POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

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1. PER UNIT QUANTITIES
2. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
3. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM OF A POWER SYSTEM
4. GRAPH THEORY DEFINITION
5. FORMATION OF ELEMENT NODE INCIDENCE AND BUS INCIDENCE MATRICES
6. PRIMITIVE NETWORK REPRESENTATION
7. FORMATION OF Y– BUS MATRIX BY SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONMETHOD
8. FORMATION OF Y– BUS MATRIX BY DIRECT INSPECTION METHOD
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1. PER UNIT QUANTITIES
The per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any units to the chosen base quantify of the same
dimensions expressed as a decimal.

In power systems the basic quantities of importance are voltage, current, impedance and power. For all per unit
calculations a base KVA or MVA and a base KV are to be chosen.
Once the base values or reference values are chosen. the other quantities can be ohtained as follows:
Selecting the total or 3-phase KVA as base KVA, for a 3-phase system

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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT SYSTEM

1. While performing calculations, referring quantities from one side of the transformer to the other side serious
errors may be committed. This can be avoided by using per unit system.
2. Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in per unit do not change when they are referred from one side of
transformer to the other side. This is a great advantage'.
3. Per unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar type usually lie within a narrow range, when the equipment
ratings are used as base values.
4. Transformer connections do not affect the per unit values.
5. Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and transformers in per unit or percent of name plate
ratings.

II.SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

DEFINITION: Single line diagram is the representation of a power system using the simple symbol for each
component. The single line diagram of a power system is the network which shows the main connections and
arrangement of the system components along with their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and
reactance, etc.).
It is not necessary to show all the components of the system on a single line diagram, e.g., circuit breaker
need not be shown in the load flow study but are the must for a protection study. In the single line diagram, the
system component is usually drawn in the form of their symbols. Generator and transformer connections, star, delta
and neutral earthing are indicated by symbols drawn by the side of the representation of these elements.
Circuit breakers are represented by rectangular blocks. The figure shown below represents the single line
diagram of a typical block system. It is difficult to draw the line diagram of the few components. So for
simplification, the impedance diagram is used for representing the power system components.

III. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM FOR THE POWER SYSTEM

In impedance diagram, each component is represented by its equivalent circuit, e.g., the synchronous generator at
the generating station by a voltage source in series with the resistance and reactance, the transformer by a nominal

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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

∏-equivalent circuit. The load is assumed to be passive and is represented by a resistive and inductive reactance in
the series. Neutral earthing impedance does not appear in the diagram as the balanced condition is assumed.

The diagram shown below is the balanced 3-phase diagram. It is also called positive sequence diagram. Three
separate diagrams are also used for representing the positive, negative and zero sequence networks. The three
separate impedance diagrams are used in the short circuit for the studies of unsymmetrical fault.The impedance
diagram can further be simplified by making certain assumptions and reduced to simplified reactance. Reactance
diagram is drawn by neglecting the effective resistance of generator armature, transformer winding resistance,
transmission line resistance line charging and the magnetising circuit of transformers. Reactance diagram of the
power system is shown below.

REACTANCE DIAGRAM FOR THE POWER SYSTEM

The reactance diagram gives an accurate result for many power system studies, such as short-circuit  studies, etc.
The winding resistance, including the line resistance, are quite small in comparison with leakage reactance and shunt
path which includes line charging and transformer magnetising circuit provide a very high parallel impedance with
fault. It is considered that if the resistance is less than one-third of the reactance, and resistance is ignored, then the
error introduced will be not more than 5 %.  If the resistance and reactance ignored errors up to 12% may be
introduced. The errors mean their calculation gives a higher value than the actual value.

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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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IV.GRAPH THEORY DEFINITION

Graph Theory Graph theory is the branch of mathematics dealing with graphs. In network
analysis, graphs are used extensively to represent a network being analyzed. The graph of a
network captures only certain aspects of a network; those aspects related to its connectivity, or,
in other words, its topology.
DEFINITIONS
Element of a Graph: Each network element is replaced by a line segment or an arc while constructing a graph for a
network. Each line segment or arc is cailed an element.
Each potential source is replaced by a short circuit. Each current source is replaced by an open circuit.
Node or Vertex: The terminal of an element is called a node or a vertex.
Edge: An element of a graph is called an edge.
Degree: The number of edges connected to a vertex or node is called its degree.
Graph: An element is said to be incident on a node, if the node is a terminal of the element.
Nodes can be incident to one or more elements. The network can thus be represented by an interconnection of
elements. The actual interconnections of the elements gives a graph.
Rank: The rank of a graph is n - I where n is the number of nodes in the graph.
Sub Graph: Any subset of elements of the graph is called a subgraph A subgraph is said to be proper if it consists of
strictly less than all the elements and nodes of the graph.
Path: A path is defined as a subgraph of connected elements Such that not more than two elements are connected to
anyone node. If there is a path between every pair of nodes then the graph is said to be connected. Alternatively, a
graph is said to be connected if there exists at least one path between every pair of nodes.
Planar Graph : A graph is said to be planar, if it can be drawn without-out cross over of edges. Otherwise it is called
non-planar

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Closed Path or Loop: The set of elements traversed starting from one node and returning to the same node form a
closed path or loop.
Oriented Graph: An oriented graph is a graph with direction marked for each element Fig. 2.2(a) shows the single
line diagram of a simple power network consisting of generating stations. transmission lines and loads. Fig. 2.2(b)
shows the positive sequence network of the system in Fig. 2.2(a). The oriented connected graph is shown in Fig. 2.3
for the same system
TREE AND CO-TREE
Tree: A tree is an oriented connected subgraph of an oriented connected graph containing all the nodes of the graph,
but, containing no loops. A tree has (n-I) branches where n is the number of nodes of graph G. The branches of a
tree are called twigs. The remaining branches of the graph are called links or chords.
Co-tree: The links form a subgraph, not necessarily connected called co-tree. Co-tree is the complement of tree.
There is a co-tree for every tree.
For a connected graph and subgraph:
I. There exists only one path between any pair of nodes on a tree
2. every connected graph has at least one tree
3. every tree has two terminal nodes and
4. the rank of a tree is n-I and is equal to the rank of the graph.
The number of nodes and the number of branches in a tree are related by b = n-1
If e is the total number of elements then the number of links I of a connected graph with hranches b is given by
I==e-·h

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V.FORMATION OF ELEMENT NODE INCIDENCE AND BUS INCIDENCE MATRICES

There are several incidence matrices that are important in developing the various networks matrices such as bus
impedance matrix, branch admittance matrix etc., using singular or nonsingular transformation. These various
incidence matrices are basically derived from the connectivity or incidence of an element to a node, path, cut set or
loop.
Incidence Matrices
The following incidence matrices are of interest in power network analysis.
(a) Element-node incidence matrix
(b) Bus incidence matrix
(c) Branch path incidence matrix
(d) Basic cut-set incidence matrix
(e) Basic loop incidence matrix
ELEMENT NODE INCIDENCE MATRIX

BUS INCIDENCE MATRIX

The network in) contains a reference reflected in Fig. 2.3 as a reference node. In fact any node of the connected graph can
be selected as the reference node. The matrix obtained by deleting the column corresponding to the reference node in the
element node incidence matrix is called bus incidence matrix A.

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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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VI.PRIMITIVE NETWORK REPRESENTATION

Network components are represented either by their impedance parameters or admittance parameters. Fig (1.4)
represents the impedance form, the variables are currents and voltages. Every power system element can be
described by a primitive network. A primitive network is a set of unconnected elements.

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PREPARED BY
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 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

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PREPARED BY
Mr. SATYANARAYANA ADDALA
 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

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VI.FORMATION OF Y– BUS MATRIX BY SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION

METHOD
&
VII.FORMATION OF Y– BUS MATRIX BY DIRECT INSPECTION METHOD

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PREPARED BY
Mr. SATYANARAYANA ADDALA
 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

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PREPARED BY
Mr. SATYANARAYANA ADDALA
 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I :: PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

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PREPARED BY
Mr. SATYANARAYANA ADDALA