is a weak radar reflector compared with metal, and the ship
surfaces may be inclined at an angle to the vertical so much of the
reflected radar energy is deflected away from the search or
navigation radar system and therefore undetected. However, as
mentioned earlier, ship geometry can be put to advantage in the form
of corner reflectors, dihedral and trihedral surfaces (where 2 or 3
surfaces respectively meet together at 90°) to generate significant
radar returns, which are used to great effect to enhance radar
returns and thus the detectability of commercial vessels, passenger
ferries and privately owned yachts, enhancing their visibility in busy
shipping lanes.

▲ Figure 13.2 Radar block diagram

A monostatic pulsed radar system (figure 13.2) will include the

following components:

An Oscillator which creates a continuous lower power

electromagnetic wave. The frequency of the output low-amplitude
signal is designed to work about a certain frequency, but may vary
within certain limits.
A Modulator which converts a single continuous wave of energy into
a series of regularly spaced, identical pulses of fixed duration. It is
basically controlled by discharge of a bank of capacitors.
A Power amplifier which boosts the modulator output signal power to
increase radar range.
A Duplexer which allows the same antenna to both transmit and
receive detected signals, in turn. This unit separates the sensitive
receiver system from the high-power transmitter as it would be
damaged if exposed to the high power of the outgoing pulses.
A Receiver when reflected target echoes are detected by the
antenna they are very weak. Before signals can be analysed, they
must be amplified before signal processing.

TRANSMITTED POWER. This is usually measured in the range of

10–100 kW, and is the power transmitted from the radar antenna.
Long-range search radars may have a transmitted power in the
region of a MW. Compare this with a microwave oven rated perhaps
at only 800 W. Marine radar designers and operators usually want to
know the average power produced by the radar over a period of time
and this is directly affected by 3 factors: peak power Pp, pulse
duration τ and PRF, as Pav = pp × τ × PRF.

PEAK POWER. For radar peak power is the maximum pulse power,
but the average power is much lower as the radar power is zero
during the receive period (which should be much greater than the
time the radar transmits). Increasing peak power increases average
power up to practical limits where a radar may overheat or sparking
could occur.

Secondly, increasing the time each pulse transmits increases the

radar’s average power, however this means the radar listens for less
time. Finally increasing the rate the radar transmitter can send out
pulses, as the PRF can vary from a few hundred to over ten
thousand pulses per second for certain maritime military radar.
Increasing the PRF also increases the radar’s average power but
also decreases the time a radar listens as well, introducing earlier
radar resetting pulses.

Antennas

Small radar antennas are especially vulnerable to wind and

precipitation. As well as physical damage, precipitation causes
changes to an antenna’s electrical properties so to protect high-
frequency antennas, they are often enclosed in radomes made of
GRP designed for strength and transparent at the transmission
frequencies. The size and shape of a radar antenna is important,
and their size is determined by the wavelengths used. The larger the
wavelength the larger an antenna should be. However, the size that
can be used may be limited by factors such as the space available.
The simplest radar antenna is a dish reflector (as in figure 13.2)
which acts as a focusing mirror for radiation and is similar to a
torch’s focusing reflector and is usually of parabolic shape.
Marine radar also has the ability to distinguish 2 or more targets
along the same bearing direction. Signal pulses occupy a certain
length of space in proportion of the speed it travels at and the
amount of time the pulse is transmitted. As radar pulses travel at the
speed of light, even a pulse duration of a few microseconds will have
a pulse of considerable length. Thus if 2 contacts lie on the same
bearing close to each other it is possible for the return signals from
the targets to overlap and the radar incorrectly detects only a single
contact (figure 13.3).

▲ Figure 13.3 Radar resolution and multiple target discrimination

The formula Range Resolution = ct/2 is extremely helpful here. If

vessels are separated by more than the range resolution the vessels
will be resolved or discriminated separately, but if vessels are less
than this distance apart they will not. It also means the shorter the
pulse duration, the better the range resolution of the radar system.

A similar problem exists in angular resolution, the ability to

distinguish 2 contacts close together at the same range, separated
by a small difference in their bearing from the radar. This is critical to
correctly deter the number of contacts such as concentrations of
fishing vessels. Radar can only separately resolve 2 contacts
provided the vessels’ angular separation is more than the radar
beamwidth. However, once a conventional radar is designed and
installed there is little flexibility to alter the size of the beam unlike the
case of range resolution just discussed. The formula for radar
beamwidth is useful to consider here. Beamwidth where λ is

the wavelength, and D is the aperture size of the transmitting

antenna, e.g. if the wavelength is 1 m and the aperture size is 5 m
the Beamwidth degrees will be .
 Signal Processing
When an echo signal is received it is often ‘mixed up’ with signals
from other radars, background noise and clutter. A signal processor
needs to filter and clean up the incoming signal converting them into
a suitable display format.

Clutter

Radar returns are produced from nearly all types of surfaces when
illuminated by radar. Therefore in competition with the ship’s radar
returns there are many sources of unwanted echoes from our radar
transmissions. Clutter may include sea returns, returns from cliffs
and weather itself. The definition of clutter depends on the radar
function, e.g. weather is not clutter in a weather detecting radar. The
two main types of clutter observed on a Plan Position Indicator (PPI)
display are Surface Clutter and Volume Clutter.

Surface clutter is composed of sea returns associated with the

movement of waves. As wind speed and sea state increases, so
does the amount of sea clutter which may be appreciable from close
range. Short-range sea clutter can be a major problem at short range
on a radar display but may be eliminated by correct use of Swept
Gain or Sensitivity Time Control (STC) which reduces the radar
amplifier’s sensitivity at close range.

Volume clutter covers all types of precipitation and typical volume

clutter depends on the wave frequency, droplet diameter and
precipitation rate. Rain gives larger echoes than snow or hail.
Volume clutter requires use of a Differentiator circuit, which looks at
the Fast Time Constant (FTC) response at the leading edge of a rain
storm and is often referred to simply as ‘Anti Rain’.
 Noise

Noise is a random source of energy which can either be man-made

or of natural origins. Noise is most apparent in regions with low
signal levels, such as the weak received echo-signal in a radar
receiver. Noise is characterised by its statistical properties and if it
contains frequencies of equal amplitudes it is often referred to as
white noise. Noise occurs in almost all electronic devices and results
from a variety of effects. Man-made noise sources include other
radar and communications systems, and electronic circuits. Natural
occurring noise sources include thunder storms and solar events.
The effects of noise can be mitigated by the comparison of several
consecutive pulses which may have been reflected from the same
marine platform, and uses important relationships in not only
frequency and amplitude but phase as well.

Environmental effects

The condition of the atmosphere in terms of pressure, density,

humidity, particulates, etc. has a significant bearing on the
transmission of radar signals. Although there is extensive use of
conventional rotating swept radar systems modern electronically
scanned array radars are now becoming more widespread. In this
case a radar beam is steered electronically and is produced from a
2D array of emitters. In some cases, power is supplied to the
masthead through waveguide trunking up the mast itself (a passive
array) or from active microwave emitters mounted on the masthead
itself (an active array). These radar will not be discussed further
here.

Lasers
 Lasers for marine applications

The laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical

amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic
radiation. The term laser comes from the acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER). Modern
lasers can operate right across the electromagnetic spectrum and
have extremely good spatial coherence in that the output being a
diffraction limited narrow beam can be focused into a very tiny spot,
achieving a high irradiance and can also achieve high power levels
even at considerable range.

A laser typically consists of a gain medium, a mechanism to supply

energy to it and something to provide optical feedback. The gain
medium is a material with properties that allow it to amplify light by
stimulated emission. Light of a specific wavelength that passes
through the gain medium is amplified. For the gain medium to
amplify light, it must be supplied with energy, through the process of
pumping. Energy is typically supplied as an electrical current, or as
light at a different wavelength. Pump light may be provided by a flash
lamp or another laser.

The most common type of lasers uses feedback from an optical

cavity with a pair of mirrors at each end of the gain medium.
Electromagnetic radiation bounces back and forth between the
mirrors, passing through the gain medium and is amplified on each
transit. Typically one of the two mirrors, the output mirror is partially
transparent so some of the light escapes through this mirror.

Stimulated emission

Quantum mechanical effects cause individual electrons to take on

discrete positions in orbits so that electrons are found in specific
energy levels of an atom, two of which are shown in figure 13.4.
▲ Figure 13.4 Laser stimulated emission

When an electron absorbs energy from a light photon it receives that

incident quantum of energy. Transitions are only permitted between
discrete energy levels such as the two shown in figure 13.4. When
an electron is excited from a lower to a higher energy level it will stay
there for a short interval of time. An excited state may decay to a
lower energy state which is unoccupied, after a particular time
constant or relaxation time characterising that transition. When such
an electron decays without external influence to emit a photon it is
called spontaneous emission. The phase associated with the emitted
photon is random. A material with many atoms in such an excited
state may result in radiation which is spectrally limited, centred about
one specific wavelength, but individual photons have no common
phase relationship and move in random directions. However, an
external electromagnetic field at a frequency associated with a
transition can affect the atom’s quantum mechanical state. As the
electron in the atom makes a transition between 2 states it enters a
transition state which has a dipole field, and which oscillates at a
characteristic frequency so the probability of the atom entering the
transition state increases. The rate of transition between the 2
stationary states is enhanced above that due to spontaneous
emission. A transition from the higher to a lower energy state will
now produce an added photon of the same frequency and phase
through the process of stimulated emission.

Laser safety
Laser products are usually labelled with a safety class number which
identifies how dangerous a laser is.

Class 1 is inherently safe, usually because the light is contained in

an enclosure, e.g. in CD players or those used in supermarkets.
Class 2 is safe during normal use, as the human eye blink reflex will
prevent damage.
Class 3A involves a small risk of eye damage within the time of the
blink reflex. Staring into such a beam for several seconds is quite
likely to damage the retina.
Class 3B can cause immediate eye damage on exposure.
Class 4 lasers are the most dangerous, as they can burn skin, and in
some cases even indirectly scattered light has been known to
cause eye and/or skin damage.

Laser range finding and maintaining ships’

proximity in RAS

A laser range finder is a device which uses a laser beam to

determine the distance to an object in the same way as a microwave
radar system does for navigation or search radars. At optical
frequencies the wavelength is very short and so very precise
distance measurements can be made. Some systems with very short
and well-shaped laser pulses can range an object to just a few
millimetres. Range finders provide an exact distance which is ideal
for military and civilian engineering applications. Laser Range finders
are generally considered to be eye safe, meeting the Class 1 safety
requirements. Several laser systems can maintain an exact distance
between vessels necessary for RAS operations. One such system,
Laser Atlanta SPROX (Ship PROXimity) @TM, is a recognised ‘laser
distance measuring kit’ ensuring ships’ crews maintain a safe
distance during underway replenishment and RAS, and is approved
by the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations and by NATO for its accuracy
and ease of use. The SPROX system measures and clearly displays
ship distances in a fraction of a second with great accuracy on an
easy-to-read waterproof ElectroMagnetic Interference (EMI)-
protected LED display. An integrated Central Processor Unit (CPU)
automatically analyses and stores recorded readings. The portable
equipment easily withstands rugged outdoor use and lowers the risk
of dangerous manoeuvres while at sea, ideal for sea operations in all
weather conditions, and can measure ranges of up to 5000 m to an
accuracy of ± 0.5 m.

Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA)

Next in our discussion is the Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA).

Radar with ARPA fitted can create tracks using radar contacts. The
system can calculate tracked objects’ courses, speeds and Closest
Points of Approach (CPA), thereby establishing if a danger of
collision with another ship or landmass exists. ARPA development
began following the sinking of the Italian liner SS Andrea Doria which
collided in dense fog off the East coast of the United States. The first
commercially available ARPA was installed on the cargo liner MV
Taimyr in 1969 manufactured by Norcontrol, now a part of the naval
manufacturer Kongsberg Maritime. ARPA-enabled radars are now
available for most small yachts as well. The International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) sets certain standards concerning the
International Convention for the Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS)
requirements regarding the carrying of suitable automated radar
plotting aids. The primary function of ARPA is to improve the
standard of collision avoidance at sea, to reduce the workload of
observers by enabling them to automatically obtain information so
they can perform as well with multiple targets as they can by
manually plotting a single target.

A typical ARPA creates a presentation of the current situations and

uses computer technology to predict future situations. ARPA
assesses the risk of collision, and enables operators to see
proposed movements of their own ship. ARPA generally provides the
following characteristics: true or relative motion radar presentation,
automatic target acquisition with manual acquisition, digital read-out
of acquired targets to provide course, speed, range bearing and
CPA, the ability to display collision assessment information directly
on to the Radar’s Plan Position Indication (PPI) display, the ability to
perform trial manoeuvres including course, speed and combined
course speed changes and automatic stabilisation for navigation
purposes.

ARPA processes radar information more rapidly than conventional

radar but are still subject to the same limitations. ARPA data are only
as accurate as the data that come from its data inputs. It should be
noted that similar electronic tools exist for Air Traffic Control in
aviation as well.

Electronic Chart Displays

Electronic Chart Display and Information

System (ECDIS)

Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS) are

computer-based navigation information systems that comply with
IMO regulations which can be used authoritatively as an
authenticated alternative to paper nautical charts and are now
quickly becoming established as the tool of preference. An ECDIS
system displays the information from Electronic Navigational Charts
(ENC) or Digital Nautical Charts (DNC) and integrates position
information of real vessels from position, heading and speed through
water reference systems and other navigational sensors such as
AIS. ECDIS provides continuous position and navigational safety
information, and can provide audible and visual alarms when a
vessel is in proximity to dangerous navigational hazards. The two
commonest types of electronic chart data are ENC and raster charts.
ENC charts are vector charts that conform to the requirements for
ECDIS chart databases with standard content, structure and format,
and are issued for use with ECDIS on the authority of the
government-authorised hydrographic office, conforming to the
International Hydrographic Organisation’s (IHO) specifications.
ENCs contain all the chart information required for safe navigation
but may contain supplementary information in addition to that
contained on paper charts. Systems using ENC charts can be
programmed to give warning of impending danger in relation to the
vessel’s current position and future predicted movement.

Raster Navigational charts are raster charts that also conform to IHO
specifications and are produced by converting paper charts to digital
images by scanner. Images are similar to digital camera pictures
which may be ‘zoomed in’ for more detailed information as can ENC.

War-fighting ECDIS

WECDIS systems contain all the layers of information maintained

within an ECDIS system but provide additional layers of information
for naval War-fighting ECDIS (WECDIS) which add to civilian-based
information layers. This subject will not be discussed any further
here.

Radio Navigation Aids

Interference-based navigation-related sensors

Navigation is the process of planning and controlling vessel

movements from one location to another. All navigational techniques
involve locating a navigator’s position compared to known locations,
and several important navigation-related sensors help navigators
achieve this. Radar navigation uses radar to determine distance from
or bearing of objects whose position is known, and is primarily used
within radar range of land. Radio navigation on the other hand uses
radio waves to determine position by either radio DF systems or
hyperbolic systems, such as LORAN-C, and may be used out of
sight of land. LORAN-C is similar in principle to Omega, and Decca
which was discontinued due to the advent of Global Positioning
Systems (GPS). Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellite
systems such as GPS to determine position and is used worldwide. I
will focus briefly on the use of LORAN-C as it arises from
combinations of 2 source interference. Such systems unlike active
radar and laser-based sensors operate in the mode of passive radio
navigation. Vessels need not emit any signals to obtain positional
information.

LORAN-C
LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation) is a terrestrial navigation system
using Low-Frequency (LF) radio transmitters. Before satellite-based
GPS systems, it was the primary location method used in marine
applications. The United States, Canada and Japan still uses
LORAN. Russia uses a similar system called CHAYKA. The current
version, LORAN-C, is an ocean navigation aid, requiring a special
receiver. A Master transmitter and Slave transmitter emit pulses at
the same frequency, and is an example of 2 source interference.
▲ Figure 13.5 Two source interference

Measuring the difference between the arrival times of the two pulses
determines on which hyperbolic Line of Crossed LOPs from the 2
master-slave pairs, and provides the observer at point P with a
hyperbolic fix (figure 13.5). The LOP is the locus of all points in
space where the observed time differences between arrival of
signals from the 2 paired stations are constant, forming a hyperbola.
LORAN-C is thus described as a hyperbolic radio navigation system.
A LORAN-C chain consists of a Master transmitter with 2, 3 or 4
Slaves designated W, X, Y and Z. LF transmitters operate at 100
kHz and emit groups of typically microsecond duration pulses at a
specified interval, the Group Repetition Interval (GRI), unique to
each chain and selected to avoid interference with other chains.
Slave station transmission is delayed with respect to the Master, the
secondary coding delay, ensuring pulse groups are always received
in sequence (M, W, X, Y, Z). The master transmits 9 pulses while
slaves transmit 8, with the master’s 9th pulse used for identification.
LORAN was an American development of the British GEE radio
navigation system, used in World War II, with a range of about 400
miles. In LORAN, one station is kept constant in each application,
the Master, paired separately with 2 other Slave stations. Given 2
secondary stations, the Time Difference (TD) between the Master
and first secondary identifies one curve, and the TD between the
Master and second secondary identifies another curve. The
intersection of lines determines a geographic point in relation to the
position of the 3 stations. These curves are referred to as Time
Delay or TD lines. Essentially we measure the distance we have
travelled by counting the number of constructive to destructive half
wavelengths moved. Modern LORAN receivers display Latitude and
Longitude instead of signal TDs, with high accuracy.

Limitations of LORAN

LORAN suffers from the effects of weather and also from ionospheric
effects near sunset and sunrise. The most accurate signal is the
Ground wave that follows earth’s surface along a water path (best
surface conductivity). At night indirect Skywaves, taking paths
refracted back to the earth’s surface by the ionosphere, are a
problem as multiple signals arrive from different paths. The
ionosphere’s response to sunset and sunrise accounts for significant
disturbances and errors during these periods. Magnetic storms can
also seriously effects LORAN-C performance (in the range 90 to 100
kHz), as it is an RF-based system. Due to such interference, the very
phenomenon LORAN is based upon, and further propagation loss
suffered by LF signals from land features and man-made structures,
LORAN signal accuracy degrades significantly in land.

With the growth in GPS-based systems it is possible LORAN will

also be replaced as was Omega, although LORAN uses a strong
signal which is difficult to jam, and also acts as a complementary
independent system of electronic navigation in the unwanted advent
of satellite system failure. Omega was itself the first global radio
navigation system for aircraft. It enabled aircraft and ships to
determine their position by receiving VLF radio signals in the range
10 to 14 kHz, and was transmitted by a small network of fixed
terrestrial radio beacons until it was shut down in 1997.

Global Positioning Systems

These are satellite-based systems designed to accurately plot the
user’s location anywhere on or above the world’s surface any time of
day or night and in all weather conditions.

These systems all work by using accurate timed radio signals using
a standard based on the Caesium atomic clock, to pinpoint their
range from a number of satellites at known orbital positions. Using
various satellite ranges, projected geometric spheres can be
intersected to determine a user’s position, in a similar manner to
radar Direction Finding.

To be able to measure the time taken for the signal to reach us, the
satellite and the receiver codes must first be synchronised. Each
satellite transmits a unique digital code, which is synchronised with
the code on the GPS receiver. The code contains information about
the position of the satellite and the time the code was transmitted
(figure 13.6).

▲ Figure 13.6 Synchronisation of satellite and ground receiver codes

It is then possible to work out when the signal left the satellite, as the
same code is used by the receiver and the satellite. It is then
necessary to look at the incoming code from the satellite and see
how long ago the receiver generated the same code, and then to
work out the exact time the coded signal left the satellite.

The signal from one satellite determines the receiver to be

somewhere on a sphere, a set radius from the satellite. A second
subsequent measurement narrows the receiver’s position to be
narrowed down to the intersection of 2 spheres. A third
measurement narrows this down further to just 2 points in space
(figure 13.7). In practice 3 measurements are usually enough to
determine a position accurately, if the receiver height is known. Of
the 2 possible solutions from the software algorithm one can usually
discard one point because it will usually be a ridiculous answer,
either very far out in space or moving at exceptionally high speed.
For an accurate position the receiver clock should be synchronised
with the various satellites’ clocks, which requires a fourth satellite to
be detected. With an inaccurate receiver clock, the fourth
measurement will not intersect with the other 3 previously found. So
the receiver works out a single clock correction factor that it
subtracts from its timing measurement to make all the signals
intersect at a single given point.

▲ Figure 13.7 Finding surface position with GPS

The U.S. GPS NAVSTAR project was the first developed in 1973 to
overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems. GPS
consists of 3 major segments: a space segment, a control segment
and a user segment (figure 13.8). GPS users are only really
concerned with the visual representation of the latter component,
and of course, its accuracy.
▲ Figure 13.8 Segments of the GPS system

The space segment is composed of the orbiting GPS satellite in 6

orbital planes with 4 satellites in each. The 6 orbital planes have
approximately 55° inclination (tilted relative to Earth’s equator) and
are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (the
angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbits’
intersection). Orbits are arranged so that at least 6 satellites are
always kept within line of sight from virtually anywhere on the earth’s
surface (figure 13.9). Currently there are about 30 satellites in the
U.S. Navstar GPS constellation orbiting at an altitude of about 20
200 km.
▲ Figure 13.9 GPS satellite constellation

Each satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message on the

L1 Coarse Acquisition (C/A) frequency and L2 Precise (P/Y)
frequency as well as further L3, L4 and L5 frequencies. All satellites
broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual
satellites to be distinguished from each other based on unique digital
encodings from each satellite that the receiver must be aware of.
Two distinct types of CDMA encodings are used: the C/A code which
is accessible by the general public, and a P(Y) code, which is
encrypted so only the U.S. military can access it. All satellites
broadcast at the same 2 frequencies L1 (1.57542 GHz) and L2
(1.2276 GHz). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum
technique where a low bit rate message data are encoded with a
high rate Pseudo Random Number (PRN) digital sequence that is
different for each satellite. The receiver must know the unique PRN
code for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The
C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 M code bits, or
chips, per second, while the P(Y) code, for U.S. military users,
transmits at 10.23 M chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated
by both the C/A and P(Y) codes, while the L2 carrier is only
modulated by the P(Y) code. The P(Y) code can be encrypted as a
so-called P(Y) code that is only available to military equipment with a
proper authorised decryption key which prevents unauthorised users
accessing the accurate positional information. Both the C/A and P(Y)
codes impart the precise time of day to the user, although relativistic
corrections are needed due to orbital eccentricity (2% eccentricity
gives rise to an 8.6 ns delay).

NAVSTAR

The first operational GPS was the U.S. Navigation Satellite Timing
and Ranging GP system or NAVSTAR GPS. The NAVSTAR GPS is
currently managed by the U.S. Department of Defence (DoD) who
launched the first generation of test satellites (Block I) in 1978. The
first operational satellites (Block II and Block IIA) were launched from
1989 onwards and now the next generation of satellites (Block IIR) is
being launched.

GLONASS

The second of the world-wide GPS systems is the Russian Ex-Soviet

Global Navigation Satellite System or GLONASS. It is operated by
the Russian Federation Government and it uses many of the same
principles as its U.S. counterpart. The first satellites were launched
by the Soviet Union in 1982 and the system became fully operational
in 1991. The system was completed in 1995 but could not be
maintained by the Russian Federation and fell into a state of
disrepair for a period of time with only 8 satellites still operational in
2003. The Russian government has now fully restored the
GLONASS system to operational status which was also opened up
to civilian users in 2007, with further third-generation satellites to be
launched into the system over time.

GALILEO
The European Union (EU) GALILEO project was formed from the
need to have a separate system independent from the United States,
to allow the European Union to stand alone on its own if ever
needed. It also stemmed from the need for a more accurate
horizontal and vertical positioning for civilian engineering and
aviation requirements not readily available from the other existing
networks. The system will be interoperable with NAVSTAR GPS and
GLONASS, thereby increasing constellation visibility and positional
accuracy with the use of a greater number of satellites. GALILEO will
achieve better coverage at high latitudes (Northern Europe) and also
make up part of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety Service
(GMDSS) and exceptionally high accuracy is achieved using signals
from additional strategically located ground stations (differential
GPS). One company TOPCON now provides receivers which can
detect GPS NAVSTAR, GLONASS and GALILEO to provide
unprecedented accuracy from over 80 separate satellites.

The system was developed from 2001 to 2005 with the deployment
of the satellites due to take place from 2007 which was realised with
several satellite launches in 2013. The European Union and its
partners of the European Space Agency have signed agreements
with non-European countries, most notably China, although China
has its own plans to extend its own current Beidou capability (limited
to Asia and the West Pacific) to create COMPASS, the People’s
Republic of China Global System, planned to be operational by
2020. India intends its own regional navigational system, to be
operational starting from 2014 covering India and the Northern
Indian Ocean, the IRNSS system.

Satellite systems provide considerable position-fixing advantages:

continuous 24-hour coverage (day and night), worldwide coverage,
3D positioning, weather independence, a common reference system
(WGS84) and very fast data processing.

Global Maritime Distress Safety System

(GMDSS)
The GMDSS is a maritime communications system for all vessels. It
is used for emergencies and can be used for vessel to vessel, vessel
to shore and shore to vessel routine communications. Commercial
vessels over 300 gross tonnage and certain smaller vessels,
including some fishing boats, must use GMDSS equipment. Most of
shore yacht races now require yachts to be GMDSS enabled.
GMDSS is composed of several components: radio Digital Selective
Calling (DSC), Navtex for weather and navigation information,
Search And Rescue (SART) Transponders (Radar transponders)
and Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs). Even if
private leisure crafts do not have all 3 individual components VHF
DSC should be considered the very minimum requirement.

Equipment should comply with international specifications as in

Europe in accordance with European Union Radio and
Telecommunications terminal Equipment (R&TTE) directives. DSC
provides the ability to raise a Distress Alert sending out a boat’s
identity (MMSI), its position and the type of distress. The DSC alert
will be heard immediately by all DSC-equipped vessels and shore
stations within range, VHF provides typically 30 to 50 nm range. The
distress message will be repeated automatically after a set number
of minutes until acknowledged either by a Coastguard rescue
coordinator centre or ship within radio range, as well as safety
broadcasts, routine calls and group calls. All big ships and almost all
European Coastguards are fully equipped for DSC. GMDSS is a
world-wide system, which can be used anywhere. Being a digital
data exchange network it can also provide marine and port
communications, satellite and radio telephone services and a degree
of aerial photography and colour diagrams. GMDSS is a fully
automatic digital system and as such it can avoid potentially life-
threatening language problems that may otherwise arise!

Automatic Identification System (AIS)

The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an autonomous and

continuous broadcast system operating in the VHF maritime mobile
band. It exchanges information such as vessel identification,
position, course, speed, etc. and can also be applied to Aids to
Navigation. The International Convention for the Safety Of Life At
Sea (SOLAS), 1974, requires AIS to be fitted aboard all ships of 300
gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages,
cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on
international voyages and all passenger ships irrespective of size.
The requirement became effective for all ships on 31 December
2004, and it is estimated that over 76 193 ships now have AIS fitted
(October 2013). Regulations require that AIS shall provide
information including the ship’s identity, type, position, course,
speed, navigational status and other safety-related information
automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships
and aircraft. AIS needs to automatically receive such information
from similarly fitted ships, monitor and track ships and to exchange
data with shore-based facilities. AIS will display different classes of
vessels with different symbology, from passenger vessels to large
tankers. AIS data are available on the internet, e.g.
www.marinetraffic.com.

AIS transponders automatically broadcast information via VHF

transmitter. The information originates from the ship’s navigational
sensors, typically its Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
receiver and gyrocompass. Other information such as the vessel
name and VHF call sign are programmed when installing the
equipment and is also transmitted regularly. The signals are received
by AIS transponders fitted on other ships or land-based systems,
such as Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) systems. The received
information can be displayed on a screen or chart plotter, showing
the other vessels’ positions. There are 2 main classes of AIS unit
recognised by the IMO: Class A, mandated for use on SOLAS
vessels and Class B, a low-power lower cost derivative for leisure
and non-SOLAS markets.

AIS units can transmit and receive 26 different message types. Data
are sent every 2 to 10 seconds depending on the vessel’s size and
speed while underway, or every 3 minutes if the vessel is at anchor.
AIS will state the vessel’s Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI),
navigation status, rate of turn, speed over the ground, position,
course over ground, true heading and time stamp. Additional
information such as ship type, cargo, ship dimensions, draught and
destination ETA is broadcast less frequently on up to 6 minute
intervals.

AIS was developed in the 1990s as a high-volume, short-range

identification and tracking network, and at that time, it was not
anticipated that it would be detected from space. However, AIS
systems have now been demonstrated in space by various
companies and by the European Space Agency, e.g. in 2010 the
Norwegian AISSat 1 satellite demonstrated an AIS system with a
receiver made by Kongsberg Seatex. The big challenge for AIS
satellite operators is the ability to receive a large number of AIS
messages simultaneously from a satellite’s large reception footprint.
The addition of satellite-based Class A and B messages could
enable truly global AIS coverage, but are likely to augment the
existing terrestrial-based system.

MARITIME SECURITY. AIS enables authorities to identify specific

vessels and their activity within or near a nations’ Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ). When AIS data are fused with existing radar
systems, authorities can differentiate between differently classed
vessels more easily. AIS data can be automatically processed to
create normalised activity patterns for individual vessels which when
breached create an alert, thus highlighting potential threats for more
efficient use of security assessment. Real-time AIS position data are
freely available on the internet through variously privately operated
Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Satellite AIS, unlike
binoculars, do not need line of sight and clear visibility to operate
and so are not restricted by fog or where a land mass obstructs the
view.

Emergency Beacons
Distress radio beacons, also known variously as emergency
beacons, Personal Locator Beacons or PLBs, Emergency Locator
Transmitters (ELTs), or Emergency Position Indicating Radio
Beacons (EPIRBs), are tracking transmitters which can aid in the
detection and location of sinking vessels, aircraft and people in
distress. They are radio beacons that interface with worldwide
services of Cospas-Sarsat, the recognised international satellite
system for Search And Rescue (SAR). When manually activated, or
automatically activated upon immersion, such beacons send out a
distress signal. The distress signal is monitored worldwide and the
location of the distress is then detected by various non-geostationary
satellites, and then located by a combination of GPS and Doppler
triangulation.

The main purpose of a distress radio beacon is to help rescuers find

survivors within the so-called golden day (the first 24 hours following
a traumatic event) during which most survivors are usually saved.
Since the inception of Cospas-Sarsat in 1982, distress beacons have
helped rescue over 28 000 people in some 7000 distress situations.
In 2010 alone, the system helped rescue 2388 persons in 641
distress situations.

Most PLBs are brightly coloured and waterproof. PLBs vary in size
from cigarette-packet to paperback book size and weigh between 0.2
and 1 kg. EPIRBs and ELTs are generally larger, but will need to fit
into a cube of some 30 cm a side, weighing between 2 and 5 kg.
They can be purchased from marine suppliers, and hiking supply
stores. The units have a life of 10 years, and operate across the
range of –40 to 40°C, and will transmit for 24 to 48 hours.

How a typical beacon operates

All systems work something like this: a beacon is activated by a

sinking vessel, or manually by survivors. The beacon’s transmission
is picked up by one or more satellites. The satellite transmits the
beacon’s signal to its ground control station. The ground station
processes the signals and forwards the data, including the rough
location, to a national Coastguard authority, e.g. Falmouth U.K. The
national authority forwards the data to the appropriate rescuing
authority. The rescuing authority uses its own receiving equipment to
locate the beacon and makes the rescue or recovery. Once the
satellite data are in, it takes less than a minute to forward the data to
any signatory nation. There are several systems in use, with
beacons of varying expense, different types of satellites and varying
performance. Even the oldest systems provide an immense
improvement in safety, compared to not having a beacon at all.

Activation

There are 2 ways to activate a beacon: manually or automatically.

Automatic EPIRBs are water activated, while automatic ELTs are
impact activated. Some EPIRBs also deploy; this means that they
must physically leave their mounting bracket on the outside of the
vessel (usually by going into water). For a marine EPIRB to start
signal transmission it must come out of its bracket (or ‘deploy’). This
can happen either manually – where someone has to physically
remove it from its bracket, or automatically, where water pressure
causes a hydrostatic release unit to release the EPIRB from the
bracket. If it does not come out of the bracket it will not activate.
There is a magnet in the bracket which operates a reed safety switch
in the EPIRB, which prevents accidental activation in case the unit
gets wet from rain or shipped seas (which is quite likely in rough
weather). Once deployed, EPIRBs can be activated, depending on
the circumstances, manually (by flicking a switch) or automatically
(as water comes into contact with the unit’s ‘sea-switch’). Modern
EPIRBs provide both activation and deployment methods and are
labelled ‘Manual and Automatic Deployment and Activation.’

Hydrostatic Release Unit

A Hydrostatic Release Unit (HRU) is a pressure-activated
mechanism designed to automatically deploy when certain
conditions are met. In the marine environment this occurs when
submerged to a maximum depth of 4 m. The pressure of the water
against a diaphragm within the sealed casing causes a plastic pin to
be cut thereby releasing the containment bracket casing, allowing
the EPIRB to float freely.

Some common characteristics of HRUs are as follows: Water

pressure sensitive at depths not to exceed 4 m or less than 2 m.
They are used for single use only, require replacement if activated
and cannot be serviced, only replaced. They are waterproof and
sealed against moisture and tampering and labelled with an expiry
date, which will be 2 years from the month of installation. Before
fitting EPIRB will undergo tests for corrosion resistance,
temperature, submergence and Manual Release, strength tests and
further performance tests.

GPS beacon operation

The most modern 406 MHz beacons with GPS track to a precision of
100 m in 70% of the world nearest to the equator, and send a serial
number so the responsible authority can look up phone numbers to
notify the registrator (e.g. next-of-kin) in about 4 minutes. The GPS
system permits stationary, wide-view geosynchronous
communications satellites to enhance the Doppler position received
by Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. EPIRB beacons with built-in
GPS are usually called GPS Position-Indicating Radio Beacons
(GPIRBs). Rescue will not begin until a Doppler track is available.
COSPAS-SARSAT specifications state that a beacon location is not
‘resolved’ unless at least 2 Doppler tracks match or a Doppler track
confirms an encoded (GPS) track.

High-precision registered beacon operation

An intermediate technology 406 MHz beacon (now largely replaced
by GPS-enabled units) has worldwide coverage and locates to within
2 km (12.5 km2 search area), notifying family and rescuers within 2
hours (46 min average), and has a serial number to look up family
phone numbers, etc. This can take up to 2 hours because it uses
non-Geostationary weather satellites to locate the beacon. To help
locate a beacon, the beacon’s frequency is controlled to 2 parts per
billion, with a power level of only 5 W. Both the above types of
beacons usually include an auxiliary 25 mW beacon at 121.5 MHz to
guide SAR aircraft.

When considering emergency systems and GPS systems in general

power is a vital matter. Even though GPs information should be
rightly considered as only one possible choice of an aid to
navigation, it is increasingly being viewed as the primary source for
positional information, and as such is utterly dependent upon the
system’s network of accurate satellite clocks. The problem is that
with these satellites operating in orbits of tens of thousands of
kilometres above earth’s surface the typically 100 W signal
transmitted by a GPS satellite and the even smaller signal from an
activated emergency location device can easily spread itself out over
an area equivalent to an appreciable part of the earth’s surface, so
that by the time it is detected it is both extremely weak and
vulnerable to accidental and malicious interference, as well as
deliberate jamming from even a relatively low-power transmitter.

Non-GPS Doppler location

The Cospas-Sarsat system uses Doppler processing with terrestrial

Local Unit Terminals (LUTs) detecting non-geostationary satellites
monitoring the Doppler frequency shift recorded by Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) and Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) SAR satellites as they pass
over an activated distress beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.
Range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the
recorded frequency, which will vary according to the satellite’s path in
space and the earth’s rotation to enable the activated beacon’s
position to be triangulated. A faster change in the Doppler frequency
indicates the beacon is closer to the satellite’s ground track as the
Doppler shift’s magnitude depends on the relative motion along the
direct line between the transmitting source of waves (the beacon)
and the satellite (the detecting observer). The more accurate the
beacon the more precisely it can be located, saving search time and
potentially lives. A modern 406 MHz frequency beacon is now
manufactured to an accuracy of 2 parts per billion, and yielding a
search area of just 2 km2, compared to older beacons (accurate to
50 parts per million yielding 200 km2 of search area). To increase
useful power levels, and handle multiple simultaneous beacons,
modern 406 MHz beacons transmit in bursts, and then remain silent
for about 50 seconds.

Satellites

The Russian Federation developed the original different types of

SARSAT system using several types of satellite, which substantially
reduced the programme’s cost by including some weather satellites
set in ‘ball of yarn’ orbits, inclined at 99°. The longest period that all
satellites can be out of line-of-sight of a beacon is now reduced to
about 2 hours. The first Sarsat satellite constellation was launched in
the early 1970s by the Soviet Union, the United States, Canada and
France. Some geosynchronous satellites now also have beacon
receivers. Since 2003 there have been 4 such GEOstationary SAR
satellites (GEOSAR) launched, now covering over 80% of the earth’s
surface and located above the equator. Consequently GEOSAR
satellites do not cover the polar caps, but as they see the Earth as a
whole, they will see a beacon immediately, but having no motion
(geostationary means they are fixed relative to the earth), they
cannot provide a Doppler frequency shift to locate it. However, if the
beacon transmits GPS data, a geosynchronous satellite can give a
very rapid response.

Search and rescue response

Emergency beacons currently operate at a frequency of 406 MHz
and transmit a unique 15, 22 or 30 character serial number called a
Hex Code. When the beacon is purchased the Hex Code should be
registered with the relevant national (or international) authority.
Registration provides SAR agencies with vital information such as
phone numbers to call in the event of a disaster, the vessel’s
description or person in the case of a PLB, the vessel’s home port
and any further information that might be useful to SAR agencies.

Registration information also allows SAR agencies to start a

successful rescue more quickly. For example, if a shipboard
telephone number listed in the registration is unreachable, it can be
assumed that a real distress event is taking place. Conversely, the
information provides a quick and easy way for the agencies to check
and eliminate any false alarms (potentially sparing the beacon’s
owner a significant false alert fine!).

An unregistered 406 MHz beacon carries limited information: just the

manufacturer and the beacon’s serial number, and in some cases,
the MMSI. Despite the clear benefits of beacon registration, even an
unregistered beacon is better than no beacon at all, because the
Hex Code received from a 406 MHz beacon confirms the signal as a
real SAR alert. Beacons operating on 121.5 and 243.0 MHz just
transmit an anonymous siren tone, and carry no information to SAR
agencies. Such beacons now rely solely on the terrestrial or
aeronautical monitoring of frequencies, and are therefore of limited
maritime value.

In summary, various classes of location device have been used in

recent decades with satellite-enabled automatic identification
systems and alert detection abilities demonstrating the greatest
utility. It is also expected that existing systems such as AIS will
expand their capabilities to handle increasing numbers of vessels
and increased data traffic as the volume of global maritime traffic
increases. As the number of ocean and littoral marine traffic
increases the vessels and passengers likely to benefit in a distress
situation from use of such digital electronic navigations aids and
GMDSS distress alert systems is rising. All marine users would be
sensible to purchase, install and register up-to-date SOLAS-
compliant equipment on their vessels for the undesired possibility of
disaster at sea.

Practice Examples
13.1 A radar contact is detected using pulse delay ranging. If the
elapsed recorded time from pulse transmission to reception is 0.2
ms, and given that c = 3 × 108 ms–1, find the radar range of the
target (1 decimal place).
13.2 Considering the formula for Maximum Detection Range

what will be the increase in MDR if the

transmitted power is increased by a factor of 16? Is this worthwhile

in practice and could this have any consequences for a military
vessel?

13.3 Considering the formula for MDR, if the

transmitted power is increased by 60% and the Gain of the

antenna increased by 30% what will be the decrease in effective
area caused by rotation of the radar antenna for the MDR to
remain unchanged (2 significant figures)?
13.4 Using the equation for radar beamwidth, where λ is the

wavelength, and D is the aperture size of the transmitting antenna,

find the horizontal beamwidth of a navigation radar with a 2.4 m
wide aperture which operates at a frequency of 9.5 GHz (2
decimal places).
13.5 If a long-range search radar has a peak power Pp of 1.1 MW, a
pulse duration τ = 60 ms and a PRF = 700 pulses per second, use
 the formula Pav = Pp × τ × PRF to find the average power of the
search radar (3 significant figures).
13.6 Explain how a GPS system works.
13.7 Use a web-based AIS application to track your vessel over a
period of several days.
13.8 Compare the NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS satellite systems.
13.9 State how a GMDSS system operates.
13.10 Explain the operation of an EPIRB system.
 There must be a beginning of any great matter, but the
continuing unto the end until it be thoroughly finished yields
the true glory.
Sir Francis Drake

At the heart of all the marine engineering systems discussed in both

Reeds Electrotechnology volumes lies the issue of being able to
monitor system performance, and for the human operator to adjust
the system parameters as required to achieve the desired system
output levels, e.g. power. To do this the system must have some
output transducer which provides the required decision-making
information in a form a human being can understand. This information
is usually provided in visual form on some sort of ‘display’ or monitor.
Clearly it is important for the Master, Deck Officers or Ratings to have
good eyesight in order to view the display correctly (i.e. there are no
problems with visual fields, colour vision, night blindness, double
vision, etc.) as laid down in STCW minimum in-service eyesight
standards. However, it is equally important that the displays provide
the required standard necessary to present both data and images to
the operator unambiguously. Over the past few decades there has
been a significant growth in the diversity of new display systems
building upon the first widespread use of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
and Oscilloscope displays. In this chapter we will look at several
common display systems that can now be found on merchant and
naval vessels, starting with the CRT, considering some of their
advantages and disadvantages.

Cathode Ray Tube

The CRT is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns
(electron emitters) and a fluorescent screen which accelerates and
deflects an electron beam onto a screen to view images which can
represent maritime radar targets, electrical waveforms and pictures
for TV and computer monitors. A CRT uses an evacuated glass
envelope which is large and heavy, and being made of glass is
relatively fragile. In the interest of safety, the screen face is usually
made of thick shatter-resistant lead glass which also blocks X-ray
emissions. CRTs have now largely been superseded by new display
technologies such as: LCD, plasma and OLED displays which have
lower manufacturing costs, power consumption, weight and bulk.

In TV and computer monitors, the front of the tube is scanned

repetitively in a fixed pattern or raster scan. In modern CRT monitors
and TVs, beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic
field is generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the
tube’s neck, although electrostatic deflection is often used in
oscilloscopes. Most displays are now based on Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) technology with only a few specialist applications and older
marine fits using CRTs, although market position was not long ago
reversed. The basic CRT structure has a heated Cathode electrode,
a Grid electrode through which electrons can pass (negative with
respect to the Cathode) and an Anode electrode (positive with
respect to the Cathode) mounted in a vacuum, figure 14.1.
▲ Figure 14.1

When a cathode is heated some of its electrons gain enough energy

to escape the electrode surface. The electric field between the anode
and cathode draws them towards the positive anode while the electric
field between the grid and cathode opposes that between the anode
and cathode, so the difference between them controls the number of
electrons that reach the anode. Making the grid more negative
reduces the number of electrons reaching the anode. In a CRT the
anode is arranged to allow electrons to pass through it and strike a
phosphor-coated screen to produce visible light. Grid voltage controls
the brightness of light produced.

A focusing system often has an electrostatic lens which helps narrow

the electron beam to a point where it strikes the phosphor.

Two common deflection types are used:

(1) Electrostatic. Plates on either side of the beam have voltages

applied between them, deflecting the beam towards the more
positive plate (used in all screen displays).
(2) Electromagnetic. Coils on either side of the tube produce a
magnetic field across it, deflecting the electron beam. TV and large
screen displays use this deflection method.

Production of displays
To measure time a reference is provided on a CRT which causes the
spot to travel across the screen at a constant speed. The signal that
causes this is called a time base.

▲ Figure 14.2 A typical time base waveform for TV and marine radar ‘A type’
displays

A to B shows a steadily increasing deflection which moves the spot

from the left-hand edge of the screen A to the right-hand side B,
writing a line across the screen in the process.

B to C shows a rapid return of the spot back to the left-hand edge of

the screen, usually occurring while the spot is switched off
electronically. C to D shows the waiting period before D at which point
the trace is redrawn. The vertical distance CB controls the width of
the trace, the time interval AC controls the spot’s speed across the
tube, and the range scale, and the time interval AD controls the
frequency with which the trace is repeated, the Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF).

RASTER SCAN. This type of scan is used in various marine

computer, radar, sonar, TV and thermal imaging displays. The display
consists of many horizontal lines spaced down the screen. The higher
the display resolution the greater the number of lines.

Lines are produced using 2 time-bases. The X-time base is a high-

frequency time base which writes lines across the screen. The Y-time
base is a lower frequency time base causing the spot to move
steadily down, writing each horizontal line underneath the previous
one. Information is displayed by modulating the spot intensity and this
is achieved by altering grid potential. In TV the modulation produces
a continuous variation along each line. A colour CRT TV picture is
produced with 3 electron beams and a single deflection system.
Electron beams illuminate 3 phosphors: red, green and blue, and the
screen colours are combinations of these. A raster scan causes the 3
beams to scan the screen together and by modulating the 3 electron
beams different colours are produced along the trace. The
brightness, colour and illumination persistence depend on the CRT
screen phosphor types used. Phosphors are available with
persistences ranging from microseconds to seconds. If you look at a
screen closely you will see the 3 coloured phosphors, arranged in
stripes or clusters called ‘triads’. A shadow mask uses a metal plate
with tiny holes, so an electron beam only illuminates the correct
phosphor on the tube face; holes are tapered so electrons that strike
the inside of a hole are reflected back, if they are not absorbed,
instead of bouncing through a hole to strike a wrong coloured spot on
the screen.

Computer display, producing graphics and data use a dot-matrix

display. A horizontal line is broken into a number of points, each of
which can be individually addressed by computer. By illuminating
selected points, characters are drawn on the screen. The first
cathode rays experiments are credited to J. J. Thomson, an English
physicist with the earliest CRT invented by German physicist Braun in
1897. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube
with a phosphor-coated screen. The first CRT to use a hot cathode
(easy to emit many electrons) was developed by Johnson and
Weinhart with the first commercially made electronic CRT TV
manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934.

Oscilloscope CRTs

In oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the

magnetic deflection used in TV and larger CRTs because the
magnetic coils’ inductive reactance limits the instrument’s frequency
response. A beam is deflected horizontally by applying an electric
field between a pair of plates to its left and right, and vertically by
applying an electric field to plates above and below.

If the shadow mask becomes magnetised, its magnetic field will

deflect electron beams passing through it, causing colour distortion
as the beams bend through the mask holes to hit ‘wrong’ phosphors
and not those they were intended to strike; e.g. some electrons from
a green beam may hit red phosphors, giving red parts of the image a
wrong ‘tint’. This effect will be localised to a specific screen area if the
magnetisation of the shadow mask is localised so it is important the
shadow mask is demagnetised. Most colour CRT displays, i.e. TV
and computer monitors, have a built-in degaussing circuit, the main
component of which is a degaussing coil round the edge of the CRT
face to prevent magnetisation. On powering-up a CRT display, the
degaussing circuit produces a brief A.C. current through the
degaussing coil which decays in strength to zero over a few seconds,
producing a decaying A.C. magnetic field from the coil. This field is
usually large enough to remove any magnetisation. In cases of strong
magnetisation where the internal degaussing field is not sufficient, the
shadow mask may be degaussed externally with a portable
degausser. An excessively strong magnetic field, whether A.C. or
constant, may mechanically bend the shadow mask, causing
permanent colour display distortion which looks similar to a
magnetising effect. To repeat degaussing, the CRT display is
switched off and left for several seconds, allowing the circuit to cool to
ambient temperature; switching the display off and immediately back
on results in a weak degaussing cycle.

CRT advantages

CRTs have high contrast ratios (over 15 000:1), and excellent colour
and have no input lag. There is no ghosting and ‘smearing’ artefacts
during fast motion due to sub-millisecond response time. CRTs have
near zero colour, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion and
provide a wide viewing angle range. They can be used or stored in
extremely hot and cold temperature conditions without harm to the
system.

CRT disadvantages

Although the backbone display technology for decades, CRT-based

computer monitors and TVs are now largely a redundant technology.
The demand for CRT screens dropped significantly after 2000. Rapid
advances and falling prices of LCD flat panel technology have been a
key factor in the demise of competing display technologies such as
CRT, which despite recent advances have remained relatively heavy
and large, taking up a lot of space compared with other display
technologies. Even a 50 cm display can weigh more than 10 kg. CRT
screens require large vacuum tubes compared with flat panel
displays for a given screen size, and are impractical beyond 102 cm.
CRT disadvantages became decisive in the light of rapid LCD and
plasma flat-panel technological advancements which allow them to
exceed 102 cm besides being thin and wall-mountable, 2 key
features increasingly demanded by consumers. CRTs have high
power consumption, typically consuming up to 10 × the power an
identical sized LCD monitor consumes, depending on the type of
backlight LCD screen, and brightness. A great deal of heat can be
emitted while in operation, due to the high power consumption and
they can suffer screen burn-out. Image edges are blurred and
distorted compared with the sharp image of a flat panel pixel array as
text, computer-generated diagrams, line drawings and other images
composed mostly of sharp edges, require very sharp pixel definition.

CRTs are still popular in specific market niches and provide better
colour fidelity, contrast and better off-axis viewing (wider viewing
angle) than many flat screen LCDs. CRTs emit a small amount of X-
ray radiation from the electron beam’s bombardment of the shadow
mask/aperture and phosphors but the amount of radiation leaving the
monitor is considered harmless. Older colour and monochrome CRTs
contain toxic substances, such as cadmium, in the phosphors. Many
countries treat CRTs as toxic waste and prohibit disposal in landfills or
by incineration. In Europe, disposal of CRT televisions and monitors
is covered by a relevant EU Directive. As electronic waste, CRTs are
considered one of the hardest types to recycle having high
concentration of lead and phosphors, both of which are needed for
the CRT display. Under some circumstances, signals radiated from
the electron guns can be captured remotely to show what was on the
CRT. Special maritime TEMPEST shielding can mitigate against this.
Such potentially exploitable signals, however, occurs with other
display technologies and electronics in general. CRTs are affected by
earth’s magnetic field and are factory preset biased for operation in
north or south hemispheres, or equatorial regions, but may require
‘trimming’ if crossing between hemispheres on the world’s oceans, as
‘crossing the bar’ is not an uncommon event. Adjustment requires
considerable technical skill, besides the required safety precautions
associated with opening the CRT display housing. CRTs are sensitive
to magnetic interference, which causes images to shimmer (e.g. if a
transformer or other electro-magnetic source is close to the screen)
or colours change (if unshielded speakers are also too near).

Liquid Crystal Displays

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) are now available in a wide range of
devices from simple digital watches to mobile phones, laptops and
high-resolution flat panel TVs. There has been an incredible pace of
development in LCD technology over the past 100 years with
possibilities for future sensing and communications applications.
They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and
plasma displays, and as they do not use phosphors, the screen
surface will not burn out. LCDs are more energy efficient than CRTs
as they require no cathode heating and LCDs are often made up of
segments filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light
source or reflector to produce both colour and monochrome images.

A brief history of liquid crystals

Just over 125 years ago on 14 March 1888, Austrian botanist and
chemist Friedrich Reinitzer noted that the organic material cholesteryl
benzoate showed unusual behaviour on melting. Initially, it became a
cloudy liquid on heating to 145°C and then clear at 187.5°C.
Subsequent studies on the part of eminent scientists of his day –
Lehmann, Vorlander and Friedel – established that the intermediate
phases of this and similar compounds represented new states of
matter which Lehmann named liquid crystals. As a general rule a
substance in a liquid crystal or mesomorphic state is strongly
anisotropic (dissimilar in different directions) in some or all of its
properties and exhibits a high level of fluidity comparable with an
isotropic liquid. The existence of liquid crystal behaviour among
inorganic substances is uncommon, compared with about 1 in 200 of
organic compounds. Several thousand organic compounds exhibit
liquid crystalline behaviour with further synthesis adding to this
number daily.

For Liquid Crystal (L.C.) behaviour to occur it is essential the

molecules are highly geometrically anisotropic, usually long rod-like
molecules, although they need not be rod-like, in fact doughnut- or
disk-shaped molecules will do. Depending on the molecular geometry
the liquid may pass through one or more phases on heating before it
ends up as an isotropic liquid where all its properties are the same in
every direction. Transitions to these intermediate states are brought
about by either thermal heating processes, or solvents. The second
of these occur when an L.C. is dissolved in a suitable solvent, most
often water, and the L.C. phase formed over a specific solvent
concentration range. These so-called lyotropic L.C.s are generally
derived from long helical rod-type structures or amphiphilic
compounds, (viruses are typical long rod shaped molecules, e.g. the
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (T.M.V.) which has large molecular dimensions:
300 Å long by 200 Å wide). This class is characterised by having a
section of the molecule hydrophobic (water hating) and a section
hydrophilic (water loving). As the concentration of water solvent is
increased the organic molecules form various packing structures from
a simple layered (lamellar) to a cubic and finally a hexagonally close
packed phase (figure 14.3).

Lyotropic L.C. phases are of fundamental importance in biological

systems and occur abundantly in nature, including the human body.
Phospholipids are amphiphilic molecules which form the basis of cell
membranes, which mixed with a small amount of water stack into
multilayered or smectic liquid crystals. Amphiphilic molecules
organise themselves into bilayers separated by water so the head
groups lie at the lipid–water interface. A familiar example is soap
(sodium dodecyl sulphate) in water. In the lamellar phase, water is
sandwiched between the polar heads of adjacent layers, while the
hydrocarbon tails are in a non-polar environment. In the cubic phase
layers bend to form spherical units. In the hexagonal phase the layers
are rolled up into tight cylinders.
▲ Figure 14.3

However, the L.C.s of the greatest present benefit to the display

industry are the thermotropic types. This phase commonly used in flat
panel, low-power display devices is the nematic L.C. which has long
range order of the molecular axis (figure 14.4). There was little
interest in commercial applications in the display area until the
development of the first L.C. electro-optic device using ‘dynamic
scattering’ noted in 1968 by Heilmeier. Competition and progress
were then swift leading to the Twisted Nematic (T.N.) display device
which have made LCDs widespread in everyday life.

▲ Figure 14.4
Schadt and Helfrich described what is now known as the T.N. effect,
where an electric field applied perpendicular to the plates of an L.C.
cell realigns in the bulk to a uniform nematic with the long molecular
axes lying perpendicular to the plates (homeotropic). In the T.N. state
if cell thickness is much greater than the incident wavelength the
twisted structure guides light through the cell. But under application of
a D.C. voltage the uniform homeotropic nematic no longer guides
light through the sample as waveguide conditions change too fast,
giving high contrast ratios between light and dark states (figure 14.5).

▲ Figure 14.5 TN cell

The simplest practical cell is the T.N. cell. Light of one polarisation
passes through the first polaroid (polariser) and then a second
polaroid (analyser). If the second polaroid is twisted by 90º the half
twist structure will transmit polarised light.

Voltages do not need to be high and are seldom above about 12 V as

it is the electric field which is responsible for molecular reorientation
(E = V/d where d is the cell thickness). Since typical liquid crystal
cells in the nematic phase are about 10–20 μm thick, and in the more
ordered smectic phases less than 5 μm, field strengths are typically
about 1 MV/m.

Liquid crystal phases

Following the method proposed by Friedel liquid crystals are
classified into 3 types: nematic, cholesteric and smectic.

NEMATICS. Friedel coined the word ‘nematic’ from the Greek nema,
meaning a thread, and refers to certain thread-like defects (or
disclination lines) which are commonly observed. A schematic
representation of the order in a nematic phase is shown in figure 14.4
and a real optical texture of a typical nematic L.C. phase is shown in
figure 14.6.

▲ Figure 14.6 Nematic texture

In a nematic phase molecules are on average aligned so their axes

are parallel so that a preferred direction is imposed on the system
(figure 14.4). The optic axis or director coincides with the defined
direction. For most nematics there is rotational (equal) symmetry
about the long molecular axis (cigar-like) so the phase is identical in
all its properties at right angles to its long axis (uniaxial). The absence
of long range positional order determines the nematic phase’s fluid
character, typically with a viscosity of 0.1 Poise, 10 times more than
pure water at room temperature. A nematic phase can occur either
with molecules that have mirror symmetry, or with an equal mixture or
right- and left-handed cholesteric or chiral nematic phases.

CHOLESTERICS. The Cholesteric or Chiral Nematic (N*) phase in

addition to long-range orientational order has a gradual twisted
spatial variation of the director leading to a helical structure. The
cholesteric phase is represented in figure 14.7. If a series of planes
perpendicular to the helical axis is considered, orientational order
exists in each plane as in the nematic phase. However, local
molecular alignment is rotated slightly between adjacent planes. The
most striking feature of cholesterics is their strong optical activity and
selective light reflectivity. Optical activity and selective light reflectivity
are due to the twisted structure and inherently related to the
temperature-dependent twist pitch.
▲ Figure 14.7 Cholesteric phase

SMECTICS. Smectics comes from the Greek smegma, meaning

soap, with the 2 simplest commercialised smectic phases being the
Smectic A and C* phases. Structurally all smectics are layered, with a
well-defined layer spacing, measured by X-ray diffraction. The first X-
ray evidence to support well-defined layer spacing was obtained by
E. Friedel, the son of G. Friedel who discovered the Smectic A phase.
Smectics are more ordered than nematics and have lower symmetry
than the nematic and cholesteric phases. A Smectic A phase is also
shown schematically in figure 14.4. Inside each layer there is no long-
range order.

Smectic C* phase. In this more complicated phase the long molecular

axis is on average aligned with all the other molecules in the layer but
tilted with respect to the layer normal by an angle ‘Θ’ (figure 14.4).
However, the presence of a permanent molecular dipole attached to a
molecule makes an L.C. ferroelectric, which means the molecule can
reorientate under an applied electric field to change the crystal
symmetry. All L.C. structures exist in various textures, the optical
patterns observed in thin layers with a polarising microscope. These
textures are normally complicated by line defects at which an abrupt
change in molecular orientation, or ‘disclination’ occurs. For device
applications it is vital the L.C. phase which forms must be uniform
over large areas, if not all the display. Once formed L.C. defects have
a bad habit of either growing or staying firmly put after temperatures
cycling, although controlled temperature cycling can help ‘iron’ out
some defects.

A chevron in the layering. As temperature reduces from the Smectic

A to Smectic C* phase the layers start to shrink. As the layers are
firmly anchored at the aligning surface, to maintain the fixed spacing
of the smectic A phase (the density wave layer spacing), the Smectic
C* layers must tilt as a response to the ‘shrinking’ which occurs.
Something similar is seen when you take a stiff piece of upright card
and try to bend it by pushing inwards from both ends. Initially it bows
or ‘bananas’ out slightly and can then suddenly kink (or chevron) near
the middle of the card. The stiffer the card the greater the energy
required to deform the card. Similarly in the L.C. layering, when
sufficient energy is supplied the layer suddenly kinks and the kink
deformation which forms, just as in the card, is ‘locked’ into the cell
leaving a ‘memory’ if you like, even after temperature cycling. This
layer shrinking and layer tilting forms a clear ‘Chevron’ in the layers
(figure 14.8) and was verified experimentally by X-ray scattering in
the late 1980s and by optical probing techniques [1–2].

▲ Figure 14.8 Chevron in SC* layering

Various frustrated liquid crystal modellers came up with many fruitless

and fruitful models to explain what was going on, including the
‘banana’ model which for several years seemed a more plausible
model than the idea of a single ‘kink’ found near the middle of a thin
L.C. cell. To further confuse things the chevron in the layers caused
molecules to give a large fixed optical ‘twist’ out over most of the cell,
irrespective of the L.C. molecules anchoring at the surface.

Switching speeds
But why all the interest in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal (F.L.C.) displays
anyway? Two reasons initially, speed and memory (or bistability). For
the various effects which LCDs employ the ‘switch on’ ton and ‘switch
off’ toff times are often quoted at 90% and 10% saturated response
respectively. High-speed devices rely on electron movement, while
thermal and molecular processes are unfortunately slower, but how
slow?

LCDs are in the slower category because the process involves

realignment of molecules. In the ferroelectric phases the realignment
process is given by coupling the ferroelectric dipole Ps to the Electric
field E so the 1/τ switching time is proportional to Ps × E.
Unfortunately this was not the full story, as although scientists started
to synthesise new Smectic C* liquid crystals, it was later shown fast
potential switching speeds were offset by the presence of a dielectric
term –εE2 giving rise to a minimum in switching time. Switching times
typically are milliseconds rather than hoped for microseconds but still
offer many potential applications, although unsuitable in current form
for fast digital data rate communications applications.

A second problem involves a cell which sits in one of 2 optical states

optically equivalent to a digital ‘on’ or ‘off’ until application of a voltage
of opposite polarity. This potentially reduces problems encountered
by large area nematic LCDs where the time between pulsing a
voltage across individual display elements or ‘pixels’ becomes large
due to the physical display size. Instead of a clear dark/light contrast
partial reorientation of molecules occurs so most of the time elements
give an average ‘grey’ intensity as molecules ‘relax’ back to their
resting state.

Under application of a D.C. biased voltage the equal likelihood (or

degenerate bistability) of these 2 states is broken, so dipoles in both
regions try to align in the same direction parallel to an applied electric
field. Reversing the applied electric field polarity causes both regions
to switch into the other possible uniform state.
Two types of defects are often observed in display cells, designated
‘lightning’ (figure 14.9a) and ‘hairpin’ (figure 14.9b) defects for
obvious reasons. These defects are together referred to as ‘Zig-Zag’
defects and are due to regions of different orientated layering coming
together in a disordered pile-up. In both types colour changes from
bright to dark or vice versa whenever the disclination turns. Defects
or disclinations occur between regions of oppositely directed chevron
layering. Zig-zag defects present a considerable technical hurdle to
the implementation of large area F.L.C. cells, but the main hurdle is
that cells which show bistability are, rarely so, often relaxing back
across large regions of the display to the original direction rather than
staying in the intended switched state.
▲ Figure 14.9 Lightning and Hairpin defects

Liquid crystal alignment

In order to make decent large area single molecular orientation

(domain) of well-aligned liquid crystals, 2 limiting cases are important.

(1) Homeotropic layers, in which the molecular axis or director is

everywhere perpendicular to the wall of the cell, and
(2) Homogeneous alignment, where the director is in the plane of the
substrate. In homeotropic alignment the more reliable techniques
involve surfactants, such as lecithin found on the lining of the
human lung.

Alignment can occur in a combination of ways: including microscopic

surface grooving, deposition of rubbing material and surface
charging. A well-known technique involves vacuum deposition of thin
films under oblique incidence, e.g. SiOx, a commonly used
commercial anisotropic alignment layer. It is believed that
corrugations are formed from columnar growth of the SiOx layer. A
rubbed polymer alignment technique achieves parallel low surface tilt
alignment, where a monomer is spun onto the substrate,
unidirectionally rubbed and polymerised to give an L.C. alignment. A
monomer is first spun onto a glass substrate, usually coated with
conductive Indium Tin Oxide (I.T.O.). A 40 nm thick polymer layer is
heated to remove solvent, rubbed mechanically in a chosen direction
several times, achieving low surface tilt, and then polymerised at
several hundred degrees Centigrade.

Alignment in the Smectic A and Nematic phases is relatively well

understood. Molecular alignment propagates out from the aligning
cell surface up to 100 μm. On average the long molecular axis lies
along the preferred axis created by polymer rubbing. Differences in
polymer curing or differing SiOx evaporation angles creates surface
tilts of the order of tens of degrees leaving the mechanical director
tilting away from the rubbing direction (so-called ‘high tilt’). In general,
Smectic A layering forms perpendicular to the bounding walls.

SC* alignment is less well understood. For alignment to succeed in

the smectic C* phase it is necessary for cells to be much thinner, just
a few microns. Smectic layering is modified to accommodate layer
shrinkage and formation of a chevron layer structure. In a thick cell,
over 5 μm thick, a twisted state is likely to occur, involving a half twist
of alignment through the cell. For thin sample cells preparation
methods using shearing, rubbing and obliquely evaporated SiOx is
used.

Liquid crystal technology

Currently the industrial electronics marketplace is the largest user of

passive LCD technology. This technology includes dichroic, T.N. and
Super Twist Nematic (S.T.N.). There is growing use of Thin Film
Transistor (T.F.T.) or Active Matrix LCDs due to increases in switching
speed and display stabilisation. Active T.F.T. technology, as opposed
to conventional passive matrix technology, helps ‘stabilise’ the pixel
state until it is ‘readdressed’ with a fresh applied voltage, which
combined with bistable F.L.C.s helps maintain the highest possible
black/white contrast ratios.

Some discussion of image contrast and display segment is useful

here. Contrast is the ability to clearly distinguish the display element
against its background in either a positive or negative form. Basically
to see a pixel against its background it must be either lighter or darker
than its background. This basic principle in fact applies to any energy
band and not just the visible. A radar or thermal image is only seen if
the object viewed or detected respectively is distinguishable from its
background. The segments of an LCD act as microscopic shutters
turning ‘on’ or ‘off’ display elements. Segments are created by optical
lithography and etched to produce transparent I.T.O. electrodes
patterned on glass surfaces. Numbers and letters are formed with a
7-segment digit. A 16-segment digit can form all the numbers and
letters, but a Dot Matrix (5 × 7) pixels display is often preferred as it
creates an easier to read display script similar to newspaper print.

A display screen made with a T.F.T. is an LCD now common in

notebook and laptop computers with individual transistors for every
pixel. Each tiny pixel element controls the illumination of the display
element. Having a transistor at each pixel means the current that
triggers pixel illumination can be smaller and switched on and off
more quickly, and is thus more responsive. A common example of
this is when you move a mouse across a display screen, particularly
a large display, a T.F.T. display responds fast enough to match the
mouse cursor movement. With a passive display, the mouse cursor
momentarily disappears until the display ‘catches up’ with the
change. The bigger the display the greater the delay.

Displays are a key part of maritime, industrial and personal consumer

products worldwide. They have become major devices in computing
performance, medical imaging and process control, and have
become pseudonymous with electronic entertainment and are found
in videos, kitchen appliances and portable computers, not forgetting
the digital wristwatch. The first T.F.T. was made in the United States
back in 1972 using the semiconductor Cadmium Selenide. The
market for this astonishing growth in electronic displays is driven by
the high-value applications of TV and information processing.
Continued growth is projected for displays as consumers increasingly
invest in high-technology products. Heralded for at least a decade as
the successor to the CRT, the CRT remained until recently robustly
resistant to attacks from this relatively ‘new comer’ of L.C. flat panel
technology. The penetration of the old CRT market by flat panel
displays has been increasing exponentially in the past few years, with
CRTs retaining their own in certain niche markets, e.g. in the maritime
environment on older vessels, those not having yet come in for a refit.
However new technology is not all going the L.C. way, as other new
display technologies, such as plasma, and electroluminescent
materials have entered the market as well. There are many monitor
displays being developed by several leading display manufacturers
such as Sharp of Europe, and Philips in Holland.

One of the first demonstrated L.C. devices was the voltage-

dependent optical activity of a T.N. L.C. developed by Schadt and
Helfrich working at Hoffman-La-Roche Co. in Basel Switzerland in
1971. At high enough applied voltages for a liquid crystal-filled cell
with the surface alignments 90º apart, applied voltage can cause the
alignment in the bulk to be practically parallel to the field (figure 14.5).
A 10 μm thick sample can then switch suddenly between a
transmissive and non-transmissive mode with only 3 V at a driving
frequency of 1 kHz.

Before T.N. displays could become commercially successful it was

necessary to synthesise liquid crystals for room temperature
operation. In fact early on it was established that LCD displays
exported to Africa sometimes failed because of unanticipated
temperature-induced phase changes. In 1972 the late George Gray,
and Ken Harrison at Hull University synthesised stable, colourless
liquid crystal mixtures between –10°C and 60°C based on so-called
cyanobiphenyl compounds. T.N. displays rapidly found niche markets
in digital watches and calculators. However, the number of display
elements that could be incorporated into displays was limited and
only overcome with development of T.F.T. active matrix displays.
At about the same time Schadt and Helfrich were working on nematic
displays, Heilmeier in RCS Laboratories, Princetown, USA,
investigated scattering induced changes for reflective displays. With
no electric field applied light was transmitted. In its voltage applied or
‘excited’ state the L.C. scatters incident light, reducing the transmitted
light with ‘on’ to ‘off’ ratios greater than 20:1. Introduction of low
molecular weight liquid crystals in a polymer matrix formed a new
class of non-linear optical materials for applications such as large-
scale, low-cost devices exhibiting high brightness without the need for
polarisers as used in conventional cells. Polymer Dispersed Liquid
Crystal (P.D.L.C.) cells also make cells more robust against bending
and dropping. They can be switched electrically between opaque ‘off’
and ‘on’ transparent stages. In the mid-1980s, Osakmura and
colleagues at Osaka University, Japan, demonstrated that nematic
L.C.-coated ‘planar’ waveguides could demonstrate electro-optic
switching with only 4 V applied with fast switching times of a few
milliseconds. Nematic L.C.s were then used to demonstrate an
optical Spatial Light Modulator (S.L.M.). A probe beam reflected from
a surface adjacent to a nematic L.C., modulated with an applied
voltage across the L.C. layer, could transfer the voltage modulation to
a weak amplitude modulation of the probe beam’s reflectivity.
Although modelling of L.C. alignment within nematic LCDs has been
understood for some time, F.L.C.s have not been so easy to fathom.
Complicated analytical expressions were needed to help describe the
‘global’ response of millions of nematic L.C. molecules in many
configurations.

Such analytical F.L.C. phase expressions are few and mostly due to
the patient and enduring work of Dr Frank Leslie, Strathclyde
University, Scotland. Optical data and multilayer modelling for F.L.C.
cells was developed by Elston and Sambles in Exeter, UK, in the
1990s. This enabled horizontal tilt or so-called in-plane tilt, of the
molecular axis to be determined as well as the vertical (out of plane
tilt) with theoretical expressions similar in some respects to those
used in nematic theory and then trying to fit real experimental data to
various theory models. In this way models were found that began to
explain what was going on under an applied voltage.
The Vertical tilt took the form (2/Π)C arctan (A sin 2 (z(Π – B)/d + B)),
where (2/Π)C controls the maximum tilt value, d is the half-cell
thickness and A is a function of applied r.m.s. voltage. Horizontal tilt is
found in a similar way. In our own work, good comparisons of theory
with data were found with and without voltages applied (figure 14.10)
which allowed values for the constants: A, B and C in the above
expression to be found under certain conditions. In 1982, Dr Water
and my external Ph.D. supervisor, Dr Peter Raynes FRS, Head of
Liquid Crystal Research at DERA Malvern, developed the STN.
Liquid crystal molecules aligning in a cell between surfaces with a
natural twist between 240 and 270° give better switching, making
them suitable for notebooks, and more recently mobile phones.

In terms of size, LCDS are divided into 3 categories – small (under 6

in diameter) for phone and handheld applications such as organisers;
medium (6–14 in) for laptop computer application and large (above
14 in) for desktops and TVs. Small displays generally only require
passive-matrix technology and must be low cost. However advent of
4G phones with emphasis on information accessibility will change
this, in the same way as the early trend in diminishing phone size (so
small it becomes hard to press the buttons correctly) has passed
through a minimum size as the requirements of a sufficiently large
screen for internet capabilities and new devices such as the Iphone,
etc., has driven things in the opposite direction due to customer
requirements.

▲ Figure 14.10 Reflectivity for incident and reflected TM polarised radiation from a
3.5 micron thick F.L.C. cell 40 nm I.T.O. coated, with 40 nm Polyimide alignment
layer. (No voltage applied. Data crosses, theory continuous line.)
In the future, LCD advances will have profound implications for
Maritime bridge training. Bridge simulation already plays an important
part in Naval and Merchant Shipping fleets, but development of
individual fully interactive virtual reality experience will revolutionise
things further. One suggestion for both military and civilian displays
applications is to provide heads-up visors for see-through glasses
display where a variety of different types of information can be
displayed more comfortably to the human operator. This information
could be e-mail, data, a high-quality video-link, images or electronic
charts (ECDIS).

However, getting good viewing under a wide variety of illumination

conditions and several decades of intensity is a difficult challenge to
achieve. LCDs have truly revolutionised the portable
instrument/computer/communications market over the past 2
decades and are transforming the maritime user market as well, in
applications such as GPS and radar displays, etc.

PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MATRIX, AND BISTABILITY. Monochrome

passive-matrix LCDs were used in early laptops until the mid-1990s
when colour active-matrix became standard. Passive-matrix LCDs
are still used on portable devices where less information content
needs to be displayed, lower power consumption and low costs are
required. Displays with a passive-matrix structure employ S.T.N. or
double-layer S.T.N. D.S.T.N. technology (the latter addresses colour-
shifting problems) and Colour S.T.N. (C.S.T.N.) where colour is added
with an internal filter. S.T.N. LCDs exhibit a sharper threshold of the
Contrast-vs-Voltage characteristic than T.N. LCDs. This is important
since pixels are subject to partial voltages even when not selected.
Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels are treated
better by keeping the r.m.s. voltage of non-activated pixels below the
threshold voltage, while activated pixels require voltages above the
threshold. S.T.N. LCDs must be continuously refreshed by alternating
pulsed voltages of opposite polarity. This display type is called
passive-matrix addressed, because a pixel must retain its state
between refreshes without a steady electrical charge. As the number
of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this
type of display becomes less effective. Slow response times and poor
contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many
pixels. T.N. displays contain L.C.s that twist and untwist at varying
degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to
a T.N. liquid crystal cell, polarised light passes through the 90º twisted
L.C. layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, L.C.s untwist,
changing the polarisation and blocking the light’s path. By properly
adjusting the level of the voltage almost any grey level or
transmission can be achieved.

However, new zero-power (bistable) LCDs do not require continuous

refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes.
Potentially, passive-matrix addressing can be used with these new
devices, if their write/erase characteristics are suitable. A Zenithal
Bistable Device (Z.B.D.) developed by several past research
colleagues at QinetiQ, UK, can retain an image without power. L.C.s
exist in one of 2 stable orientations (‘Black’ and ‘White’) and power is
only needed to change the image. Z.B.D. displays is a spin-off
company from QinetiQ who manufacture both greyscale and colour
Z.B.D.s. Kent Displays also has developed a ‘no power’ display using
polymer-stabilised Cholesteric Liquid Crystal (ChLCD). In 2009, Kent
demonstrated a ChLCD covering the entire surface of a mobile
phone, allowing it to change colour, and retain that colour even when
power is cut off. In 2004, researchers at the University of Oxford, UK,
demonstrated 2 other types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on
Z.B.D. techniques. Several bistable technologies, like the 360° B.T.N.
and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on L.C. bulk properties
and use standard strong anchoring. Other bistable technologies are
based mainly on surface properties and need specific weak
anchoring materials.

The Plasma Display Device

History
In 1936, a Hungarian engineer, Kálmán Tihanyi, described the
principle of ‘plasma television’, conceiving the first flat-panel display
system. The monochrome plasma video display was co-invented in
1964 by Bitzer, Slottow and Willson for the PLATO Computer System.
Neon orange monochrome ‘Digivue’ display panels built by glass
producer Owens-Illinois were popular in the early 1970s because
they were rugged and needed neither memory nor circuitry to refresh
images.

Burroughs Corporation, a maker of adding machines and computers,

developed the ‘Panaplex’ display in the early 1970s, and was
generally referred to as a gas-discharge or gas-plasma display. They
became popular for their bright orange luminous look and found
widespread use in commercial applications and aircraft avionics such
as radios and navigational instruments. These displays remained
popular until LEDs gained popularity because of their low-current
draw and module-flexibility.

A Plasma Display Panel (P.D.P.) is a type of flat panel display

common to large TV displays 76 cm or larger so called because the
technology uses small cells containing electrically charged ionised
gases, and are in essence fluorescent lamps. Plasma displays are
bright (1000 lux), with a wide colour range, and can be manufactured
up to 3.8 m diagonally. They have a low-luminance dark black level
compared with the light grey on an unilluminated LCD screen (i.e.
black is black on plasmas compared with grey on LCDs). The display
panel itself is about 6 cm thick, allowing a device’s total thickness
(including electronics) to be under 10 cm. Power consumption varies
greatly with picture content, with bright scenes drawing more power
than dark ones. The hot gas (plasma) that illuminates the screen
reaches a temperature of at least 1200°C but if the screen is cracked,
the gas inside instantly cools down to prevent major injuries or fire.
Typical power consumption is 200–300 W for a 1.27 m display. The
lifetime of the latest plasma displays is estimated at 100 000 hours of
display time, the estimated time over which maximum picture
brightness degrades to half its original value. Currently, plasma
panels are not economically manufactured in screen sizes much
smaller than 82 cm. Although a few companies have made Plasma
Enhanced-Definition Televisions (P.E.D.TV) these small, plasma
displays have not as yet competed in these small market areas.

Plasma display advantages

They can provide superior contrast ratios and wider viewing angles
than LCDs, and images do not suffer from degradation at high angles
unlike LCDs. Less visible motion blur occurs, due to the high refresh
rates and a fast response time, contributing to superior performance
when displaying content with large amounts of rapid motion.

Plasma display disadvantages

Earlier displays were susceptible to screen burn-out and image

retention. Due to the bistable nature of the colour and intensity
generating method, some people notice plasma displays have a
‘flickering effect’ with various hues, intensities and patterns. Early
generation displays also had phosphors that lost luminosity over time,
resulting in gradual decline of absolute brightness. However, they use
more electrical power on average than an LCD TV. Modern H.D.TV
plasma TVs provide typical resolutions up to 1920 × 1080 pixels in
plasma screen sizes up to 103 inch.

A panel typically comprises millions of tiny cells between 2 panels of

glass. These ‘bulbs’ or ‘cells’ hold a mix of noble gases and a tiny
amount of mercury gas or plasma. When mercury is vaporised above
1200°C and a high voltage applied across the cell, gas in the cells
forms a plasma. With flow of electrons, some electrons strike mercury
particles as they move through the plasma, increasing the energy
level of the atom until excess energy is emitted. Mercury emits
energy as Ultra Violet (U.V.) photons which then strike phosphors
painted on the inside of a cell. When the U.V. photon strikes a
phosphor molecule, it raises the energy level of an outer orbital
electron of the phosphor molecule, moving an electron from a lower
to a higher state. The electron then releases the excess energy as a
photon at a lower energy level than U.V., with energy levels mostly in
the infrared, and about 40% visible. Depending on the phosphors
used, different visible colours can be achieved. Each pixel in a
plasma display is made up of 3 cells comprising the primary colours
of visible light, and by varying the high voltage of the signals to the
cells generates different colours.

Long electrodes or stripes of electrically conducting material lie

between the glass plates (the screen heats up some 30–40°C during
operation) in front of and behind the cells. The ‘address electrodes’ sit
behind the cells, along the rear glass plate, and can be opaque.
Transparent display electrodes are mounted in front of the cell, along
the front glass plate. Electrodes are covered by an insulating
protective layer. Control circuitry charges the electrodes creating a
voltage difference between the front and back. Some of the atoms in
the gas then lose electrons and are ionised, creating an electrically
conducting plasma of atoms, free electrons and ions. Collisions
between flowing electrons in the plasma with the inert gas atoms
leads to light emission or a glow discharge.

In a monochrome plasma panel, the gas is usually neon, and the

colour is the characteristic orange of a neon-filled lamp (or sign).
Once a glow discharge has been initiated in a cell, it is maintained by
applying a low-level voltage between all the horizontal and vertical
electrodes – even after the ionising voltage is removed. To erase a
cell, the voltages between a pair of electrodes are removed. In colour
panels, the back of each cell is coated with a phosphor, the U.V.
photons emitted by the plasma excite these phosphors, which give off
visible light with colours determined by the phosphors used.

Every pixel is made up of 3 separate sub-pixel cells, each with

different coloured phosphors. These colours blend together to create
the overall pixel colour, the same as the shadow mask of a triad CRT
or colour LCD. Plasma panels use Pulse-Width Modulation (P.W.M.)
to control brightness: by varying the pulses of current flowing through
the different cells thousands of times per second, we can increase or
decrease the intensity of each sub-pixel colour to create millions of
different combinations of red, green and blue. In this way, the P.W.M.
system can produce nearly all the visible colours. Plasma displays
use the same phosphors as CRTs, which accounts for the extremely
accurate colour reproduction when viewing TV or computer video
images (which use an RGB colour system designed for CRT display
technology). Contrast ratios for plasma displays are often advertised
as high as 5 000 000:1. This is a big advantage for plasma over most
other current display technologies, a notable exception being organic
LEDs.

Plasma is often cited as having better (i.e. darker) black levels (and
higher contrast ratios). Each cell on a plasma display has to be
precharged before it is due to be illuminated (otherwise the cell will
not respond quickly enough) and this precharging means cells cannot
achieve a true black, whereas an LED backlit LCD panel can actually
turn off parts of the screen. Some manufacturers have reduced the
precharge and associated background glow, so that the black levels
on modern plasmas rival CRT. With LCD technology, black pixels are
generated by light polarisation method, but many panels cannot
completely block the underlying backlight.

Screen burn-out

Image burn-out occurs on CRTs and plasma panels when the same
picture is displayed for long periods as can take place with marine
radar showing short-range sea clutter. This causes phosphors to
overheat, losing some of their luminosity to produce a ‘shadow’ image
that is visible with the power off. Burn-out is especially a problem on
plasma panels because they run hotter than CRTs. Plasma displays
also exhibit another image retention issue which is sometimes
confused with screen burn-out. In this mode, when a group of pixels
is run at high brightness (e.g. when displaying white) for an extended
period, a charge build-up in the pixel structure occurs and a ‘ghost
image’ is seen. However, unlike burn-out, charge build-up is transient
and disappears after the image condition that caused the effect has
been removed and a long enough period has been passed.
Until the early 2000s, plasma displays were the most popular choice
for H.D. TV flat panel display as they had many benefits over LCDs.
Beyond plasma’s deeper blacks, increased contrast, faster response
time, greater colour spectrum and wider viewing angle, they also had
much bigger screens than LCDs, and it was believed LCD technology
was suited only to small-sized TVs. However, improvements in LCD
fabrication methods have reduced the technological gap. The
increased size, lower weight, falling prices and often lower electrical
power consumption of LCDs now makes them competitive with
plasma TV sets with screen sizes having increased since the
introduction of plasma displays. In 2010, the shipments of plasma
TVs were estimated at 18.2 million units globally.

ElectroLuminescent Displays
ElectroLuminescent Displays (E.L.D.s) are a type of flat panel display
created by sandwiching a layer of ElectroLuminescent (E.L.) material
such as GaAs between 2 conductors. When current flows, the layer
of material emits visible light. E.L. is an optical and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric
current passed through it, or to a strong electric field. E.L. works by
exciting atoms by passing an electric current through them, causing
them to emit photons. By varying the material being excited, the
colour of the light emitted can change. An E.L.D. is constructed using
flat, opaque electrode strips running parallel to each other, covered
by a layer of electroluminescent material, followed by another layer of
electrodes, perpendicular to the bottom layer. This top layer must be
transparent to let light escape. At each intersection, the material
emits light, creating a pixel.

An Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) is an LED in which the

emissive E.L. layer is a thin film of organic compound which glows
(emits light) in response to an electric current, and is placed between
2 electrodes. Generally, at least one of the electrodes is transparent.
OLEDs create digital displays in devices.
There are 2 main families of OLED: those based on small molecules
and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED
creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or L.E.C., which has a
slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays are either
Passive-Matrix (PMOLED) or Active-Matrix addressing schemes.
Active-Matrix OLEDs (AMOLED) require a T.F.T. backplane to switch
each individual pixel on or off, but allows for higher resolution and
larger display sizes. An OLED display works without a backlight. It
can display deep black levels and can be even thinner and lighter
than an LCD. In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an
OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD.
Recent developments of OLEDs have seen LG’s and Samsung’s 55
inch curved OLED TVs (2013) and the LG GFlex, Osram’s Luminaire
and Audi’s car backlit OLED.

History

The first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials

was in the early 1950s by André Bernanose and co-workers at
Nancy-Université, France. They applied high-voltage A.C. current
fields in air to acridine orange, deposited on or dissolved in
cellophane thin films. In 1960, Martin Pope and co-workers at New
York University developed ohmic dark-injecting electrode contacts to
organic crystals. They described the energy requirements (work
functions) for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These
contacts are the basis of charge injection in modern OLED devices.

E.L. from polymer films was first observed by Roger Partridge at the
National Physical Laboratory, UK, with a device made of a 2.2 μm
thick poly(n-vinylcarbazole) film between 2 charge injecting
electrodes. The first diode device was reported at Eastman Kodak by
Tang and Van Slyke in 1987 with a 2-layer structure with separate
hole and electron transporting layers so the recombination and light
emission occur in the middle of the organic layer, resulting in a
reduction in operating voltage and efficiency improvement. In 1990
Burroughes et al. at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge reported
a high-efficiency green light-emitting polymer-based device with 100
nm thick films of poly(p-phenylene vinylene).

A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated

between 2 electrodes, the anode and cathode, deposited on a
substrate. Organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of
delocalised Π electrons caused by conjugation overall or part of the
molecule. Such materials have conductivity levels ranging from
insulators to conductors, and are considered organic semiconductors.
The Highest Occupied and Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbitals
(H.O.M.O. and L.U.M.O. respectively) of organic semiconductors are
analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic
semiconductors. A schematic diagram of a typical OLED is given in
figure 14.11 with an actual theoretical model output of light output for
this structure given in figure 14.12, according to the model details
given [3].
▲ Figure 14.11 A typical OLED: I.T.O. hole collecting Cathode electrode (–),
Emissive PEDOT Layer, Donor Acceptor Heterojunction PEOPT/C60 interface, and
Aluminium electron collecting Anode (+) electrode (for top device this is opaque and
reflective).

▲ Figure 14.12 Theoretical device output response for the OLED shown in figure
14.11. The top curve shows the largest absorption is in the PEOPT layer (A = 1 – R
with T = 0).

Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single

organic layer. One example was the first LED synthesised by
Burroughes, which involved a single layer of poly(p-phenylene
vinylene). However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with 2 or
more layers to improve device efficiency. As well as conductive
properties, different materials can aid charge injection at electrodes
by providing a more gradual electronic profile, or block charges from
reaching the opposite electrode and being wasted. Many modern
OLEDs incorporate a bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive
layer and an emissive layer. More recent developments in OLED
architecture improve quantum efficiency using a graded
heterojunction.

During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED so the anode

is positive with respect to the cathode. Anodes are chosen for their
optical transparency, electrical conductivity and chemical stability. An
electron current flows through the device from cathode to anode, as
electrons are injected into the organic L.U.M.O. layer at the cathode
and withdrawn from the H.O.M.O. at the anode. This latter process is
described as the injection of electron holes into the H.O.M.O.
Electrostatic forces bring electrons and holes towards each other and
they recombine forming a temporary exciton, a bound state of an
electron and a hole. This happens close to the emissive layer
because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more mobile
than electrons. Decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of
the electron’s energy levels, accompanied by radiation emission
whose frequency is in the visible. Radiation frequency depends on
the material’s band gap, in this case the difference in energy between
the H.O.M.O. and L.U.M.O.

I.T.O. is often used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible

light and has a high work function which promotes injection of holes
into the organic layer’s H.O.M.O. level. A typical conductive layer
consists of PEDOT:PSS, as the H.O.M.O. level of this material lies
between the work function of I.T.O. and the H.O.M.O. of other
commonly used polymers, reducing the hole injection energy barrier.
Metals such as barium and calcium are often used for the cathode as
they have low work functions which promote electrons injection into
the organic layer’s L.U.M.O. Such metals are reactive, so they require
a capping layer of aluminium to prevent degradation.
The properties of the anode, specifically the anode/Hole Transport
Layer (H.T.L.) interface topography, play a key role in the efficiency,
performance and lifetime of OLEDs. Anode surface imperfections
decrease anode-organic film interface adhesion, increase electrical
resistance and cause formation of non-emissive dark spots in the
OLED material, adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to decrease
anode roughness for I.T.O./glass substrates include use of thin films
and self-assembled monolayers.

As current through the device is composed of only one type of charge

carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination does not occur and
no light is emitted. Electron-only devices can be obtained by
replacing I.T.O. with a lower work function metal which increases the
energy barrier of hole injection. Hole-only devices can be made using
a cathode made only of aluminium, resulting in an energy barrier too
big for efficient electron injection. Optical modelling of OLEDs’ takes
into account many factors such as: layer thickness (d), light emitting
dipole position (z) and orientation (θ), as well as optical constants (n
and k) and the internal radiative quantum efficiency (q).

Material fabrication technologies

Small Molecule OLEDs (SM-OLEDs). Efficient OLEDs using small

molecules were first developed by Ching Tang at Eastman Kodak.
Molecules commonly used in OLEDs include organometallic chelates
(as used in the OLED reported by Tang), fluorescent and
phosphorescent dyes. Several materials are used for their charge
transport properties, such as triphenylamine. Fluorescent dyes are
chosen to obtain light emission at different wavelengths, and
compounds such as perylene, rubrene and quinacridone derivatives
are often used. Manufacture of S.M.-OLED devices and displays
often involves thermal vacuum evaporation, making the production
process expensive and of limited use for large-area devices, but
vacuum deposition forms well-controlled homogeneous films and
ideal for construction of complex multilayer structures. This flexibility
in layer design, allowing different charge transport and charge
blocking layers to be formed together, is the main reason for the high
efficiencies of S.M.-OLEDs.

Polymer Light Emitting Diodes

Poly (p-phenylene vinylene) used in the first Polymer Light-Emitting
Diodes (PLED) or Light-Emitting Polymers (L.E.P.) involves an E.L.
conductive polymer that emits light when connected to an external
voltage. Polymer OLEDs are efficient and require little power for the
amount of light produced. Vacuum deposition is not a suitable method
for forming such thin polymer films, but they can be processed in
solution. Spin coating is a common deposition method and is better
suited to large-area films rather than thermal evaporation. No vacuum
is required, and emissive materials can be applied on the substrate
by a technique derived from commercial inkjet printing.

Phosphorescent materials

Phosphorescent OLEDs use the principle of electrophosphorescence

to convert electrical energy in an OLED into light efficiently, with
internal quantum efficiencies (q) approaching 100%. Typically, a
polymer acts as a host material to which an organometallic dopant
complex such as indium or platinum is added.

Device structure: Bottom or top emission?

Bottom or top distinction refers not to the orientation of the OLED

display, but to the direction of emitted light as it exits the device.
OLED devices are classed as bottom emission devices if light emitted
passes through the transparent or semi-transparent bottom electrode
and substrate on which the panel was formed. Top emission devices
are those where light is emitted from the OLED device through the
top (e.g. figures 14.11 and 14.12). Top-emitting OLEDs are better
suited for active-matrix applications as they can be more easily
integrated with a non-transparent transistor backplane. The T.F.T.
arrays attached to the bottom substrate on which AMOLEDs are
manufactured are usually non-transparent, resulting in almost
complete blockage of transmitted light if the device has a bottom
emitting scheme.

Transparent OLEDs (TOLED) use transparent or semi-transparent

contacts on both sides of the device to create displays that can be
both top and bottom emitting (transparent). TOLEDs can greatly
improve contrast, making it easier to view displays in bright sunlight.
This technology is used in head-up displays, smart windows or
augmented reality for maritime and military applications.

In OLEDs, light produced from the emissive layers of an OLED is

partly transmitted out of the device and partly trapped inside the
device by Total Internal Reflection (T.I.R.). Trapped light is wave-
guided along inside the device until it reaches an edge where it is
either absorbed or emitted. InkJet Etching can help selectively alter
the polymer layers of OLED structures to decrease T.I.R. and
increase OLED out-coupling efficiency.

BACKPLANE TECHNOLOGIES. For a high-resolution display like a

TV, a T.F.T. backplane is needed to drive the pixels. Low Temperature
Polycrystalline Silicon (L.T.P.S.) T.F.T. are used in commercial
AMOLED displays.

Fabrication

Transfer-printing is an emerging technology for assembling many

parallel OLED and AMOLED devices efficiently. Transfer-printing
takes advantage of standard metal deposition, photolithography and
etching on glass substrates. Integrated Circuits (ICs) are transfer-
printed onto the adhesive surface and then baked to fully cure
adhesive layers. Photolithography and etching are performed to
remove some polymer layers, e.g. to uncover conductive pads on the
ICs. Then an anode layer is applied to the device backplane to form
the bottom electrode. OLED layers are then applied to the anode
layer using conventional vapour deposition processes, and covered
with a conductive metal electrode layer.

OLED advantages

OLEDs have the advantages of lightweight and flexible plastic

substrates, wider viewing angles and improved brightness than LEDs,
better power efficiency and thickness and improved response times.
OLEDs also have a faster response time than standard LCD screens.
While LCD displays have response times between 1 and 16 ms with
a refresh rate of 60 to 480 Hz, an OLED theoretically can respond in
less than 0.01 ms, enabling a refresh rate up to 100 kHz. Efficiency
and lifetime improvements of blue OLEDs is key to the success of
OLEDs replacing LCD technology.

OLED disadvantages

OLED manufacture currently requires process steps that make it

extremely expensive. The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the
limited lifetime of the organic materials. Furthermore the OLED
materials used to produce blue light degrade significantly faster than
the materials that produce other colours, so blue light output
decreases relative to the other colours. This variation in the
differential colour output changes the display colour balance and is
more noticeable than an overall luminance decrease. Water can
damage the organic materials of the displays. Therefore, improved
sealing processes are important for practical manufacturing. Water
damage especially may limit the longevity of more flexible displays.

Outdoor performance

As an emissive display technology, OLEDs rely totally upon

converting electricity to light, unlike most LCDs which are partly
reflective. E-paper applications are probably the most efficient with
~33% ambient light reflectivity, enabling a display to be used without
any internal light source. The OLED’s metallic cathode can act as a
mirror, with about 80% reflectance, leading to poor readability in
bright ambient light such as outdoors. However, with the application
of a circular polariser and anti-reflective coatings, diffuse reflectance
can be reduced to below 0.1%.

Power consumption

Most of the time OLEDs consume 60–80% of the power of an

equivalent LCD. However, they can use 3 times as much power
displaying an image with a white background. This leads to reduced
battery life in mobile devices if white backgrounds are used.

Holographic Displays
We introduce holography as a candidate for future maritime display
devices. One key aim of display technology is the desire to show
dynamic 3D images that appears to ‘float freely in space’, much as
Leia Organa did when projected from R2-D2 to Luke Skywalker in
George Lucas movie Star Wars (incidentally the man who played
Darth Vader in the original Star Wars films worked for my grandfather
in Bristol for some time, but that was not the reason he turned to the
Dark side!). The history of 3D displays, however, began in 1838 when
Charles Wheatstone at Kings’ College London proposed the
stereoscope, based on stereo vision principles. Because human eyes
are separated between 5 and 7 cm, we observe different
perspectives of an object, so the illusion of depth can be created
using two 2D images whose features are slightly offset from each
other. The brain merges these 2 images into a single 3D perspective.
The desire for dynamic 3D images spurred rapid development of
early 3D-movie technology. Stereoscopy using polarised glasses
found wide use in 3D cinemas from 1952. Ideally a 3D display should
render objects as they naturally appear, so 2 orthogonal states, e.g.
left and right circular polarisation, are used to distinguish the left and
right perspectives. These 2 views are then projected onto a highly
reflective screen through orthogonal polarisation filters, and
observer’s polarised glasses then separate the left and right views.

Hologram, the projection of laser-light interference, to form the

representation of an object in 3 dimensions rather than on a 2D
screen, is a key technology that may be exploited and developed in
the marine environment for realistic 3D radar display and other
applications. Holography is a diffraction-based coherent imaging
technique in which a complex 3D object is reproduced from a flat 2D
screen with a complex signal containing both amplitude and phase
values. Integration of real-time data into display technology is one of
the most challenging objectives for future marine displays. Only
holography allows reconstruction of natural looking 3D scenes
providing natural depth perception, and causing viewers to focus on
the image rather than the ‘background’ screen. Holography, the
projection of laser-light, was originally proposed by Dennis Gabor in
1948, long before the first laser appeared, to store information about
both the intensity and phase of light scattered from an object.
Because holograms reconstruct the wavefronts of light, viewers
perceive light as if it were scattered from the object itself. There is no
shortage of technologies that have been proposed to achieve 3D
displays but as yet no commercially available maritime-based system
is available on the market. In the future 3D holographic display
technologies may provide depth cues and sufficient image quality to
make them suitable for maritime and naval applications (like those in
the final Geonocian battle in Star Wars Episode 2: Attack of the
Clones). While there have been significant development in 3D display
technology in the past decade, the remaining visual problems of
natural viewing and 3D stereo visualisation have so far prevented 3D
displays becoming a real-world consumer product.

Practice Examples
14.1 An incident photon has a wavelength of 600 nm, what will be the
equivalent energy in electron Volts (eV) (4 decimal places)?
14.2 If an incident photon of wavelength 550 nm strikes a
photocathode having a barium oxide layer with work function = 1.6
eV, what will be the energy of an electron released from the
electrode surface in eV (2 significant figures)?
14.3 If the photon of Question 14.2 were decreased by 5 nm show
using differentiation the expected change in the energy of the
incident photon (2 decimal places).
14.4 If the voltage between the Cathode and Anode of a CRT is 10
000 V, what is the Electric Field generated across the device if the
separation between the electrodes is 10 cm (2 significant figures)?
14.5 With the time-base of a CRT switched off, an unknown voltage is
applied across the CRT’s Y plates. The vertical deflection of the
spot is measured and found to be 5.5 mm. If the voltage sensitivity
of the CRT is 4 V mm–1 what is the potential difference of the
unknown voltage (1 decimal place)?
14.6 Use the Index formula C = (H – L)/(H + L), where H is the
highest reflectivity and L the lowest reflectivity, to estimate the
Index for an unswitched room temperature F.L.C. cell between the
incident angles of the first mode (dip) below the critical angle and
the critical angle itself. Use figure 14.10 for this estimation (2
decimal places).
14.7 Describe the operation of a typical CRT used to deflect an
electron beam across a display screen.
14.8 Describe how a typical Twisted Nematic LCD and ordinary
Nematic LCD device operates. If the Vertical tilt for a Smectic C*
device takes the form (2/Π)C arctan (A sin 2 (z(Π – B)/d + B)),
where (2/Π)C controls the maximum tilt value, d is the half-cell
thickness and A a function of applied r.m.s. voltage, what will be
the vertical tilt in degrees for 2 volts applied if A = 10, B = 3 and C =
2 when z/d=0.5 (2 decimal places)?
14.9 Explain with the aid of a diagram how an OLED operates, and
the important device interfaces.
14.10 Compare the properties of the different display devices
discussed in this chapter.

References

[1] Elston, S., and Sambles, J. R., ‘Determination of the Optic Tensor
Profile in a FLC layer by the Propagation of Optic Modes’,
Ferroelectrics, 1991, Vol. 113, pp. 325–337.
[2] Lavers, C. R., and Sambles, J. R., ‘An Examination of the Optical
Dielectric Tensor of a Liquid Crystal Waveguide’, Ferroelectrics,
1991, Vol. 113, pp. 351–359.
[3] The Matlab procedure used here was adapted by G. F. Burkhard,
E. T. Hoke, M. D. McGehee, Advanced Materials, Vol. 22 (2010), p.
3293 from Leif Pettersson et al.’s work (Journal of Applied Physics,
Vol. 86, No. 1 (1999), p. 487 and Journal of Applied Physics, Vol.
93, No. 7 (2003), p. 3693) to generate a Matlab Transfer Matrix
solution for reflected and absorbed light in the various layers.
 Chapter 1

1.1. (a) Turns ratio

(b) For either winding 2 volts are induced by 1 turn

∴ The primary voltage of 240 V is induced by

and the secondary voltage of 80 V is induced by

(c) Since the kVA rating figure is the same for primary and secondary
1.2. (a) With the required voltage/turns of 1.5 V for a 440 V supply

i.e. 73 turns are required.

(b) From the transformer voltage equation
E = 4.44 Φm fN we have 440 = 4.44 Φm × 50 × 293

Using the relationship Φm = BmA

Then

Thus the area of core = 5060 mm2

(c)

1.3. (a) This solution is made with the aid of the phasor diagram shown by
figure 1.9.

or Primary voltage = 440 V

(b)

Again assuming Primary ampere-turns = Secondary ampere-turns

or
 Given also cos φ2 = 0.8 so sin φ2 = 0.6
Similarly cos φ0 = 0.3 and sin φ0 = 0.954
Then from figure 1.9.

(d)

1.4. Again, using the phasor diagram of figure 1.9 we have, since this is a
step-down transformer in terms of voltage, the primary current reduced by
the same ratio.
Thus
Using the modified cosine rule, we can write

or 7.8272 = 0.72 + 7.22 + (2 × 0.7 ×7.2 cos α)

and 61.26 = 0.49 + 51.84 + 10.08 cos α

giving α = 27°38'
and since cos φ2 = 0.8 i.e. φ2 = 36°52'
and φ0 = α + φ2 = 27°38' + 36°52' = 64°30'
so cos φ0 = 0.43
1.5. The substitution of values in the efficiency expression has been made in
kW and kVA

or

or η = 09467. Thus full-load efficiency = 94.67%.

1.6.

Note substitution of values for PFe and PCu is made in kW

Full-load efficiency = 97.6%.

(b) Since the kVA rating is now 30 kVA and it can be assumed that the
voltage remains constant, therefore iron loss remains constant.

Copper loss is proportional to current squared, thus the new copper

loss
 New efficiency = 97.9%.

1.7. For this solution, in accordance with theory, all secondary values are
referred to the primary.

Total full-load copper loss = 206.1 + 167.4 = 373.5 W

Total full-load losses = Copper losses + Iron loss
= 373.5 +170
= 543.5 W
1.8. (a) η at full-load 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

or Efficiency = 97.59%.
(b) For maximum efficiency, Copper loss = Iron loss
Total Losses under this condition = 2 × 0.17 = 0.34 kW
At Full load. Output = 27.5 kVA when copper loss is 0.374 kW

At maximum efficiency, total copper loss = 0.374 × x2 kW

But at maximum efficiency, total copper loss = 0.17 kW

∴ Output kVA at maximum efficiency = 0.67 × 27.5

= 18.43 kVA
(c) Maximum efficiency at this kVA value and at 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

Maximum efficiency = 97.75%.

1.9. Although this and the next problem are not entirely concerned with
transformer theory, they have been included to remind the students of
three-phase, line to phase voltage and kW to kVA relationships.
The diagram for the problem is shown.
 Secondary phase voltage of transformer

Primary phase voltage of transformer

Line voltage of alternator = primary phase voltage of transformer

Phase voltage of star-connected alternator

1.10.

Motor output = 120 kW

 Also transformer secondary phase voltage

So primary phase current is reduced by this value

This could also be found by an alternative method

Transformer output = Transformer input = 180.7 kVA
∴ Transformer primary line current

Transformer primary phase current

Chapter 2
2.1. Using the desired expression

So impedance of transformer referred to primary side is

 Current in the primary windings under short-circuit conditions is

2.2. Given iron loss = 165 W or 0.165 kW

Full-load copper loss = 280 W or 0.28 kW
Copper losses are proportional to current squared and current is
proportional to the kVA loading.

where x is the fraction of full-load kVA

Then (a). At full load (unity P.F.)

At half full-load (0.8 P.F.)

or Efficiency = 97.75%.
 Again (b). Transformer efficiency is maximum when the iron losses and
the copper losses are equal.
If the copper loss is 0.28 kW at 25 kVA, it will be

or at
So Maximum efficiency occurs at 19.2 kVA.

2.3. Full-load primary copper loss

For efficiency.
From O.C. test. Iron loss = 115 W
From S.C. test. Copper loss = 312 W

or Efficiency = 96.8%.
For voltage regulation
From S.C. test. Equivalent impedance referred to the primary

Equivalent reactance referred to the primary X1

Percentage voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

 Thus secondary terminal voltage would be 121 – 3.89 = 117.1 V.

2.4. From the derived expression

So the transformer was tested up to full-load value.

Percentage voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

 Percentage voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 P.F. (leading)

Total full-load copper loss = 206.1 + 167.4 = 373.5 W

=0.374 kW
Total full-load loss = Copper loss + Iron loss
= 373.5 + 170 = 543.5 W
= 0.544 kW
(a) At full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

(b) At maximum efficiency, Copper loss = Iron loss

∴ Total losses at maximum efficiency = 2 × 0.17 = 0.34 kW
At full load, Output = 27.5 kVA
and full-load copper loss = 0.374

So for maximum efficiency, total copper loss should equal

0.374 × x2 kilowatts. But it equals 0.17 kW

Output kVA at maximum efficiency = 0.67 × 27.5 = 18.43 kVA

2.6. Percentage voltage regulation

(a) Percentage voltage regulation

Thus voltage regulation = 4.15% (down).

(b) Copper loss α current2 or α kVA2
Now for maximum efficiency. Copper loss = Iron loss
∴ x2 copper loss = iron loss, where x is the fraction of full-load at which
maximum efficiency occurs.

Thus maximum efficiency occurs at 0.707 of full-load.

From O.C test. Iron loss = 75 W

From S.C. test. Copper loss = 135 W
(a) Secondary terminal voltage on full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)
= O.C. voltage – voltage drop

(b) Percentage efficiency on full load, 0.8 P.F. (lagging)

Thus Efficiency = 97.5%

2.8 Secondary voltage drop = I2(R2 cosφ2 ± X2 sinφ2)

∴ Secondary voltage drop = 217.5 {(0.04 × 0.8) + (0.094 × 0.6)}

= 217.5 (0.032 + 0.0564) = 19.2 V
and secondary terminal voltage = 230 – 19.2 = 211 V at full load, 0.8 P.F.
(lagging)
If the secondary terminals are short-circuited then the only circuit
impedance is that of the transformer itself.

and Z1 is the total impedance referred to the primary

2.9. For the equivalent circuit refer to the text and diagrams of Chapter 2,
figure 2.6.
For this problem equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is
 Full-load secondary terminal voltage = 115 – 6.43 = 108.57 V

But and PFe is given

PCu = 1522 – 0.0158 = 365 W = 0.365 kW

2.10. From O.C. test. Iron loss PFe = 250 W

From S.C. test. Copper loss PCu = 500 W
Thus Efficiency = 97.9%
The percentage voltage regulation is given by

or Voltage regulation = 4.13% (down)

Chapter 3
3.1. For the voltage transformer, the appropriate ratio would be
. The voltage will not vary appreciably and this ratio

should be suitable. For the current transformer the appropriate ratio, to

give full-scale deflection, would be . Since current is a

variable quantity depending on the load, in the opinion of the author, it is

always safer to allow for overload conditions.
Thus the full-load reading should not occur at full scale and this can be
achieved by using a larger C.T. ratio. In this case or would be

suitable. Normal reading would then occur at about two-thirds full scale.
By using a C.T. ratio, the wattmeter, being used on the 5 A and 110 V

ranges, must have its reading multiplied by the factors of 30 for the
current and 60 for the voltage.
The required constant is 30 × 60 = 1800.

3.2. Motor output = 75 kW

A 150/5 ratio current-transformer would be suitable but it is usual to allow

a portion of the scale for noting starting and overload conditions and a
250/5 ratio C.T. would be the better proposition. If used, the meter reading
would be , the C.T. ratio being taken into account.

Reading = 3 A for normal running conditions.

3.3. (a) The three-phase apparent power

 The wattmeter reading would be secondary C.T. current × phase
voltage × load P.F.

Note: The result could be arrived at, in a more direct fashion, since the
power per phase = = 4 kW or 4000 W. The C.T. ratio = i.e.

reading= = 800 W
It is pointed out that, since the load is balanced and star-connected, the
voltage-coil of the wattmeter is connected between a line and the star-

point. The wattmeter is therefore subjected to V, i.e. a value within

the rated range.

(c) The equivalent resistance = 11.48 × 0.8 = 9.184 Ω

The equivalent reactance = 11.48 × 0.6 = 6.888 Ω

3.4. Since the power is being measured by one wattmeter, it is evident that a
neutral or star-point is available or has been artificially created and the
total power will be three times the power measured – which is phase
power.
Although phase voltage is applied to the instrument, reduced current in
the ratio of is being applied, i.e. the wattmeter constant for the

arrangement would be 5 and phase power would be 7 × 5 = 35 kW.

The total three-phase power = 3 × 35 = 105 kW.
3.5. Ratio of C.T.s

Ammeter voltage drop at 5 A = 5 × 0.08 = 0.4 V

Ammeter burden = 5 × 0.4 = 2 VA
Wattmeter voltage drop at 5 A = 5 × 0.1 = 0.5 V
Wattmeter burden per current coil = 5 × 0.5 = 2.5 VA
∴ C.T. burden = 2 + 2.5 = 4.5 say 5 VA. This is a minimum value, a
transformer capable of a larger burden say 10 VA would give greater
accuracy on overload and would allow for extension of instrumentation
should this be required.

∴ V.T. burden = 3.96 + 3.6 = 7.56 say 10 VA. Here again, a transformer
rating greater than the burden is usual.

3.6. Transformation ratio

Secondary current = 100 A

and since primary kVA = secondary kVA

Thus the single section of winding carries 80 A and the common section
of winding carries (100 – 80) = 20 A
3.7. Normal current rating of L.T. winding

Normal current rating of H.T. winding

With the L.T. winding connected in series with the H.T. winding so that the
latter forms the common section, the output current would be 40 + 24 = 64
A. Thus the maximum load kVA rating . A load of 12

kVA could therefore be supplied, since the current rating of the windings
would be in direct proportion to the kVA values.

3.8. Transformer rating

Current in common section of a phase winding = 656 – 525 = 131 A

Current in section of a phase winding supplying 550 V = 525 A.

3.9. The most usual method of using a three-phase auto-transformer is to

have the phase windings connected in star. The catch in this problem is
the fact that, a delta connection is used and for such an arrangement, the
 secondary line voltage is not 70% the primary voltage, when the 70%
tapping is used. This is illustrated by the diagrams and solution:

The phasor diagram shows the output voltage between lines as given by
the solution

Note here VL is the line voltage = VRY = VYB

The voltage applied to the motor terminals would be:

0.61 × 440 = 2684 V.

3.10. Motor power output = 40 000 W

Direct-on starting current = 75.3 × 6 = 452 A

As already noted for a star-connected arrangement, the output voltage is
proportional to the transformer tapping. Thus the output voltage = 75% of
the input voltage, and in consequence the starting current will be only
75% of the direct-on starting value because of the reduced impressed
voltage on the motor.
Thus starting current = 0.75 × 452 = 339 A
 Again due to transformer action and the fact that secondary kVA =
Primary kVA, the primary or supply current is 75% of the secondary
current = 0.75 × 339 amperes.
Thus supply current = 254 A
Note: This latter part of the question is better answered with a knowledge
of induction motor theory and is fully dealt with in the appropriate section
of this book. Here we can say that, torque is proportional to the voltage
squared and therefore, if the voltage is reduced to a value then, the

torque will be reduced to of the starting value = of the

full load value = 0.5625 × 1.5 × full-load value = 0.844 × full-load value.

Chapter 4
4.1. Back e.m.f. = 230 – (18 × 0 9) = 230 – 16.2 = 213.8 V
Power developed by armature = 213.8 × 18 W
= 3848.4 W = 3.848 kW
Power developed by shaft = 3.848 – 0.112 = 3.736 kW

Alternative solution.

Armature copper loss = 182 × 0.9 = 291.6 W

Rotational loss = 112 W
Total losses = 176.3 + 291.6 + 112 = 580 W
 Output = 4316.3 – 580 = 3736.3 W
= 3.736 kW

4.2. On Load. Output = 110 kW

Then PR = Losses on load – Load copper losses

= (Input – Output) – Arm. copper loss – Field copper loss
or

Solution is made easier if the Constant loss PC is used = 8.35 + 4.6 =

12.95

On No-load Let I0 = the no-load motor current

Then input No-load losses

VI0 = Pc + Arm. copper loss
 and 460I0 = 12 950 + (I0 – 10)2 × 0.03
460I0 = 12 950 + (I02 – 20I0 + 100) × 0.03
or 46 000I0 = 1 295 000 + 3I02 – 60I0 + 300

Whence 3I02 – 46 060I0 + 1 295 300 = 0

or I02 – 15 353I0 + 431 767 = 0

Solving for

Thus .

The following approximation would have made an easier solution.

Since the no-load armature current is small – some one-tenth of full-load
current, then the armature copper loss on no load would be one
hundredth of the full-load value = = 0.02 kW. It is sufficiently small to

be neglected. If this was done then

On no-load VI0 = Pc or 460 I0 = 12 950

4.3 No Load. Input = (6.5 + 2.2)200 = 8.7 × 200 = 1740 W

Input = PR + Arm. Cu loss + Field Cu loss

= PR + (6.52 × 0.043) + (2.2 × 200)
 or 1740 = PR + 1.8 + 440
Thus PR = 1740 – 441.8 = 1298.2 W

On Load. Let Ia = the full load armature current

Then Input = Output + Losses
or 200 (Ia + 2.2) = 15 000 + (Arm. Cu loss + Field Cu loss + PR)
= 15 000 + 0.043Ia2+1738.2
or 0.043Ia2 – 200Ia + 16 298 = 0

Thus Ia = 82.56 A where the motor armature current is 82.56 A and the
field current 2.2 A.
∴ Total input current = 84.76 A
The motor input power is 200 × 84.76 W

or Efficiency = 88.5%.

4.4. A machine is rated at 150 kW, 220 V. Therefore the current would be
During testing, it can be assumed that, overloading is not desirable and
therefore the machine which should be fully loaded would be the motor
The motoring machine takes 681.8 A. Its field would be weaker than that
of the generator, since the back e.m.f. would be below 220 V. Therefore
motor field current IfM = 5 A and IaM = 681.8 – 5 = 676.8 A.
The generating machine supplies 681.8 – 140 = 541.8 A
The field current IfG = 7 A so IaG = 541.8 + 7 = 548.8 A
Input from the line = 140 × 220 W
= 2PR + Armature Cu loss of 2 machines + Field Cu loss of 2 machines
So 30 800 = 2PR + 0.02(676.82 + 548.82) + 220(5 + 7)
= 2PR + 0.02(457 550 + 302 000) + (220 × 12)
= 2PR + (0.02 × 759 550) + 2640
= 2PR + 15 191 + 2640 = 2PR + 17 831

Then estimated efficiency as a generator is deduced from

As a generator IaG = 681.8 + 7 = 688.8 A

Generator efficiency = 89.6%.

The estimated efficiency as a motor is given by
 Motor current = 681.8 A Field current = 5 A
and IaM = 678.8 A

Thus motor efficiency = 88.9%.

Efficiency of each machine, as estimated on the test bed, is

Assessed efficiency of each machine = 89.1%.

4.5 Since E α Φ and N, then new voltage values can be deduced for each
field-current value by multiplying by the speed ratio

If values (amperes)
0 0.1 0.24 0.5 0.77 1.2 1.92 3.43
E at 700 rev/min (volts)
10 20 40 80 120 160 200 240
E at 850 rev/min (volts) = 10 × 1.21 = 12.1 and so for all values it is
12.1 24.2 48.4 96.8 145.2 193.6 242 290.4

(a) The results, when plotted, are shown by the curves in the above figure.
Read 210 V on the 850 rev/min characteristic. Join this point to zero.
This is the field resistance voltage-drop line for self-excitation to 210 V.
The corresponding If = 1.4 A

Similarly read 250 V on the 850 rev/min characteristic. Join this point to
zero. This is the field resistance voltage-drop line for self-excitation to
250 V. Corresponding If = 2.1 A.

Series resistance for 210 V condition = 142.9 – 52 = 90.9 Ω

Series resistance for 250 V condition = 119 – 52 = 67 Ω
Range of field rheostat required is from 90.9 to 67 Ω
 (b) If armature current = 200 A, then voltage drop in armature must be 200
× 0.04 = 8 V. If the terminal voltage is to be 220 V, then O.C. voltage
must be 220 + 8 = 228 V.
From O.C.C., field current = 1.65 A (shown on graph)

Regulator = 138.2 – 52 = 86.2 Ω

4.6 Output of motor = 10 000 W

Half full-load current condition.

Also Torque T α Φ I so T α I2
 Thus T2 = 0.25T1

Thus change of torque = 75%.

4.7 For a fan T α N12 and for the two speed conditions

Also for a series motor, T α Φ I but Φ α I i.e. T = kI2

Again if Eb1 is the original back e.m.f. and Eb2 the final back e.m.f.
then Eb1 = 110 – (28 × 0.5) = 96 V
Again, generated voltage Eb α Φ N and since Φ α I then Eb α I N

Let R = the required series resistance

 Then 110 = I2(0.5 + R) +54 or 21(0.5 + R) = 56
and 0.5 + R = 2.67 giving R = 2.17 Ω
Required series resistance is 2.17 Ω.

Armature current = 51.15 – 2 = 49.15 A

Back e.m.f. Eb1 = 230 – (51.15 × 0.2) = 230 – 10.23
= 219.77 V
As a generator. E = V + IaRa so E2 = 220 + (51.15 × 0.2)
Or E2 = 220 + 10.23 = 230.23 V
Since E is proportional to Φ and N and Φ can be assumed proportional to
If, then E = kIfN

4.9. With R = 0 and a motor resistance of 0.3 Ω, the voltage-drop when the
current is 20 A is 20 × 03 = 6 V
 Then back e.m.f. Eb1 = 220 – 6 = 214 V
With R = 3 Ω, a motor resistance of 0.3 Ω and a current of 15 A the back
e.m.f. Eb2 = 220 – 15 × 3.3 = 220 – 49.5 = 170.5 V
Since the generated e.m.f. is proportional to speed and flux then

For the first speed condition N1 = 1200 rev/min, Eb1 = 214 V and the flux
is Φ1. For the second speed condition Eb2 = 170.5 V and Φ2 = 0.8 Φ1
Using the above deduction

or N2 = 1195 rev/min
Torque is proportional to armature current and flux, whereas power output
is proportional to torque and speed. The relationship can therefore be
expressed as

Thus the power output at the original speed is 1.67 times the power output
at the second speed condition.

4.10 Total machine losses = 5 × 220 = 1100 W

Field current = 220/160 = 1.375 A
Field copper loss = 1.375 2 × 160 = 302 W
Armature current = 5 – 1.375 = 3.625 A
Armature copper loss = 3.625 2 × 0.4 = 5.25 W
 Rotational loss = 1100 – 302 – 5.25 = 792.75 W
Back e.m.f. on no load = Eb = V – Ia0 × Ra = 220 – (3.625 × 0.4)
= 220 – 1.45 = 218.55 V
On load
Field copper loss = 302 W
Rotational loss = 792.75 W
Armature current = 45 – 1.375 = 43.625 A
Armature copper loss = 43.632 × 0.4 = 765 W
Total losses = 302 + 792.75 + 765 = 1860 W
Motor input = 220 × 45 = 9900 W
Efficiency = (Input – Losses) / Input = (9900 – 1860)/9900 = 81.2%
Back e.m.f. on load Eb = 220 – (43.625 × 0.4) = 220 – 17.45
Now N is proportional to Eb/φ or No-load speed/full load speed = Eb0/Eb1
(for constant φ)
Thus speed with constant flux = 800/N = 218.55/202.55
Or N = 800 × 202.55/218.55 = 741 rev/min
Since flux is weakened then speed increases in accordance
with N1 = 741 × 100/97 = 765 rev/min

Chapter 5
5.1. (a)

or

∴ i = 10 – 10e–0.1
Let x = 10e–0.1 Then log x = log 10 – 0.1 log e
or log x = 1 – (0.1 × 0.4343) = 1 – 0.04343
= 0.95657 giving x = 9.048
Thus i = 10 – 9.048 = 0.952 A
(b) 5 = 10(1 – e–t), i.e. 1 – e–t = 0.5
 or e–t = 0.5 giving et = 2
So t log e = log 2 and t × 0.4343 = 0.3010
i.e. t = 0.693 s.

5.2. Here v = Ve –t/CR so 300 500 e

5.3. It must be pointed out that, although the discharge resistor is in parallel
with the field when the circuit is connected normally, it is actually in series
with the field coil when the supply is switched off.
Since i = Ie–Rt/L and R = 50 + 50 = 100 Ω

Thus log i = log 4 – 10t log e

= 0.6021 – 10 × 0.04 × 0.4343
= 0.6021 – 0.1737 = 0.4284
giving i = 2.681 A

5.4. Since e–t/CR is common to 2 parts of the problem, solution is made

easier by evaluating this first. Thus:
–6 × 100 × 103
Let x = e–t/CR Then x = e–0.2 / 50 × 10
= e–0.2 / 5 = e–0.04
so log x = –0.04 × log e
= –0.04 × 0.4343 = 1.9826
 or x = 0.9607

or i = 2 × 10–3 × 0.9607
= 1.9214 mA
The voltage across the capacitor is given by
v = V(1 – e–t/CR) = V – Ve–t/CR
= 200 – 200x or v = 200 – (200 × 0.9607)
So v = 200 – 192.14 = 7.86 V
The voltage across the capacitor can also be obtained thus:
Voltage drop across the resistor = 1.9214 × 10–3 × 100 × 103 = 192.14
So voltage across capacitor = 200 – 192.14 = 7.86 V.

5.5. For an inductive circuit, the time constant is given by

Again i = I(1 – e–Rt/L)

= 40 – 40 e–0.1 Let x = 40 e–0.1

∴ log x = log 40 – 0.1 log e
= 1.6021 – 0.1 × 0.4343
= 1.6021 – 0.04343 = 1.5587
x = 36.2. So i = 40 – 36.2 = 3.8 A
If t = time taken to reach half value
 or t = 1.386 s
Note that from work done, it has been shown that the current reaches half
value in 0.693 × time constant of the circuit.
Here therefore, t = 0.693 × 2 = 1.386 s (as deduced above).

5.6. Since on discharge v = Ve–t/CR

–6 ×5×106
then after 5 seconds v = 50e–5 / 1×10 = 50e–1
∴ log v = log 50 – log e
= 1.6990 – 0.4343 = 1.2647
so v = 18.4 V
With two resistors in parallel the discharge circuit has a resistance R.
Where

∴ At the end of a further 5 seconds

–6 × 2.5 × 106
v = 18.4e–5/1×10 = 18.4e–2

So log v = log 18.4 – 2 log e

= 1.2647 –2 × 0.4343 = 1.2647 – 0.8686
= 0.3961
or v = 2.49 V

The capacitor current would be

= 1 × 10–6 A or 1 μA (approx.).
5.7. (a) The ‘operate time’ of the relay is when i reaches a value of 10 × 10–3
A.
Substituting in i = I(1 – e–Rt/L)

Thus 20 t log e = log 1.67

or 20 t × 0.4343 = 0.2227
and or 25.7 ms.

(b) When the supply is removed, a back e.m.f. is generated by the fall of
linked flux in the relay coil. This causes a current to pass through the
coil and the resistor. The current is given by
i = Ie–Rt/L
The release time of the relay is when i reaches a value of 1 × 10–3 A

or 30t log e = log 25 giving 30t × 0.4343 = 1.3979

 or 107.3 ms.

5.8. (a) Assume the capacitor to be uncharged then where V is the

applied voltage.

(b) Let i be the charging current when v = 63.2 V. Then 100 – 63.2 = i
100 000

(c) After each instantaneous discharge of the capacitor, full voltage is

applied to the circuit which is initially dropped wholly across R. As the
charging current flows, it decreases because of the voltage rise
across the capacitor terminals in accordance with the equation v =
V(1 – e–t/CR).
The time taken for the capacitor voltage to rise to 63.2 V is given by t
–6×105
∴ 63.2 = 100(1 –e–t/CR) or 0.632 = 1 – e–t/2×10
whence 0.632 = 1 – e–t/0.2
 or e–t/0.2 = 0.368

or 5t log e = log 2.715 = 0.4338

5.9. With D.C. and the rectifier conducting, the circuit current would be
or 100 mA

The moving-coil ammeter would read this and the thermocouple ammeter,
whose reading depends on the temperature difference between two
junctions, which in turn is directly proportional to the heating effect of a
current, will indicate a value dependent on the average heating power, i.e.
on its r.m.s. value. In this case it will read .
Thus as explained, the meter readings are identical. With A.C. only half-
wave conduction occurs and the moving-coil instrument reads the
average over a whole cycle even though current passes for a cycle

only.

The thermocouple meter would, as explained, give a reading dependent

on the average power. Thus for a full cycle, in this case, average power =
the average power for a half-cycle.
5.10. Transformer. A primary phase voltage = 450 V
A secondary phase voltage = 5 × 450
= 2250 V
Rectifier. For a three-phase, full-wave rectifier VD = 1.35 V

Frequency of ripple = six times that of the supply

= 6 × 50 = 300 Hz
The voltage 30° on either side of the peak value is 0.866 times the
maximum value. The voltage has thus dropped 13.4%.
The value of the ripple voltage is thus or alternatively

Peak value of phase voltage =

Peak value of line voltage =
Thus maximum value of rectified voltage = 5515 V

or voltage dropped = 5515 – 4775 = 740 V

peak to peak =

As before, ripple voltage =

Chapter 6
6.1. A synchronous motor rotates at the speed at which the magnetic field
rotates. The speed of this magnetic field, as for the synchronous speed of
an alternator is decided by the frequency ƒ of the supply and the number
of poles P of the machine.

6.2. For 50 Hz working

= 15 × 50
= 750 rev/min
For 60 Hz working, since speed is proportional to frequency then new
speed

For constant excitation, generated e.m.f. is proportional to speed.

6.3. AC is the resultant of two e.m.f.s displaced by 30° (as illustrated).

so AX = AB cos 15 = 20 × 0.9659 or AX = 19.318 V

∴ AC = 2 × 19.318 = 38.64 V.
6.4. Breadth factor

Where n = no of slots/pole/phase.

6.5. A pole spans slots. Full pitch being slot 1 to slot 13

A coil span covers 1 to 9 = 9 – 1 = 8 slots

If x = the coil pitch as some fraction of the full pitch, then
6.7. Here and

= 180 –135 = 45°

and or Ks = 0.9239

Also since this is a mesh-connected machine then, e.m.f. per phase =

3300 V
As all other factors are constant, then

Thus conductors per phase

So conductor per slot = = 18.8 say 19.

6.8. Power output of motor = 10 000 kW

Therefore line current of system = 2046.3 A

Also alternator phase current = 2046.3 A

The motor phase current =

Output kVA rating of alternator = Input kVA rating of motor

= 11 696 kVA
 = 11 696 kVA
Motor speed 110 rev/min Number of poles = 50

For the alternator, since ƒ = 45.8 Hz

or N = 45.8 × 60 = 2748 rev/min

6.9. For a constant excitation, V = 45 V and Isc = 30 A

6.10. For this machine

Using the phasor diagram and working in phase values.

Vph here is phase voltage =

 Chapter 7
7.1. The original speed of the machine is determined from or

Also, for the generation of e.m.f., E is proportional to flux per pole and
speed.
The flux per pole is in turn proportional to the field current ∴ E α NIf where
It is the field current or E = KNIf
7.4. Full-load line current of the alternator =

Since the machine is star connected, then Iph = 48 A

The resistance per phase of the alternator =

The synchronous reactance is 20 Ω per phase and the full-load phase

voltage is

Open-circuit phase voltage Eph when a full-load, lagging current at 0.8 P.F.
is switched off, is given by:
 Open-circuit line voltage when load is switched off =
For the 0.9 P.F. (leading) condition:

Open-circuit line voltage = .

7.5. From the Short-Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C.) it is seen that a field

current of 3.45 A is required to produce I viz. a full-load

Current of 39 A. Note that

From the Open-Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C), a field current of 3.45 A

produces a terminal voltage of 218 V.
From the above, the following can be deduced:
 Thus voltage regulation = 76%

7.6. If the resistance voltage drop is to be taken into account then the
voltage resistive component

= V + IR cosφ
= 230 + 39 × 0.25 × 0.8
= 230 + 7.8 = 237.8 V

and the voltage reactive component = IX sin φ

=39 × 0.25 × 0.6 = 5.85 V

From the graph of the previous question it is seen that, the field current
required to produce this voltage on open circuit = 4.05 A. This is F in the
m.m.f. diagram.
The field current required to produce the full-load current of 39 A on short
circuit = 3.45 A. This is (Fa + Fx) of the m.m.f. diagram.
 = 16.4 + 12.25 + (8.1 × 3.5 × 0.6)
= 16.4 + 12.25 + 17.01 = 45.66
Thus
Using the graph the generated voltage for 6.75 A would be 293 V.

Note the wide difference between the regulation figures as given by

examples 5 and 6. The usual procedure is to take the average value as
given by both methods of prediction. This result would be nearer the true
value of voltage regulation. Thus, for the examples being considered

7.7. The voltage per phase from the given line values are

(V) 0 75 146 194 227 254 276 302 315

Full-load current of the machine

Using the Synchronous Impedance Method, we see that, from the S.C.C.
curve, a field current of 52 A is required to produce 655 A line current.
Also, from the O.C.C., a field current of 52 A produces an e.m.f. of 175
V/ph.

Then Zs per phase =

R per phase = 0.01 Ω

Then O.C. e.m.f. per phase is given by E where

O.C. terminal voltage =

Using the Ampere-turn Method, since R per phase = 0.01 Ω, the O.C.
e.m.f. required, if the resistance voltage drop to be accounted for, is V +
 IRcosφ. Thus: 254 + (655 × 0.01 × 0.8) = 254 + 5.24 = 259.24 V.
Note. The reactance voltage drop would be:
IX sinφ = 655 × 0.267 × 0.6 = 105 V

or E = 279.3 V
From the O.C.C., the field current required to produce this voltage (on
O.C.) = 123 A. If the graphical method of solution is applied, this field
current is shown as OA. The field current required to produce full-load
current on short circuit = 52 A, shown by OB.
The field current required to produce full-load current, at normal voltage, is
the vector sum of these values displaced by (90 + φ) degrees, i.e. O.C.
From the graph, OC = 160 A and this current produces an O.C. phase
voltage of 302 V. Thus when load is switched off, the terminal voltage will
rise to .
A reasonable value of voltage would be the average given by
.

7.8 The voltage per phase from the given line values are
(V) 90 166 229 254 274 306 328 342

Full-load current

Full-load phase voltage =

Synchronous Impedance Method.
From the S.C.C., a field current of 6.95 A is required to produce 39.4 A.
From the O.C.C., a field current of 6.95 A produces an e.m.f. of 252 V/ph.
From the above can be deduced

O.C. e.m.f./phase is given by E, where

 Ampere-turn Method.
The O.C. e.m.f., if the resistance voltage drop is considered = V + IR cos
φ = 254 + (39.4 × 0.15 × 0.8)
= 258.8 V
The reactance voltage drop would be IX sin φ
= 39.4×6.395×0.6 = 151.2 V

Using the Graphical Method of solution, it is seen from the diagram that,
the field current required to produce a voltage of 299.7 V is OA = 9.6 A.
The field current required to produce full-load current on short-circuit =
6.95 A. This is OB.
By constructing a P.F. quadrant and marking off, at point A, a length equal
to OB, point C is obtained.
From the graph OC = 15.8 A and this field current produces a phase
voltage of 350 V.

7.9. Since poles, the total number 4 of electrical

degrees around the circumference , and the total number

of mechanical degrees round the circumference = 360°. Thus for this

machine, 1 mechanical degree electrical degrees. The angle of

displacement α = 2 electrical degrees.

 Total synchronising power = 3 × 12.7 = 38.1 kW

7.10. 1 pole-pitch = 45 mechanical degrees = 180 electrical degrees.

∴ 1 mechanical degree = electrical degrees and the angle of

displacement α = 4 electrical degrees.

V = Alternator terminal voltage. E1 and E2 = Alternator generated voltage
before and after displacement. Er = Resultant voltage between alternator
and busbar after phase displacement. I = Load current. Is = Synchronising
current. cos φ = P.F. of alternator. α = Angle of displacement.
Full-load current

cosφ = 0.8 φ = 36°51' sinφ = 0.6

Here:

After angular displacement and using phase values

Total three-phase synchronising power = 3 × 176.7 = 530 kW.

 Chapter 8
8.1. Rotor copper loss = slip × rotor input
Here slip = or s = 0.03. Also,

Rotor input = input to stator – stator losses

= 50 – 0.8 = 49.2 kW
Rotor copper loss = 0.03 × 49.2 = 1.476 kW
Rotor copper loss/phase = = 492 W

Rotor output = rotor input – rotor copper loss

= 49.2 – 1.476 = 47.724 kW
Mechanical power developed = 47.7 kW
Note. Mechanical losses have been neglected.

8.2. (a) Synchronous speed

= 1000 rev/min
Actual speed N2 = 990 rev/min
∴ Slip speed = 1000 – 990 = 10 rev/min.

(b) Frequency of rotor e.m.f. = slip × supply frequency

= slip × f = 0.01 × 50 = 0.5 Hz.
(c) Rotor copper loss = slip × rotor input power
But rotor input = rotor output + rotor losses
= (rotor output + rotor mechanical loss) + rotor copper loss
= 20 000 + x
where x = rotor copper loss
Note. 25 kW includes the mechanical loss.
 Thus rotor copper loss = 0.01 (20 + x)
So x = 0.2 + 0.01 x
and 0.99 x = 0.2
x = 0.202 kW or 202 W
(d) Input to motor = 20 + 0.202 + 2.5 = 22.7 kW

8.3.

Rotor output (mechanical) = 15 kW

Rotor output (electrical) =15+0.83=15.83 kW
Rotor copper loss =

Input to rotor = 15.83+0.66 = 16.49 kW

Output of stator = 16.49
Input to stator = 16.49 + 0.95 = 17.44 kW
Overall efficiency =

8.4. (a) Synchronous speed

= 1000 rev/min
Rotor frequency

Thus

Rotor speed N2 = N1 – sN1 = 1000 – 0.03 × 1000

= 1000 – 30 = 970 rev/min
 (d) Motor input = rotor output (electrical) + rotor copper loss + stator loss
= (17 892.4) + 553.4 + 750
= 19 195.8 W = 19.20 kW

8.5. (a) Stator phase voltage = 440 V

Due to transformer action, the rotor-phase voltage = .

At standstill rotor resistance per phase = 0.02 Ω and the starter

resistance per phase = 0.25 Ω
Total rotor standstill resistance per phase = 0.02 + 0.25
= 0.27 Ω
Rotor standstill reactance per phase = 0.27 Ω
(b) Under running conditions, the starting resistance is cut out and the slip
is 4%.
∴ Rotor-phase voltage = slip × standstill phase voltage
= 0.04 × 146.7 = 5.87 V
Rotor reactance per phase = slip × standstill reactance
= 0.04 × 0.27 = 0.0108 Ω
Rotor impedance per phase

At starting, with resistance cut out, rotor impedance per phase

 Note. The power rating given in the question is superfluous
information.
8.6. Since then rev/min.

From torque expression as deduced

If T is the full-load torque, then

Again maximum torque Tm occurs when Tm = Tm x X2

At maximum torque sm = 0.074

 and 0.074 × 600 = 600 – N2
∴ Rotor speed N2 = 600 – 44.4 = 555.6 rev/min.

8.7. Stator phase voltage = 440 V

For a full-load slip of 4%, rotor current I2 is given by

Note. Phase values have been worked.

Rotor copper loss per phase = 2272 × 0.018 W

Total rotor output = 3 × 22 260 = 66 780 W

Hence shaft power = 66.78 kW
 Note. Friction loss has been neglected.
Value of starting resistance/phase to give maximum torque at start = rotor
reactance/phase
Thus R2 = X2 = 0.18 Ω
∴ Starting resistance required per phase = 0.18 – 0.018 = 0.162 Ω

8.8.

With full voltage applied to results of locked rotor test,

= 0.32 (lagging)
Current scale. 10 mm = 20 A. (This was for the original diagram before
photographic reduction.)

∴ Length of no-load current phasor = 9.5 mm

Length of standstill current phasor= 154 mm

Power component of output current =

This is represented by a vertical phasor from the output line =

 On the circle diagram shown, line XY is drawn parallel to the output line
BAs, spaced 24.5 cm. The point of intersection with the circle is A. ∴ Input
line current OA = 31 mm = 62 A. P.F. = 0.89 (from the P.F. quadrant).

Note. The copper losses have been divided in the ratio 4:5 by the simple
geometrical construction shown, i.e. DW is divided into 9 parts and the
appropriate parallel drawn to give point C.

8.9. No-load test.

Current = 10.5 A

Standstill test.
If full voltage is applied, current =

∴ Current scale. 10 mm = 10 A (on original diagram).

Length of no-load current phasor = 10.5 mm. Length of standstill phasor =
195 mm. The circle diagram is drawn in the accepted manner. Input line
current is determined by finding the power component of the output
current =

By drawing the line XY parallel to the output line and spaced 295 mm, we
get point A and the output current, OA = 374 A.
P.F. = 0.91 (lagging), as read off the quadrant.
 Overall efficiency =

or 86.4%.

= 3.39%
Developed torque is represented by AJ
Here AJ = 30.5 mm or 30.5 A
∴ Developed torque = synchronous watts

Where N1 is the synchronous speed of the motor

Here rev/min .

8.10. No-load.
Current = 40 A

Locked rotor.
Current scale 10 mm = 30 A (on original diagram).
Length of no-load current phasor =

Length of locked-rotor current phasor =

The circle diagram is drawn in the accepted manner and the input line
current is determined by drawing in the line XY parallel to the output line.
The power component of the output current
i.e. the spacing of XY above the output

line.
Line current OA = 25 mm = 75 A
P.F. from quadrant = 0.78 (lagging)

Draw the perpendicular bisector of the output line to cut the circle. Drop
the vertical TU = 46 mm = 138 A – the power component for maximum
power.

Full-load torque is proportional to vertical AJ = 17 mm.

Maximum torque is obtained from the vertical A'J', drawn from the circle
where it is intersected by the perpendicular bisector of the torque line
extended to form a chord.
 Maximum torque is proportional to A'J' = 54 mm.

Chapter 9
9.1. For the 200 kW load, cos φ1 = 0.8 and sin φ1 = 0.6
For the 50 kW load, cos φ2 is not known
Thus φ2 is unknown, as is also sin φ2.
For the combined load, cos φ = 0.9, φ = 25°50'
sin φ = 0.4357
Apparent power rating of 200 kW load =

Reactive power of 200 kW load = 250 × 0.6 = 150 kVAr (lagging)

Active power of total load = 50 + 200 = 250 kW
Apparent power of total load =

Reactive power of total load = 277.77 × 0.34357= 121.1 kVAr (lagging).

9.2. The reactive power of the motor is leading in order to provide P.F.
improvement and is obviously the difference between that of the 200 kW
load and the total load. Thus:
Reactive power of motor = (150 – 121.1)
= 28.9 kVAr (leading)

P.F. of motor
 Apparent power of machine No. 1 =

= 1.732 × 33 × 15 = 857.34 kVA

Active power of machine No. 1 = 857.34 × 0.85 = 728.74 kW
cos φ1 = 0.85 φ1 = 31°47' sin φ1 = 0.5267
Reactive power of machine No. 1 = 857.34 × 0.527 = 452 kVAr
Thus active power output of machine No. 2 = 1800 – 729 = 1071 kW
Reactive power of machine No. 2 = –850 – (–452) = –398 kVAr

Current of machine No. 2 =

9.3. Total load current

Load per machine, or

Current of machine No. 2 is given as 1000 A

= 0.658 (lagging)
P.F. of total load or cos φ = 0.8. ∴ sin φ = 0.6
Also cos φ2 = 0.658. ∴ sin φ2 = 0.753
Thus the active current component of machine No. 1
= 1640 × 0.8 – 1000 × 0.658
= 1312 – 658 = 654 A
Also the reactive current component of machine No. 1
= 1640 × 0.86 – 1000 × 0.753
= 984 – 753 = 231 A
Thus current supplied by machine No. 1

P.F. of machine No.1,

The circulating current is found thus:

Since both machines supply equal power, then for No. 2
Active current = 1000 × 0.658= 658 A and for No. 1
Active current = 694 × 0.942 = 654 A or both currents are ‘in phase’ and
very nearly equal.
The circulating current is a wattless or reactive current obtained thus:
The load reactive current = 1640 × 0.6
= 984 A
This should be supplied by two machines or A from each

machine
But machine No. 2 supplies a reactive current of 1000 × 0.753 = 753 A
∴ 753 – 492 = 261 A must be passed to No. 1
 This goes to make up the 492 A for the load, i.e. 231 + 261
Circulating current = 261 A.

9.4. Machine A drops 1.5 Hz for 150 kW, i.e. 0.01 Hz per kW
Machine B drops 1.5 Hz for 220 kW, i.e. 0.0068 Hz per kW
Let the load on machine A be x kilowatts. Then the load on
Machine B is (200 – x) kilowatts
When the machines are in parallel and of common frequency then:
50 – 0.01 x = 50 – 0.0068 (200 – x)
or 0.01 x = (0.0068 × 200) – 0.0068 x
then 0.0168x = 1.36 or

Thus machine A supplies 81 kW and machine B supplies (200 – 81) = 119

kW
The drop in frequency for machine A = 0.01 × 81 = 0.81 Hz
∴ Frequency of the paralleled system = 50 – 0.81= 49.19 Hz.

9.5. Electrical output of motor = (20 × 746) + 500 = 14 920 + 500 = 15 420
W
Also since output

we have
9.6. Armature current is a minimum when the motor P.F. is unity.
Thus here cosφ = 1 and P = VI – I2R
Hence 5000 = 220I – 0.512
or I2 – 440I + 10 000 = 0
Solving I2 – 440I + 2202 = –10 000 + 2202

The angle of retard (α) can be obtained from the Sine Rule, but note that
since the P.F. is unity, IR is in phase with V and the angle between OV and
Er can be obtained from the impedance triangle.
 Thus cosine of this angle =

Angle between OV and ER = 84.3° and

Here E2 is E = 240 V and ER = 24.04 × 5

When direct-on started

Starting current = 6 × 70 = 420 A
When auto-transformer started
Line current to motor is 75% of line current when direct started = 0.75 ×
420 = 315 A
Due to transformer action, primary line current is 75% of secondary
current.
Thus supply current = 0.75 × 315 = 236.25 A
Also torque α voltage squared
∴Torque = 0.752 × 1.5 times full-load torque
= 0.844 × full-load torque or
84.4% of full-load torque.

9.8. Full-load current of motor =

With the starter in ‘star’ position, the voltage per phase =

 With the motor connected in ‘delta’ and an applied voltage of 220 V, the
current per phase =

The current under starting conditions, with applied across each

phase, would be:

Ratio of starting current to full-load current is given by:

9.9 Stator phase voltage = 440 V. Due to transformer action, the rotor phase
voltage

At standstill, rotor resistance per phase = 0.02 Ω and the starter

resistance per phase = 0.25 Ω
Total rotor resistance per phase = 0.024 + 0.25 = 027 Ω
Rotor standstill impedance per phase = 0.27 Ω
Motor standstill impedance per phase
Rotor current per phase at standstill

By transformer action, stator current per phase

Line current taken from the supply, at starting

Under running conditions the starting resistance is cut-out and the slip is
4%.
∴ Rotor phase voltage = slip × standstill phase voltage
= 0.04 × 146.7 = 5.87 V
Rotor reactance per phase = slip × standstill reactance
= 0.04 × 0.27 = 0.0108 Ω
Rotor impedance per phase
 ∴ Rotor current per phase

By transformer action, stator current per phase

∴ Line current taken from the supply

At starting, with starting resistance cut out,
the rotor impedance per phase

Rotor current per phase

By transformer action, the stator current per phase

= 180.3 A and line current taken from the supply .

9.10. Rotor e.m.f. makes 90 cycles per minute.

∴ Rotor frequency = 1.5 Hz
Thus fractional slip .

Synchronous speed rev/min.

Output power

Rotor output = 17 000 W

Rotor input torque = 162.4 + 13.6
Rotor input power

Rotor copper loss = s × rotor input

 Chapter 10

10.1. Anode current (amperes)

or

Thus anode current = 2.1 mA.

10.2. The D.C. resistance of the valve, for the condition, is

thus D.C. resistance,

Power dissipated is given by: P = VaIa or

Thus P = 58 × 6 × 10–3 = 348 × 10–3 W or 348 mW.

or P = (6 × 10–3)2 × 9.666 × 103
= 347.76 × 10–3W or 348 mW
10.5. The characteristic appears to be the straight line between the 10.5 and
4.2 mA values and, over this region, the A.C. resistance would be:
10.6. The characteristic is plotted as shown and the load line is drawn in
thus:
(a) Assume Ia = 0. Then voltage on anode would be 60 V to give point A.
(b) Assume the valve resistance to be of minimum value.

Point B is thus obtained and AB gives the load line for a load-resistance
value of 300 Ω.
The point of intersection with the characteristic is P and the standing
current is 100 mA.
The power dissipated in the load resistor
 = (100 × 10–3)2 × 300 W = 3 W
Alternatively (from the load), for point P, Va = 30 V
∴ Voltage dropped across load resistor
= V – Va = 60 – 30 = 30 V
Power dissipated = Voltage across resistor × Anode current
= 30 × 100 × 10–3 = 3 W

10.7. Table of results. Since Ia = Va3/2 then:

Specimen calculation, for the 2 V anode voltage condition:

Ia = Va3/2. So Ia = 23/2 = (23)1/2 = = 2.83 mA
The supply voltage for this condition
= Load voltage drop + Valve voltage drop
= IaR + Va = (2.83 × 103) + 2
or V = 4.83 V
The deduced valve static and dynamic characteristics are plotted, as
shown below, with Ia to a Va and V base. From the latter, the value of
anode current, for an applied voltage of 8 V, is seen to be 5.1 mA.
Note that this result could have been obtained by drawing a load line on
the static characteristics for a resistor of 1 kΩ and a supply voltage of 8 V.
This is shown dotted and the current is seen to be 5.1 mA. For this
problem, since the dynamic characteristic has been deduced the load-line
method is unnecessary.
10.10. K.E. = Incident energy – Work function (potential energy)

Chapter 11
11.1. Plot the graph from the given data.

(a) When current is 1.5 mA:

 = 2.23 × 103Ω
= 2.23 kΩ

(b) Construct D.C. resistance line through origin whose slope is 1.75
kΩ.
Thus when D.C. resistance = 1.75 kΩ
Anode voltage = 3.83V
Anode current = 2.2 mA

11.2. P = VI, where V is the forward voltage of the diode for a current of 5 A.
∴ P = 0.7 × 5 = 3.5 W
The rate of heat dissipation per °C rise is 0.1 J/s or 0.1 W
Thus the rate of heat dissipation for a 70°C rise is = 0.1 × 70 = 7 W
If the voltage drop is constant at 0.7 V then the diode current is given by
.

11.3. (a) Following after example 11.1 the forward D.C. resistance

11.4. (a) Transformer output voltage (r.m.s. value)

Peak value of Vi = × 19.167 = 27.11 V

Peak value of D.C. output Vo = 27.11 – 0.75 = 26.36 V
(b) P.I.V. Rating of diode = 2 × 26.36 = 52.72 V minimum.

11.5. (a)

(b) Since the rectified supply is half wave time for discharge

Q = CVr = It
 Ripple voltage Vr = 3.24 V

11.6. (a) Peak value

Vm = 56.57 V
Thus the capacitor charges up to 56.67 V.
Hence the total p.d. across two diodes in series = 2Vm = 113.14 V
P.I.V. per diode = 56.57 V
(b) Q = CVr = It

∴ Ripple voltage Vr = 3.24 V

11.7.
Since output voltage is doubled: Output voltage is 141.42 V

11.8. Using the lowest input voltage Vi = 25 – 5 V = 20 V

When Vi = 20 V, IL = 50 mA and IZ = 1 mA
∴ I = IZ × IL
= 1 + 50 mA = 51 mA

(b) Stabilised voltage Vo = Vi - IR

= 2 - (51 × 10-3 × 201.725) = 9.712 V
alternatively Vo = Vz + IzRz
= 9.7 + (1 × 10-3× 12) = 9.712 V
 Diode current Iz = 3.83 mA
Vo = 8.2 + (12 × 3.83 × 10–3)
Load voltage V = 8.25 V
Pz= Vo × Iz = 8.25 × 3.83 × 10–3 W
Power dissipated in Diode = 3 mW

11.10. I = IL + Iz = 60 + 1 = 61 mA
V i = 25 volts (r.m.s.)

∴ Ripple voltage = 0.305 V

(b) Total voltage across diode = Vm + Capacitor voltage
= 35.36 + 35.36 V
= 70.72 V

∴ P.I.V. Rating of each diode =

(c) For stable operation the diode must carry 1 mA

Thus I = Iz + IL = 1 + 60 = 61 mA
 Vo = Vz + IzR = Vi – IRs
24 + (1 × 10–3 × 14) = 35.36 – (61Rs × 10–3)

Rs = 186 Ω minimum
(d) Power rating is based upon maximum zener current.
Vi = Vz + Iz (Rz + Rs) (IL = 0)
35.36 = 24 + Iz (14 + 186)

Vo = Vz + IzRz = 24 + (56.8 × 10–3 × 14) = 24.8 V

Pz = Vo Iz = 24.8 x 56.8 × 100–3
Power rating of zener diode = 1.41 W

Chapter 12
12.1. Using the values given, the change in base current can be deduced
from Ib = Ie – Ic
Here δIe = 1 mA and δIc = 0.98 mA
∴ δI = 1 – 0.98 = 0.02 mA
The current gain

12.2. δIb = 0.1 mA δIe = 1 mA δIc = 0.9 mA

12.4. The transfer characteristic is obtained by plotting the given values and
its slope will give the current gain.

12.5. For a constant Vc of –4.5 V, the following values can be read from the
figure.
 When the above results are plotted the following can be deduced from the
transfer characteristic.

Thus current gain = 55.

12.6. The collector-current/collector-voltage or ‘output’ characteristic is

shown by the graphs below and the output resistance ro can be obtained
from .

Here, if the 6 mA graph is considered then:

Thus ro = 250 kΩ.

12.7. The ‘transfer characteristic’ is shown for a collector voltage of –30 V.
Since current gain α is given by
12.8. This diagram shows the required output characteristic of a transistor
connected in the common-emitter mode.

Then (a) Output resistance

Considering the 60 μA characteristic we have:

Thus ro' = 10 000 Ω or 10 Ω

Also (b) Current gain

For a collector voltage of –6 V

Thus β = 41.
The current gain value can also be obtained from the transfer
characteristic which can be deduced as shown below. The 3, 5 and 7 V
graphs are drawn and the 6 V line deduced – shown dotted.

Then .
12.9. Here the voltage across RB is the base to collector voltage VBC which
is the collector to emitter voltage less the base-emitter voltage.
∴ VBC = VCE – VBE = 5 – 0.2 = 4.8 V

= 120 kΩ

12.10. Voltage across 1.2 kΩ resistor = 1.2 × 103 × 0.5 × 10–3 = 0.6 V
Voltage across base and + ve line = VB–E + 0.6 = 0.1 + 0.6 = 0.1 + 0.6 =
0.7 V
∴ Voltage across 4.7 kΩ resistor of potential divider = 0.7 V
Current through resistor = = 0.149 × 10–3 A = 0.149 mA

Since no data are given for the base current, this is assumed to be
negligible.
Voltage drop across 47 kΩ resistor
= 0.149 × 10–3 × 47 × 103 = 7.7 V
The supply voltage will need to be 7.7 V.
 Chapter 13

13.1.

13.2. Transmitted increase = factor of 16 = 24. So the 4th root of 24 is of

course 2. Hence the MDR will double. However, long-range detection of
the radar by a different detector decreases as the inverse square of
distance, so there is a range advantage to the detection of emitted radar
waves (one way) that mitigates against increasing radar output power to
achieve greater range echoes (two ways). There may also be practical
output power limitations: size of radar set, etc.

13.3. For the MDR to remain unchanged the factor inside the 4th root must
be unchanged so that: PNEW × GNEW × AEFF NEW = POLD × GOLD × AEFF
OLD
Therefore: 1.6POLD × 1.3GOLD × AEFF NEW = POLD × GOLD × AEFF OLD
So 1.6 × 1.3 AEFF NEW = 1 × AEFF OLD
So AEFF NEW = 0.48 AEFF OLD or a 52% decrease in Antenna Area would
give this result.

13.4.

13.5. PAV = P × τ × PRF

So: PAV= 1.1 × 106 × 60 × 10–6 × 700 = 46.2 kW

Chapter 14

14.1. in terms of wavelength for the

incident photon.
14.2. for the incident photon.

But the photon needs to overcome the work function which is 1.6 eV.
Hence the emitted electron has kinetic energy = 2.25 – 1.6 = 0.65 eV.

14.3. so differentiating with respect to wavelength:

14.4.

14.5. Potential difference = 5.5 × 4 = 2.2 V

14.6. Using the Index formula I = (H – L)/(H + L), where H is the highest
reflectivity and L the lowest reflectivity, and taking values for H and L
respectively as H = 0.78 and L = 0.18 gives a final value of I = 0.63.
14.8. Vertical tilt = (2/Π)C arctan (A sin 2 (z(Π – B)/d + B))
Substituting for A, B and C into the expression for vertical tilt = (2/Π)2
arctan (10 sin 2 (z(Π – 3)/d + 3)). The ratio z/d = 0.5. Making this second
substitution into the vertical tilt expression:
Vertical tilt = (2/Π)2 arctan (10 sin 2 ((Π – 3)/2 + 3)).
Evaluating this analytical expression gives a vertical tilt of 14.94°.
1. In the diagram shown below, the device D, which takes negligible
current, is required to operate 5 s after the potential E is applied. If
the minimum potential for operation is 63.2 V, E = 100 V and C=
2.5 μF, what value of R is required? lf R is adjusted to 4 × 106 Ω (4
MΩ) what will be the new delay period?
Note. In a series circuit containing a capacitor of C farads and a
resistor of R ohms, the instantaneous voltage v across the
capacitor at time t seconds after applying a potential E across the
circuit is given by:
V = E (1 – e–t/CR).
2. Describe the star-delta method of starting a cage-type, three-
phase induction motor and state any disadvantage of this starting
method.
A three-phase, 440 V, 50 Hz, six-pole induction motor develops 18
kW on full load with a speed of 970 rev/min and operating with
0.88 P.F. (lagging). Calculate the full-load (a) slip, (b) input in kW
and (c) line current. The stator losses are 1.7 kW and the
mechanical losses are 1.5 kW.

3. The low-voltage release of an A.C. motor-starter consists of a

solenoid into which an iron plunger is drawn against a spring. The
resistance of the solenoid is 35 Ω. When connected to a 220 V, 50
Hz A.C. supply the current taken is at first 2 A, but when the
plunger is drawn into the ‘full-in’ position the current falls to 0.7 A.
Calculate the inductance of the solenoid for both positions of the
plunger, and the maximum value of flux-linkages in weber-turns for
the ‘full-in’ position of the plunger.

4. (a) An e.m.f. E sin 2πft, is applied across a non-resistive circuit

consisting of a capacitor of C farads and an inductor of L
henrys connected in parallel. Find the frequency at which zero
current is taken from the supply (in terms of L and C) and give
a brief description of the changes which occur within the
parallel circuit.

(b) Describe briefly the effects a capacitor may produce when

 placed in a series circuit supplied by (i) an A.C. source, (ii) a
steady D.C. supply, and (iii) a fluctuating D.C. supply.

5. The potential of divider shown has a resistance r ohms connected

across a fraction of the large resistance R ohms.
Prove that the current flowing in
, where

K is the fraction of the tapping.

Find the minimum value of r to ensure that the potential divider
does not exceed its rated current flow of 0.65 A when connected
to a 220 V supply with the fraction of resistance equal to .

6. A total load of 8000 kW at 0.8 P.F. is supplied by 2 alternators in

parallel. One alternator supplies 6000 kW at 0.9 P.F. Find the kVA
rating of the other alternator and the P.F.

7. A shunt motor runs at 900 rev/min when connected to a 440 V

supply, the armature current being 60 A and armature resistance
0.4 Ω. At what speed will it run on a 220 V supply with an armature
current of 40 A. Assume 60% reduction in flux for the 220 V
connection.

8. Three equal resistors are connected to a three-phase system. If

one resistor is removed, find the reduction in load if they are
connected in (a) Star and (b) Delta.

9. Three batteries A, B and С have their negative terminals

connected together. Between the positive terminals of A and В
 there is a resistor of 0.5 Ω and between В and С there is a resistor
of 0.3 Ω.
Battery A 105 V Internal resistance 0.25 Ω
Battery B 100 V Internal resistance 0.2 Ω
Battery C 95 V Internal resistance 0.25 Ω
Determine the current values in the 2 resistors and the power
dissipated by them.

10. A 25 kVA transformer is connected to a supply of 3000 V, 50 Hz.

There are 800 turns on the primary winding and 60 turns on the
secondary. Calculate (a) the secondary terminal voltage, (b) the
primary and secondary full-load current and (c) the maximum flux
in the core. State any assumptions made.

11. A 220 V D.C. shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.5 Ω

and an armature current of 40 A on full load. Determine the
reduction in flux necessary for a 50% reduction in speed. The
torque for both conditions is assumed to remain constant.

12. A system, supplying a 100 kW lighting load at unity P.F. and a

300 kW induction motor at 0.85 P.F. (lagging), is to have its P.F.
improved to 0.95 (lagging), by the use of a 100 kW synchronous
motor. Determine the P.F. and kVA of the synchronous motor.

13. Two earth lamps rated at 120 V, 15 W are used on a 110 V

distribution circuit. Due to damage to a motor, the resistance of the
positive line is reduced to 10 Ω and that of the negative line to 5 Ω.
Find the voltage across each lamp and the extra load on the
generator due to the fault.

14. A coil having a resistance of 10 Ω and an inductance of 0.15 H is

connected in series with a capacitor across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply.
If the current and voltage are in phase, what will be the value of
the current in the circuit and the voltage drop across the coil?
15. A load resistance of 2.1 Ω is fed through a twin-core cable 457 m
long. The resistance of the cable is 4.38 × 104 Ω/m. The D.C.
supply voltage is 250 V. An earth fault somewhere along the
positive line caused the supply current to rise to 120 A and the
load current to fall to 98.7 A. At what distance along the cable did
the fault occur?

16. A balanced Wheatstone bridge consists of 4 resistors labelled

clockwise P, Q, R and S, the supply being connected to the
junctions of PS and QR. R is 450 Ω.
If P and Q are interchanged, then a 5 Ω resistor has to be placed
in parallel with R to maintain balance. Find S and the ratio of P to
Q.

17. Show that 3 sine-wave A.C. currents, displaced from one another
by 30°, can be represented (a) graphically by drawing their
waveforms and (b) by phasors. If the currents each have a
maximum value of 100 A, calculate the resultant maximum value.
What is its r.m.s. value?

18. Find the current flowing in each branch of the following circuit. A
200 V D.C. supply charges, through a 10 Ω resistor, two batteries
A and В in parallel.
A has an e.m.f. of 108 V and internal resistance 0.24 Ω
B has an e.m.f. of 105 V and internal resistance 0.26 Ω.

19. An inductor has an inductance of 0.1 H and resistance of 10 Ω.

When it is connected in series with a capacitor across a 220 V,
100 Hz supply the circuit resonates. Calculate the capacitance
value of the capacitor and the voltage across the inductor.

20. Ten 2 V batteries are connected (a) in series and (b) in parallel to
an external resistance which remains the same for both
conditions. If the power dissipated in the external resistance is 15
W for the parallel connection and 500 W for the series connection,
 find the internal resistance of each cell and the circuit current in
each case.

21. A 72 kVA transformer supplies (a) a heating and lighting load of

12 kW at unity P.F. and (b) a motor load of 70 kVA at 0.766 P.F.
(lagging). Calculate the minimum rating of the P.F. improvement
capacitors which must be connected in circuit to ensure that the
transformer does not become overloaded.

22. Two shunt generators X and Y work in parallel. Their external

characteristics may be assumed to be linear over their normal
working range. The terminal voltage of X falls from 265 V on no
load to 230 V when delivering 350 A to the busbars, while the
voltage of Y falls from 270 V on no load to 240 V when delivering
400 A to the busbars. Calculate the current which each machine
delivers when they share a common load of 500 A. What is the
busbar voltage under this condition and the power delivered by
each machine?

23. A 175 kVA, 6600/440 V, single-phase transformer has an iron

loss of 2.75 kW. The primary and secondary windings have
resistances of 0.4 Ω and 0.0015 Ω respectively. Calculate the
efficiency on full load when the P.F. is 0.9 (lagging).

24. A non-linear resistor R1 is in series with a linear resistor R2 on a

125 V D.C. supply. R2 = 250 Ω. R1 has the following volt-ampere
characteristic:

Resistor R2 is bilateral, i.e. conducts equally well in either

direction. Determine graphically or otherwise the current in the
circuit.
25. A 440 V load of 400 kW at 0.8 P.F. (lagging) is jointly supplied by
two alternators A and B. The kW load on A is 150 kW and the
kVAr load on В is 150 kVAr (lagging). Determine the kW load on B,
the kVAr load on A, the P.F. of operation on each machine and the
current loading of each machine.

26. The following readings were obtained from a test on a diode:

Show that the relationship between Ia and Va is of the form Ia kVan

and determine the values of k and n.

27. Explain the meaning of P- and N-type semiconductor materials

and give a brief description of the mechanism by which current
passes through them.

28. Explain what is meant by, and the significance of the following
terms: (a) voltage stabilisation, (b) impedance, (c) rectification, and
(d) grid bias voltage.

29. Define the term ‘valence electron’ and explain, in terms of

electronic structure, why some substances are better conductors
of electricity than others.

30. With reference to P- and N-type germanium crystals explain the

meaning of three of the following terms: (a) donor ion, (b) acceptor
ion, (c) valency electrons and (d) co-valent bonds.
1. A straightforward substitution in the formula gives
Hence R =2 × 106 Ω or 2 MΩ
If R = 4 × 106 Ω
 or Slip = 3%
Output power = 18 kW
Electrical output from rotor = 18 + 1.5
= 19.5 kW
No mention of rotor copper losses are made, ∴these can be
neglected.
So output from stator = 18.5 kW
Input to stator = 19.5 + 1.7 = 21.2 kW

3. With the plunger out: Impedance

Thus 2πfL = 104.25 or

With the plunger in: Impedance

= 314.28 Ω
 Thus

Also or L = Flux-linkages/ampere

Thus maximum flux-linkages = inductance × peak value of current

= 0.995 × 1.414 × 0.7

= 0.985 say 1 weber-turn.

4. (a) This is a condition of parallel resonance and, since the circuit

has no resistance, then Ixc = IxL in magnitude but these are in
anti-phase as shown by the phasor diagram.
 Under resonance conditions

Since the capacitive and inductive circuit currents are in anti-

phase it is clear that while the capacitor is discharging, i.e.
current is falling, the current in the inductor is rising as the
magnetic field is being established. Thus energy is passed to
and fro between these components and in theory the circuit
would be in a state of continuous oscillation.
(b) (i). When an alternating potential is applied across a
capacitor, a current will flow and its value depends on the
 size of the capacitor. The capacitor offers reactance which
either increases or decreases that of the whole circuit. This
result depending on whether the existing reactance of the
circuit is capacitive or inductive. The capacitor thus permits
the passage of an A.C. current.
(ii). When introduced into a D.C. circuit the capacitor charges
up, when the supply is first switched on, until the potential
across the plates equals that of the applied voltage. The
value of the circuit current is a maximum when the supply is
applied and falls to zero after a time dependent on the
resistance and capacitance values. This effect is minimised if
inductance is present. The capacitor then continues to act as
an insulator in the circuit.
(iii). When the D.C. voltage fluctuates, each change of supply
voltage can be regarded as the application of a voltage equal
to the change. This condition has been described under (b)
(ii). Thus a charging current flows while the voltage rises and
a discharging current occurs when the voltage falls.

5. The equivalent resistance of resistors r and y in parallel is given by

the reciprocal of

or equivalent resistance ohms

The current in resistor r

If K is the fraction of the tapping point, then

The current in the resistor r can now be written as

and dividing numerator and denominator by x + y we have

Now x +y = R so current is

Using the above expression:

 or 0.65(16rR + 3R2) = 880(R + 4 r)

10.4rR + 1.95R2= 880R + 3520r

or 1.95R2 = 880R + 3520r – 10.4rR

10.4rR – 3520r= 880R – 1.95R2

6. Alternator A supplies 6000 kW at 0.9 P.F. (lagging assumed)

Its apparent power rating =

Also cos φA = 0.9 φA = 25°50' sin φA = 0.4357

Reactive power = 6667 × 0.4357 = –2905 kVAr
Alternator B supplies 8000 – 6000 = 2000 kW
Apparent power rating =

Since cos φ = 0.8 (lagging assumed) sin φ = 0.6

∴ Reactive power of load = 10 000 × 0.6 = –6000 kVAr
 Reactive power of alternator B = –6000 – (–2905)
= –3095 kVAr

P.F. of alternator (lagging)

A lagging P.F. is assumed, if the P.F.s of both the load and

alternator A are taken to be lagging.
7. On 440 V Eb1 = 440 – 60 × 0.4 = 440 – 24 = 416 V
On 220 V Eb2 = 220 – 40 × 0.4 = 220 – 16 = 204 V
Now generated e.m.f. is proportional to flux and speed or Eb ∝ ΦN
and Φ is proportional to the shunt field or here, from the data given
Φ2 = 0.4 Φ1.

8. Let R = the resistance per phase and V the voltage between lines.
For the Star connection:

Voltage per phase and current per phase

 Power per phase =

Under the open-circuit condition, i.e. say resistor No. 2 removed.

For the Delta connection:

Current per phase = Power per phase =

and three-phase power = watts

Under the open-circuit condition, i.e. say resistor No. 2 removed.

Total power =

i.e. New Power = or 0.666 times the original.

9. Using Kirchhoff s laws:

 To solve, multiply by 0.75.
Thus 3.75 = 0.7125I1 – 0.15I2 (a)
Also for 5 = –0.2I1 + 0.75I2
To solve, divide by 5
Thus 1 = –0.04I1+ 0.15I2 (b)
Adding (a) and (b) 4.75 = 0.6725I1

Also 5+ 0.2 I1 + 0.75 I2

Thus I2 = 8.55 A

Power in 0.5 Ω resistor = 7.062 × 0.5 = 3.53 × 7.06 = 24.9 W

Power in 0.3 Ω resistor = 8.552 × 0.3 =73.1 × 0.3 = 21.9 W.

10. (a) Turns ratio for a transformer

 Thus secondary terminal voltage =

(b) Primary current =

Secondary current =

(c) For a transformer on no load, induced voltage = the supply

voltage

11. Here Eb1 = 220 – 40 × 0.5 = 220 – 20 = 200 V

Also for a motor, torque is proportional to flux and armature current
or T α ΦIa
Assuming a constant torque T2 = T1

If Eb2 is the second back e.m.f. condition

 Note. An alternative answer would be .

Under this condition the armature voltage drop would be 421 × 0.5
= 210.5 V, i.e. back e.m.f. will be 9.5 V. This would be explained by
a reduced flux, the main flux being weakened by the armature
reaction effect. Since T α Φ Ia then Φ will be reduced in proportion
to the armature current increase so that here T3 = T2 = T1. So this
value of armature current can be discounted as an answer.
12. Initial condition.
Lighting load 100 kW cos φ = 1 sin φ = 0
i.e. Apparent power =

Reactive power = kVA sin φ

= 100 × 0 = 0 kVAr
Induction motor load.
300 kW cos φ = 0.85
Thus = 31°47' sin φ = 0.527
 Apparent power rating =

Reactive power rating = –353 × 0.527 = – 186 kVAr

Total true power of load = 100 + 300 = 400 kW
Total reactive power = 0 + (–186) = –186 kVAr
Total overall power, i.e. with synchronous motor = 400 + 100 = 500
kW
cos φ = 0.95 φ = 18°12' sin φ = 0.3123
Apparent power of overall load =

Reactive power of overall load = 526.3 × 0.3123

= –164.36 kVAr
The reduction of reactive power to be achieved by the synchronous
motor = –186 – (–164.4) = –21.6 = that of the motor = 21.6 kVAr
Apparent power rating of synchronous motor

P.F. of synchronous motor =

= 0.98 (leading).
13. Current from +ve to –ve line through fault to earth

The voltage drop between the +ve line and earth = voltage across
one lamp
This voltage drop = 7.33 × 10 = 73.33 V
 The voltage drop between the –ve line and earth = voltage across
the other lamp
This voltage drop = 7.33 × 5 = 36.65 V
Additional load on generator = 7.33 × 110 = 806.3 W
= 0.81 kW
14. This is a series circuit and since the current and voltage are in
phase then the condition is one of resonance. The respective
voltage phasors for the values of voltage across the inductor and
capacitor are equal in magnitude, but in phase opposition.
At resonance the current

Reactance of the inductor at 50 Hz = XL = 2πfL

= 314 × 0.15 = 47 Ω
Voltage drop across the inductor = IXL = 10 × 47 = 470 V
Because of resonance the voltage drop across the capacitor IXC =
470 V
i.e. Impedance of coil

Voltage drop across the coil = IZ

= 10 × 48.05 = 480.5 V.
15. Each core of the cable will have a resistance of 457 × 4.38 × 104
= 4.57 × 102 × 4.38 × 10–4 = 20 × 10–2 = 0.2 Ω
Let the resistance between the supply and the fault condition be x
ohms. Then the circuit will be as shown. Applying Kirchhoff’s laws
250 = 120x + 98.7(0.2 – x) + 98.7(2.1) + 98.7(0.2)
= 120x + 19.74 – 98.7x + 207.27 + 19.74
 = 120x – 98.7x + 246.75
or 21.3x = 250 – 246.75 = 3.25

The distance of the fault is therefore

= 348.4 m
i.e. fault is 348.4 m from the supply point.
16. Initially at balance (a)

With Q and P interchanged where R1 is the resistance of

450 Ω and 5 Ω resistors in parallel

Multiplying (a) × (b) we have

S = 47.3 Ω Ratio P to Q = 0.105:1.
17. Resultant of the 3 phasors of maximum value = 100 A
Take horizontal and vertical components and obtain the resultant
maximum value Im
18. By applying Kirchhoff’s laws we get the following equations:
Circuit from supply and through battery A
200 – 108 = 10(IA+IB) + 0.24IA
or 92 = 10.24IA + 10IB (a)
Circuit from supply and through battery B
200 – 105 = 10(IA + IB) + 0.26IB
95 = 10.26IB + 10IA (b)

Solving
920 = 102.4IA + 100IB
and 95 × 10.24 = (10 × 10.24IA) + (10.26 × 10.24IB)
giving 920 = 1024IA + 100IB (c)

and 972.8 = 102.4IA + 105.06IB (d)

 Subtracting (c) from (d)

and 10IA = 95 – (10.26 × 10.43) = 95 – 107.01

= –12.01 or IA = –1.201 A
Thus battery B is charged with 10.43 A; battery A discharges with
1.2 A and the supply current is 10.43 – 1.2 = 9.23 A.

19. For series resonance the voltage drop due to the reactance of the
inductor equals that across the capacitor of IXL = IXC whence XL =
Xc

At 100 Hz, XL = 6.28 × 100 × 0.1 = 62.8 Ω

At resonance, current is in phase with the supply voltage and is

limited by the resistance only.

The impedance of the inductor

 Voltage across inductor = 22 × 63.6
= 1399.2 say 1400 V.
20. Let r be the internal resistance of a cell. Then for the series
condition:

We are also given for the series condition and for the
parallel condition

Whence 10r + R = 0.1732r + 1.732R or 9.8268r = 0.732R

21. For the motor load
cos φ = 0.766 φ = 40° sin φ = 0.6428
∴ Power rating = 70 × 0.766 = 53.62 kW
Reactive power = 70 × 0.6428 = –44.996 kVAr
Total active power = 12 + 53.62 = 65.62 kW
The 72 kVA transformer is capable of supplying this power load and
a reactive load, given by
= –29.63 kVA
The total reactive load must therefore be reduced by
–44 996 – (–29.63) = –15.366 = –15.4 kVAr
This will then be the rating of the capacitors which will achieve the
reduction by providing 15.4 kVAr at a zero P.F. (leading) to oppose
15.4 kVAr of reactive load at zero P.F. (lagging).
22. Since the generators have linear characteristics, a mathematical
solution would be acceptable.
Since for a generator V = E – IaRa
then for machine X
230 = 265 – 350 Rax
 For machine Y
240 = 270 – 400 RaY

Let Ix be the current given by machine X then (500 – Ix) is the

current given by machine Y
Thus V = 265 – 0.1Ix
and V = 270 – 0.075 (500 – Ix)
Subtracting 0 = –5 – 0.1Ix + 0.075 (500 – Ix)
or 0 = –5 – 0.1Ix + 37.5 – 0075Ix
32.5 = 0.175Ix giving 175Ix = 32 500
or 35Ix = 6500 and

Thus machine X delivers 185.7 A and machine Y delivers 314.3 A

Also V = 265 – 0.1 × 185.7 = 265 – 18.57 = 246.43 V

23.

Here the iron loss or PFe = 2.75 kW

Also primary current

Primary copper loss =

= 0.2812 kW
 Similarly secondary current

I2 = 397.7 A
∴ Secondary copper loss =

= 0.237 kW
Total copper loss PCu = 0.2812 + 0.237 = 0.5182 kW

Thus Efficiency = 98%.

24. The following graphs show the non-linear resistor characteristic
and the voltage-drop line for R2. This is obtained by assuming any
current value and finding the corresponding voltage drop.
 Thus with 125 V applied, the current will be:

If the characteristic of R2 is plotted in reverse on the given curve for

R1, the point of intersection gives the circuit current and the voltage
dropped across each component.
Note. That for R2 when V = 0, I = 0 and when V = 125 V, I = 0.5 A,
i.e. two points on the characteristic.
The circuit current will be 0.16 A with 86 V dropped across R1 and
34 V dropped across R2.
25. For the Load:
Active power = 400 kW cos φ = 0.8 sin φ = 0.6

Reactive power = 500 × 0.6 = –300 kVAr

For machine A, active power = 150 kW active power
supplied by machine B = 400 – 150 = 250 kW
Similarly for machine B,
Reactive power = –150 kVAr
∴ Reactive power taken from machine A
= –300 – (–150) = –150 kVAr
Thus apparent power loading of machine A

and loading of machine B

 Current supplied by each machine (here three-phase alternators
are assumed)

26. A direct solution is effected by taking logarithms to the base e.

Thus for Ia = kVan
Then loge Ia = loge k + n loge Va. This is of the form y = mx + c, i.e.
for a straight line graph.
Then for the values of:

Then by plotting loge Ia to a base of loge Va the slope and the value
of k is obtained thus:
From the graph n is the slope =

and loge k is the intercept = 0.35 or since loge k = 0.35.

k = 1.42
The equation becomes Ia = 1.42 Va1.27.
 Other Books by Christopher
Lavers
Vol. 6: Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers in the Reeds
Marine Engineering and Technology series. ISBN: 9781408176061
(Publisher: Adlard Coles Nautical), February 2013.

Vol. 14: Stealth Warship Technology in the Reeds Marine

Engineering and Technology series. ISBN: 9781408175255
(Publisher: Adlard Coles Nautical), October 2012.

Recent Developments in Remote Sensing for Human Disaster

Management and Mitigation-Natural and Man-made 2013. Edited by
Christopher Lavers. ISBN: 9781291224634 (Publisher: Lulu
Enterprises, Inc., Rayleigh, North Carolina), December 2012.

Basic Capacitor Questions for Marine Engineers. ISBN:

9781291475456 (Publisher: Lulu Enterprises, Inc., Rayleigh, North
Carolina), August 2013.
REEDS MARINE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Vol. 1 Mathematics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 2 Applied Mechanics for Marine Engineers

Vol. 3 Applied Heat for Marine Engineers

Vol. 4 Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers

Vol. 5 Ship Construction for Marine Students

Vol. 6 Basic Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 7 Advanced Electrotechnology for Marine Engineers

Vol. 8 General Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 10 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Vol. 11 Engineering Drawings for Marine Engineers

Vol. 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers

Vol. 13 Ship Stability, Powering and Resistance

Vol. 14 Stealth Warship Technology

Vol. 15 Electronics, Navigational Aids and Radio Theory for

Electrotechnical Officers
 Published by Adlard Coles Nautical
an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London WC1B 3DP
www.adlardcoles.com

Bloomsbury is a trademark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

This electronic edition published in 2014 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

Copyright © Christopher Ralph Lavers and Adlard Coles Nautical 1970, 1977,
2014

First edition published by Thomas Reed Publications 1970

Second edition 1977
Reprinted 1979, 1996, 1999, 2002
Reprinted by Adlard Coles Nautical 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2011
This third edition published by Adlard Coles Nautical 2014

ePub ISBN 978-1-4081-7136-3

All rights reserved

You may not copy, distribute, transmit, reproduce or otherwise make available this
publication (or any part of it) in any form, or by any means (including without
limitation electronic, digital, optical, mechanical, photocopying, printing, recording
or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any person who
does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal
prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Note: while all reasonable care has been taken in the publication of this book, the
publisher takes no responsibility for the use of the methods or products described
in the book.

To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com. Here
you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the
option to sign up for our newsletters.