1 Chapter 15

2 Engineering Foundations
3 Acronyms
4 CAD Computer-Aided Design
5 CMMI Capability Maturity Model
6 Integrated
7 pdf Probability Density Function
8 pmf Probability Mass Function
9 RCA Root Cause Analysis
10 SDLC Software Development Life
11 Cycle
12 Introduction
13 IEEE defines engineering as “the
14 application of a systematic, disciplined,
15 quantifiable approach to structures,
16 machines, products, systems or processes”
17 [1]. This chapter outlines some of the
18 engineering foundational skills and
19 techniques that are useful for a software
20 engineer. The focus is on topics that
21 support other KAs while minimizing
22 duplication of subjects covered elsewhere
23 in this document.
24 As the theory and practice of software
25 engineering matures, it is increasingly
26 apparent that software engineering is an
27 engineering discipline that is based on
28 knowledge and skills common to all
29 engineering disciplines. This Engineering
30 Foundations Knowledge Area (KA) is
31 concerned with the engineering 50
32 foundations that apply to software
33 engineering and other engineering 51 Figure 1. Breakdown of Topics for the
34 disciplines. Subareas in this KA include 52 Engineering Foundations KA.
35 empirical methods and experimental
36 techniques; statistical analysis; 53 1. Empirical Methods and
37 measurement; engineering design,
54 Experimental Techniques [2* , c1]
38 modeling, prototyping, and simulation;
39 standards; and root cause analysis. 55 An engineering method for problem
40 Application of this knowledge, as 56 solving involves proposing solutions or
41 appropriate, will allow software engineers 57 models of solutions and then conducting
42 to develop and maintain software more 58 experiments or tests with that model to
43 efficiently and effectively, which is the 59 study the proposed solution. Thus,
44 goal of all engineers in all engineering 60 engineers must understand how to create an
45 disciplines. 61 experiment and then analyze the results of
62 the experiment in order to evaluate the
46 BREAKDOWN OF TOPICS FOR 63 proposed solution. Empirical methods and
47 COMPUTING FOUNDATIONS 64 experimental techniques help the engineer
65 to describe and understand variability in
48 The breakdown of topics for the Computing 66 their observations, to identify the sources
49 Foundations KA is shown in Figure 1. 67 of variability, and to make decisions.
68 Three different types of empirical studies
69 commonly used in engineering efforts are

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70 designed experiments, retrospective 125 Historical data may be incomplete,
71 studies, and observational studies. Brief 126 inconsistently measured, or incorrect.
72 descriptions of the commonly used
73 methods are given below. 127 2. Statistical Analysis [2* , c9s1,
128 c2s1, 3* , c10s3]
74 Designed experiment
129 In order to carry out their responsibilities,
75 A designed or controlled experiment is an 130 software engineers must understand how
76 investigation of a testable hypothesis where 131 different software product and process
77 one or more independent variables are 132 characteristics vary. Software engineers
78 manipulated to measure their effect on one 133 often come across situations where the
79 or more dependent variables. A 134 relationship between different variables
80 precondition for conducting an experiment 135 needs to be studied. An important point to
81 is the existence of a clear hypothesis. It is 136 note is that most of the studies are carried
82 important for an engineer to understand 137 out on the basis of samples and so the
83 how to formulate clear hypotheses. 138 observed results need to be generalized.
84 Designed experiments allow us to 139 Software engineers must, therefore,
85 determine in precise terms how the 140 develop an adequate understanding of
86 variables are related and, specifically, 141 statistical techniques for collecting reliable
87 whether a cause-effect relationship exists 142 data in terms of sampling and analysis to
88 between them. Each combination of values 143 arrive at results that can be generalized.
89 of the independent variables is a treatment. 144 These techniques are discussed below.
90 The simplest experiments have just two 145 Unit of analysis (sampling units),
91 treatments representing two levels of a
92 single independent variable (e.g., using a 146 population, and sample
93 tool vs. not using a tool). More complex 147 Unit of analysis: While carrying out any
94 experimental designs arise when more than 148 empirical study, observations need to be
95 two levels,, more than one independent 149 made on chosen units called the units of
96 variable, or any dependent variables are 150 analysis or sampling units. The unit of
97 used. 151 analysis must be identified and be
152 appropriate for the analysis. For example,
98 Observational study 153 when a software product company wants to
99 An observational or case study is an 154 find the perceived usability of a software
100 empirical inquiry that makes observations 155 product, the user forms the unit of analysis.
101 on processes or phenomenon within a real- 156 Population: The set of all respondents or
102 life context. While an experiment 157 items (possible sampling units) to be
103 deliberately ignores context, an 158 studied forms the population. As an
104 observational or case study includes 159 example, consider the case of studying the
105 context as part of the observation. A case 160 perceived usability of a software product.
106 study is most useful when the focus of the 161 In this case, the set of all possible users
107 study is on how and why questions, when 162 forms the population.
108 the behavior of those involved in the study
109 cannot be manipulated, and when 163 While defining the population, care must
110 contextual conditions are relevant and the 164 be exercised to understand the study and
111 boundaries between the phenomenon and 165 target population. There are cases when the
112 context are not clear. 166 population studied and the population for
167 which the results are being generalized
113 Retrospective Study 168 may be different. For example, when the
114 A retrospective study involves the analysis 169 study population consists of only past
115 of historical data. Retrospective studies are 170 observations and generalizations are
116 also known as historical studies. This type 171 required for the future, the study population
117 of study uses data (regarding some 172 and the target population may not be the
118 phenomenon) that has been archived over 173 same.
119 time. This archived data is then analyzed in 174 Sample: A sample is a subset of the
120 an attempt to find a relationship between 175 population. The most crucial issue towards
121 variables, to predict future events, or to 176 the selection of a sample is its
122 identify trends. The quality of the analysis 177 representativeness, including size. The
123 results will depend on the quality of the 178 samples must be drawn in a manner so as
124 information contained in the archived data. 179 to ensure that the draws are independent
180 and the rules of drawing the samples must

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181 be predefined so that the probability of 239 known, it is possible to compute the chance
182 selecting a particular sampling unit is 240 of any event. Some distributions are found
183 known beforehand. This method of 241 to occur commonly and are used to model
184 selecting samples is called probability 242 many random variables occurring in
185 sampling. 243 practice in the context of engineering. A
186 Random Variable: In statistical
244 few of the more commonly occurring
187 terminology, the process of making
245 distributions are given below.
188 observations or measurements on the 246 Binomial distribution: used to
189 sampling units being studied is referred to 247 model random variables that count
190 as conducting the experiment. For example, 248 the number of successes in n trials
191 if the experiment is to toss a coin 10 times 249 carried out independently of each
192 and then count the number of times the 250 other, where each trial results in
193 coin lands on heads, each 10 tosses of the 251 success or failure. We make an
194 coin is a sampling unit and the number of 252 assumption that the chance of
195 heads for a given sample is the observation 253 obtaining a success remains
196 or outcome for the experiment. The 254 constant [2* , c3s6].
197 outcome of an experiment is obtained in 255 Poisson distribution: used to
198 terms of real numbers and defines the 256 model the count of occurrence of
199 random variable being studied. Thus, the 257 some event over time or space [2*
200 attribute of the items being measured at the 258 , c3s9].
201 outcome of the experiment represents the 259 Normal distribution: used to
202 random variable being studied; the 260 model continuous random
203 observation obtained from a particular 261 variables or discrete random
204 sampling unit is a particular realization of 262 variables by taking very large
205 the random variable. In the example of the 263 number of values [2* , c4s6].
206 coin toss, the random variable is the
207 number of heads observed for each 264 Concept of parameters: A statistical
208 experiment. In statistical studies, attempts 265 distribution is characterized by some
209 are made to understand population 266 parameters. For example, the proportion of
210 characteristics on the basis of samples. 267 success in any given trial is the only
268 parameter characterizing a Binomial
211 The fact that random variables are limited 269 distribution. Similarly, the Poisson
212 to real valued functions does not impose 270 distribution is characterized by a rate of
213 any restrictions. If we want to describe the 271 occurrence. A normal distribution is
214 outcomes of an experiment qualitatively— 272 characterized by two parameters: namely,
215 say by allocating a 5-point score like 273 its mean and standard deviation.
216 excellent, very good, etc. to the usability of
217 a software product as perceived by 274 Once the values of the parameters are
218 different users—we can arbitrarily make 275 known, the distribution of the random
219 the description real valued by coding the 276 variable is completely known and the
220 various ratings as numbers like 5, 4, etc. 277 chance (probability) of any event can be
278 computed. The probabilities for a discrete
221 The set of possible values of a random 279 random variable can be computed through
222 variable may be finite or infinite but 280 the probability mass function, called the
223 countable (e.g., the set of all integers or the 281 pmf. The pmf is defined at discrete points
224 set of all odd numbers). In such a case, the 282 and gives the point mass—i.e., the
225 random variable is called a discrete 283 probability that the random variable will
226 random variable. In other cases, the 284 take that particular value. Likewise, for a
227 random variable under consideration may 285 continuous random variable, we have the
228 take values on a continuous scale and is 286 probability density function, called the pdf.
229 called a continuous random variable. 287 The pdf is very much like density and
230 Event: A subset of possible values of a 288 needs to be integrated over a range to
231 random variable is called an event. Suppose 289 obtain the probability that the continuous
232 X denotes some random variable; then, for 290 random variable lies between certain
233 example, we may define different events 291 values. Thus, if the pdf or pmf is known,
234 such as X x or X < x and so on. 292 the chances of the random variable taking
293 certain set of values may be computed
235 Distribution of a random variable: The 294 theoretically.
236 range and pattern of variation of a random
237 variable is given by its distribution. When 295 Concept of estimation: [2* , c6s2, c7s1,
238 the distribution of a random variable is 296 c7s3] The true values of the parameters of

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297 a distribution are usually unknown and 355 to decide about the appropriateness of an
298 need to be estimated from the sample 356 estimator in a given situation. The most
299 observations. The estimates are functions 357 important properties are that an estimator is
300 of the sample values and are called 358 unbiased, efficient, and consistent with
301 statistics. For example, the sample mean is 359 respect to the population.
302 a statistic and may be used to estimate the
360 Tests of hypothesis: [2* , c9s1]
303 population mean. Similarly, the rate of
304 occurrence of defects estimated from the 361 A hypothesis is a statement about the
305 sample (rate of defects per line of code) is a 362 possible values of a parameter. For
306 statistic and serves as the estimate of the 363 example, suppose it is claimed that a new
307 population rate of rate of defects per line of 364 method of software development reduces
308 code. The statistic used to estimate some 365 the occurrence of defects. In this case, the
309 population parameter is often referred to as 366 hypothesis is that the rate of occurrence of
310 the estimator of the parameter. 367 defects has reduced. In tests of hypotheses,
311 A very important point to note is that the
368 we decide—on the basis of sample
312 results of the estimators themselves are
369 observations—whether a proposed
313 random. If we take a different sample, we
370 hypothesis should be accepted or rejected.
314 are likely to get a different estimate of the 371 For testing hypotheses, the null and
315 population parameter. In the theory of 372 alternative hypotheses are formed. The null
316 estimation, we need to understand different 373 hypothesis is the hypothesis of no change
317 properties of estimators—particularly, how 374 and is denoted as H0. The alternative
318 much the estimates can vary across 375 hypothesis is written as H1. It is important
319 samples and how to choose between 376 to note that the alternative hypothesis may
320 different alternative ways to obtain the 377 be one sided or two sided. For example, if
321 estimates. For example, if we wish to 378 we have the null hypothesis that the
322 estimate the mean of a population, we 379 population mean is not less than some
323 might use as our estimator a sample mean, 380 given value, the alternative hypothesis
324 a sample median, a sample mode, or the 381 would be that it is less than that value and
325 mid-range of the sample. Each of these 382 we would have a one-sided test. However,
326 estimators has different statistical 383 if we have the null hypothesis that the
327 properties that may impact the standard 384 population mean is equal to some given
328 error of the estimate. 385 value, the alternative hypothesis would be
329 Types of estimates: [2* , c7s3, c8s1]
386 that it is not equal and we would have a
387 two-sided test (because the true value could
330 There are two types of estimates: namely, 388 be either less than or greater than the given
331 point estimates and interval estimates. 389 value).
332 When we use the value of a statistic to
390 In order to test some hypothesis, we first
333 estimate a population parameter, we get a
391 compute some statistic. Along with the
334 point estimate. As the name indicates, a
392 computation of the statistic, a region is
335 point estimate gives a point value of the
393 defined such that in case the computed
336 parameter being estimated.
394 value of the statistic falls in that region, the
337 Although point estimates are often used, 395 null hypothesis is rejected. This region is
338 they leave room for many questions. For 396 called the critical region. In tests of
339 instance, we are not told anything about the 397 hypotheses, we need to accept or reject the
340 possible size of error or statistical 398 null hypothesis on the basis of the evidence
341 properties of the point estimate. Thus, we 399 obtained. We note that, in general, the
342 might need to supplement a point estimate 400 alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis of
343 with the sample size as well as the variance 401 interest. If the computed value of the
344 of the estimate. Alternately, we might use 402 statistic does not fall inside the critical
345 an interval estimate. An interval estimate is 403 region, then we cannot reject the null
346 a random interval with the lower and upper 404 hypothesis. This indicates that there is not
347 limits of the interval being functions of the 405 enough evidence to believe that the
348 sample observations as well as the sample 406 alternative hypothesis is true.
349 size. The limits are computed on the basis
407 As the decision is being taken on the basis
350 of some assumptions regarding the
408 of sample observations, errors are possible;
351 sampling distribution of the point estimate
409 the types of such errors are summarized in
352 on which the limits are based.
410 the following table.
353 Properties of estimators: Various
354 statistical properties of estimators are used

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 Nature Statistical decision 457 hand, when the variables are negatively
458 correlated, an increase of one leads to a
Accept H0 Reject H0 459 decrease of the other.
H0 is OK Type I error 460 It is important to remember that correlation
true (probability = 461 does not imply causation. Thus, if two
) 462 variables are correlated, we cannot
463 conclude that one causes the other.
H0 is Type II error OK
false (probability =
464 Regression: The correlation analysis only
465 measures the degree of relationship
)
466 between two variables. The analysis to find
411 467 the relationship between two variables is
468 called regression analysis. The strength of
412 In test of hypotheses, we aim at 469 the relationship between two variables is
413 maximizing the power of the test (the value 470 measured using the coefficient of
414 of 1- ) while ensuring that the probability 471 determination. This is a value between 0
415 of a type I error (the value of ) is 472 and 1. The closer the coefficient is to 1, the
416 maintained within a particular value— 473 stronger the relationship between the
417 typically 5 percent. 474 variables. A value of 1 indicates a perfect
418 It is to be noted that construction of a test 475 relationship.
419 of hypothesis includes identifying 476
420 statistic(s) to estimate the parameter(s) and
421 defining a critical region such that if the 477 3. Measurement [4* , c3s1, c3s2, 5* ,
422 computed value of the statistic falls in the 478 c4s4 , 6* , c7s5]
423 critical region, the null hypothesis is
424 rejected. 479 Knowing what to measure and which
480 measurement method to use is critical in
425 Concepts of correlation and regression: 481 engineering endeavors. It is important that
426 [2* , c11s2, c11s8] 482 everyone involved in an engineering
427 A major objective of many statistical 483 project understand the measurement
428 investigations is to establish relationships 484 methods and the measurement results that
429 that make it possible to predict one or more 485 will be used.
430 variables in terms of others. Although it is 486 Measurands can be physical,
431 desirable to predict a quantity exactly in 487 environmental, economic, operational, or
432 terms of another quantity, it is seldom 488 some other sort of measurand that is
433 possible and, in many cases, we have to be 489 meaningful for the particular project. This
434 satisfied with estimating the average or 490 section explores the theory of measurement
435 expected values. 491 and how it is fundamental to engineering.
436 The relationship between two variables is 492 Measurement starts as a conceptualization
437 studied using the methods of correlation 493 then moves from abstract concepts to
438 and regression. Both these concepts are 494 definitions of the measurement method to
439 explained briefly in the following 495 the actual application of that method to
440 paragraphs. 496 obtain a measurement result. Each of these
497 steps must be understood, communicated,
441 Correlation: The strength of linear 498 and properly employed in order to generate
442 relationship between two variables is 499 usable data. In traditional engineering,
443 measured using the correlation coefficient. 500 direct measures are often used. In software
444 While computing the correlation 501 engineering, a combination of both direct
445 coefficient between two variables, we 502 and derived measures is necessary[6* ,
446 assume that these variables measure two 503 p273].
447 different attributes of the same entity. The
448 correlation coefficient takes a value 504 The theory of measurement states that
449 between –1 to +1. The values –1 and +1 505 measurement is an attempt to describe an
450 indicate a situation when the association 506 underlying real empirical system.
451 between the variables is perfect—i.e., 507 Measurement methods define activities that
452 given the value of one variable, the other 508 allocate a value or a symbol to an attribute
453 can be estimated with no error. A positive 509 of an entity.
454 correlation coefficient indicates a positive
455 relationship—that is, if one variable 510 Attributes must then be defined in terms of
456 increases, so does the other. On the other 511 the operations used to identify and measure

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512 them— that is, the measurement methods. 570 Levels (scales) of measurement: [4* ,
513 In this approach, a measurement method is 571 c3s2, 6* , c7s5] Once the operational
514 defined to be a precisely specified 572 definitions are determined, the actual
515 operation that yields a number (called the 573 measurements need to be undertaken. It is
516 measurement result) when measuring an 574 to be noted that measurement may be
517 attribute. It follows that, to be useful, the 575 carried out in four different scales: namely,
518 measurement method has to be well 576 nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Brief
519 defined. Arbitrariness in the method will 577 descriptions of each are given below.
520 reflect itself in ambiguity in the
521 measurement results. 578 Nominal scale: This is the lowest
579 level of measurement and represents
522 In some cases—particularly in the physical 580 the most unrestricted assignment of
523 world—the attributes that we wish to 581 numerals. The numerals serve only as
524 measure are easy to grasp; however, in an 582 labels, and words or letters would
525 artificial world like software engineering, 583 serve as well. The nominal scale of
526 defining the attributes may not be that 584 measurement involves only
527 simple. For example, the attributes of 585 classification and the observed
528 height, weight, distance, etc. are easily and 586 sampling units are put into any one of
529 uniformly understood (though they may 587 the mutually exclusive and collectively
530 not be very easy to measure in all 588 exhaustive categories (classes). Some
531 circumstances), whereas attributes such as 589 examples of nominal scales are:
532 software size or complexity require clear
533 definitions. 590 o Job titles in a company

534 Operational Definitions: The definition of 591 o The software development

535 attributes, to start with, is often rather 592 life cycle (SDLC) model (like
536 abstract. Such definitions do not facilitate 593 waterfall, iterative, agile, etc.)
537 measurements. For example, we may 594 followed by different
538 define a circle as “a line forming a closed 595 software projects
539 loop such that the distance between any 596 In nominal scale, the names of the
540 point on this line and a fixed interior point 597 different categories are just labels and
541 called the center is constant.” We may 598 no relationship between them is
542 further say that the fixed distance from the 599 assumed. The only operation that can
543 center to any point on the closed loop gives 600 be carried out on nominal scale is that
544 the radius of the circle. It may be noted 601 of counting the number of occurrences
545 that though the concept has been defined, 602 in the different classes. However,
546 no means of measuring the radius has been 603 statistical analyses may be carried out
547 proposed. The operational definition 604 to understand how entities belonging
548 specifies the exact steps or method used to 605 to different classes perform with
549 carry out a specific measurement. This can 606 respect to some other response
550 also be called the measurement method; 607 variable.
551 sometimes a measurement procedure may
552 be required to be even more precise. 608 Ordinal scale: Refers to the
609 measurement scale where the different
553 The importance of operational definitions 610 values obtained through the process of
554 can hardly be overstated. Take the case of 611 measurement have an implicit
555 the apparently simple measurement of 612 ordering. The intervals between values
556 height of individuals. Unless we specify 613 are not specified and there is no
557 various factors like the time when the 614 objectively defined zero element.
558 height will be measured (it is known that 615 Typical examples of measurements in
559 the height of individuals vary across 616 ordinal scales are:
560 various time points of the day), how the
561 variability due to hair would be taken care 617 o Skill levels (low, medium, high)
562 of, whether the measurement will be with 618 o Capability Maturity Model
563 or without shoes, what kind of accuracy is 619 Integrated (CMMI) maturity
564 expected (correct up to an inch, ½ inch, 620 levels of software development
565 centimeter, etc.)—even this simple 621 organizations
566 measurement will lead to substantial
567 variation. Software engineers must 622 o Level of adherence to process as
568 appreciate the need to define measures 623 measured in a 5-point scale of 5
569 from an operational perspective. 624 indicating total adherence and 1
625 indicating no adherence at all

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626 Measurement in ordinal scale satisfies 684 Ratio scale: These are quite
627 the transitivity property in the sense 685 commonly encountered in physical
628 that if A > B and B > C, then A > C. 686 science. These scales of measures are
629 However, arithmetic operations cannot 687 characterized by the fact that
630 be carried out on variables measured in 688 operations exist for determining all 4
631 ordinal scales. Thus, if we measure 689 relations: equality, rank order, equality
632 customer satisfaction on a 5-point 690 of intervals, and equality of ratios.
633 ordinal scale of 5 implying a very high 691 Once such a scale is available, its
634 level of satisfaction and 1 implying a 692 numerical values can be transformed
635 very high level of dissatisfaction, we 693 from one unit to another by just
636 cannot say that a score of four is twice 694 multiplying by a constant, e.g.,
637 as good as a score of two. However, 695 conversion of inch to feet or
638 we can find the median, as 696 centimeter. When measurements are
639 computation of the median involves 697 being made in ratio scale, existence of
640 counting only. It is important to note 698 a non-arbitrary zero is mandatory. All
641 that ordinal scale measures are 699 statistical measures are applicable to
642 commonly misused and such misuse 700 ratio scale; logarithm usage is valid
643 can lead to erroneous conclusions[6* , 701 only when these scales are used, like in
644 p274]. 702 the case of decibels. Some examples of
645 Interval scales: With the interval
703 ratio measures are:
646 scale, we come to a form that is 704 o The number of statements in a
647 quantitative in the ordinary sense of 705 software program
648 the word. Almost all the usual
706 o Temperature measured in the
649 statistical measures are applicable
707 Kelvin (K) scale.
650 here, unless they require knowledge of
651 a true zero point. The zero point on an 708 Direct and Derived Measures: [6*
652 interval scale is a matter of 709 , c7s5]
653 convention. Ratios do not make sense
654 but the difference between levels of 710 Measures may be either direct or derived
655 attributes can be computed and is 711 (sometimes called indirect measures). An
656 meaningful. Some examples of 712 example of a direct measure would be a
657 interval scale of measurement are: 713 count of how many times an event
714 occurred, such as the number of defects
658 o Measurement of temperature in
715 found in a software product. A derived
659 different scales like Celsius and
716 measure is one that combines direct
660 Fahrenheit. Suppose T1 and T2 are
717 measures in some way that is consistent
661 temperatures measured in some
718 with the measurement method. An example
662 scale. We note that the fact that T1
719 of a derived measure would be calculating
663 is twice T2 does not mean that one
720 the productivity of a team as the number of
664 object is twice as hot as another.
721 lines of code developed per developer-
665 We also note that the zero points
722 month. In both cases, the measurement
666 are arbitrary.
723 method determines how to make the
667 o Calendar dates. While the 724 measurement.
668 difference between dates to
669 measure the time elapsed is a 725 Reliability and Validity: [4* ,
670 meaningful concept, the ratio does 726 c3s4, c3s5]
671 not make sense. 727 A basic question to be asked for any
672 o Many psychological 728 measurement method is whether the
673 measurements aspire to create 729 proposed measurement method is truly
674 interval scales. Intelligence is 730 measuring the concept with good quality.
675 often measured in interval scale, 731 Reliability and validity are the two most
676 as it is not necessary to define 732 important criteria to address this question.
677 what zero intelligence would 733 The reliability of a measurement method is
678 mean. 734 the extent to which the application of the
679 If a variable is measured in interval 735 measurement method yields consistent
680 scale, most of the usual statistical 736 measurement results. Essentially, reliability
681 analyses like mean, standard deviation, 737 refers to the consistency of the values
682 correlation, and regression may be 738 obtained when the same item is measured a
683 carried out on the measured values. 739 number of times. When the results agree

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740 with each other, the measurement method 796 possible solutions is often constrained by
741 is said to be reliable. Reliability usually 797 explicitly imposed limitations such as cost,
742 depends on the operational definition. It 798 available resources, and the state of
743 can be quantified by using the index of 799 discipline or domain knowledge. In
744 variation, which is computed as the ratio 800 engineering problems, sometimes there are
745 between the standard deviation and the 801 also implicit constraints (such as the
746 mean. The smaller the index, the more 802 physical properties of materials or laws of
747 reliable the resulting measurement results. 803 physics) that also restrict the set of feasible
748 Validity refers to whether the measurement
804 solutions for a given problem.
749 method really measures what we intend to 805 Engineering Design in
750 measure. Validity of a measurement 806 Engineering Education:
751 method may be looked at from three
752 different perspectives: namely, construct 807 The importance of engineering design in
753 validity, criteria validity, and content 808 engineering education can be clearly seen
754 validity. 809 by the high expectations held by various
810 accreditation bodies for engineering
755 Assessing Reliability: [4* , c3s5] 811 education. Both the Canadian Engineering
756 There are several methods for assessing 812 Accreditation Board and the ABET
757 reliability; these include the test-retest 813 (Accreditation Board for Engineering and
758 method, the alternative form method, the 814 Technology) note the importance of
759 split-halves method, and the internal 815 including engineering design in education
760 consistency method. The easiest of these is 816 programs.
761 the test-retest method. In the test-retest 817 The Canadian Engineering Accreditation
762 method, we simply apply the measurement 818 Board includes requirements on the amount
763 method to the same subjects twice. The 819 of engineering design
764 correlation coefficient between the first and 820 experience/coursework that is necessary for
765 second set of measurement results gives the 821 engineering students as well as
766 reliability of the measurement method. 822 qualifications for the faculty members who
767 4. Engineering Design: [5* , c1s2, 823 teach such coursework or supervise design
824 projects. Their accreditation criteria states:
768 c1s3, c1s4] 825 “Design: An ability to design solutions for
769 A product’s life-cycle costs are largely 826 complex, open-ended engineering problems
770 influenced by the design of the product. 827 and to design systems, components or
771 This is true for manufactured products as 828 processes that meet specified needs with
772 well as for software products. The design 829 appropriate attention to health and safety
773 of a software product is guided by the 830 risks, applicable standards, and economic,
774 features to be included and the quality 831 environmental, cultural and societal
775 attributes to be provided. It is important to 832 considerations” [7, p. 12].
776 note that software engineers use the term 833 In a similar manner, the Accreditation
777 “design” within their own context; while 834 Board for Engineering and Technology
778 there are some commonalities, there are 835 (ABET) defines engineering design as
779 also many differences between engineering 836 “…the process of devising a system,
780 design as discussed in this section and 837 component, or process to meet desired
781 software engineering design as discussed in 838 needs. It is a decision-making process
782 the Software Design KA. The scope of 839 (often iterative), in which the basic
783 engineering design is generally viewed as 840 sciences, mathematics, and the engineering
784 much broader than that of software design. 841 sciences are applied to convert resources
785 The primary aim of this section is to 842 optimally to meet these stated needs” [8, p.
786 identify the concepts needed to develop a 843 4].
787 clear understanding regarding the process
788 of engineering design. 844 Thus, it is clear that engineering design is a
845 vital component in the training and
789 Many disciplines engage in problem- 846 education for all engineers. The remainder
790 solving activities where there is a single 847 of this section will focus on various aspects
791 correct solution. In engineering, most 848 of engineering design.
792 problems have many solutions and the
793 focus is on finding a feasible solution 849 Design as a Problem-Solving
794 (among the many alternatives) that best 850 Activity: [5* , c1s4, c2s1, c3s3]
795 meets the needs presented. The set of

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851 It is to be noted that engineering design is 907 problem to be solved; set the design goals
852 primarily a problem-solving activity. 908 and criteria for success.
853 Design problems are open ended and more
909 The problem definition is a crucial stage in
854 vaguely defined. There are usually several
910 engineering design. A point to note is that
855 alternative ways to solve the same problem.
911 this step is deceptively simple. Thus,
856 Design is generally considered to be a
912 enough care must be taken to carry out this
857 wicked problem—a term first coined by
913 step judiciously. It is important to identify
858 Horst Rittel in the 1960s when design
914 needs and link the success criteria with the
859 methods were a subject of intense interest.
915 required product characteristics.
860 Rittel sought an alternative to the linear,
861 step-by-step model of the design process 916 b) Gather pertinent information At this
862 being explored by many designers and 917 stage, the designer attempts to expand
863 design theorists and argued that most of the 918 his/her knowledge about the problem. This
864 problems addressed by the designers are 919 is a vital, yet often neglected, stage.
865 wicked problems. As explained by Steve 920 Gathering pertinent information can reveal
866 McConnell, a wicked problem is one that 921 facts leading to a redefinition of the
867 could be clearly defined only by solving it 922 problem—in particular, mistakes and false
868 or by solving part of it. This paradox 923 starts may be identified. While gathering
869 implies, essentially, that a wicked problem 924 pertinent information, care must be taken to
870 has to be solved once in order to define it 925 identify how a product may be used as well
871 clearly and then solved again to create a 926 as misused. It is also important to
872 solution that works. This has been an 927 understand the perceived value of the
873 important insight for software designers for 928 product/service being offered. Included in
874 several decades [9* , c5s1]. 929 the pertinent information is a list of
930 constraints that must be satisfied by the
875 Steps Involved in Engineering 931 solution or that may limit the set of feasible
876 Design: 932 solutions.
877 Engineering problem solving begins when 933 c) Generate multiple solutions During
878 a need is recognized and no existing 934 this stage, different solutions to the same
879 solution will meet that need. As part of this 935 problem are developed. It has already been
880 problem solving, the design goals to be 936 stated that design problems have multiple
881 achieved by the solution should be 937 solutions. The goal of this step is to
882 identified. Additionally, a set of acceptance 938 conceptualize multiple possible solutions
883 criteria must be defined and used to 939 and refine them to a sufficient level of
884 determine how well a proposed solution 940 detail that a comparison can be done
885 will satisfy the need. Once a need for a 941 among them.
886 solution to a problem has been identified,
887 the process of engineering design has the 942 d) Analyze and select a solution Once
888 following generic steps: 943 alternative solutions have been identified,
944 they need to be analyzed to identify the
889 a. Define the problem 945 solution that best suits the current situation.
890 b. Gather pertinent information 946 The analysis includes a functional analysis
891 c. Generate multiple solutions 947 to assess whether the proposed design
892 d. Analyze and select a solution 948 would meet the functional requirements.
893 e. Test and implement the 949 Physical solutions that involve human
894 solution 950 users often include analysis of the
895 All of the engineering design steps are 951 ergonomics or user friendliness of the
896 iterative and knowledge gained at any step 952 proposed solution. Other aspects of the
897 in the process may be used to inform 953 solution—such as product safety and
898 earlier tasks and trigger an iteration in the 954 liability, an economic or market analysis to
899 process. These steps are expanded in the 955 ensure a return (profit) on the solution,
900 subsequent sections. 956 performance predictions and analysis to
957 meet quality characteristics, opportunities
901 a) Define the problem At this stage, the 958 for incorrect data input or hardware
902 customer’s requirements are gathered. 959 malfunctions, and so on—may be studied.
903 Specific information about product 960 The types and amount of analysis used on a
904 functions and features are also closely 961 proposed solution is dependent on the type
905 examined. This step includes refining the 962 of problem and the needs that the solution
906 problem statement to identify the real 963 must address as well as the constraints
964 imposed on the design.

Page 9 of 18
 965 e) Test and implement the solution The 1022 problem-solving activities. Some models
966 final phase of the design process is 1023 are physical, such as a made-to-scale
967 implementation. Implementation refers to 1024 miniature construction of a bridge or
968 development and testing of the proposed 1025 building. Other models may be non-
969 solution. Sometimes a preliminary, partial 1026 physical representations, such as a CAD
970 solution called a prototype may be 1027 drawing of a cog or a mathematical model
971 developed initially to test the proposed 1028 for a process. Models help engineers reason
972 design solution under certain conditions. 1029 and understand aspects of a problem. They
973 Feedback resulting from testing a prototype 1030 can also help engineers understand what
974 may be used either to refine the design or 1031 they do know and what they don’t know
975 drive the selection of an alternative design 1032 about the problem at hand.
976 solution. One of the most important
1033 There are three types of models: iconic,
977 activities in design is documentation of the
1034 analogic, and symbolic. An iconic model is
978 design solution as well as of the tradeoffs
1035 a visually equivalent but incomplete 2-
979 for the choices made in the design of the
1036 dimensional or 3-dimensional
980 solution. This work should be carried out in
1037 representation—for example, maps, globes,
981 a manner such that the solution to the
1038 or built-to-scale models of structures such
982 design problem can be communicated
1039 as bridges or highways.. An iconic model
983 clearly to others.
1040 actually resembles the artifact modeled.
984 The testing and verification take us back to
1041 In contrast, an analogic model is a
985 the success criteria. The software engineer
1042 functionally equivalent but incomplete
986 needs to devise tests such that the ability of
1043 representation. That is, the model behaves
987 the design to meet the success criteria is
1044 like the physical artifact even though it
988 demonstrated. While designing the tests,
1045 may not physically resemble it. Examples
989 the software engineer must think through
1046 of analogic models include a miniature
990 different possible failure modes and then
1047 airplane for wind tunnel testing or a
991 design tests based on those failure modes.
1048 computer simulation of a manufacturing
992 The software engineer may choose to carry
1049 process.
993 out designed experiments to assess the
994 validity of the design. 1050 Finally, a symbolic model is a higher level
1051 of abstraction, where the model is
995 1052 represented using symbols such as
996 5. Modeling, Simulation, and 1053 equations. The model captures the relevant
997 Prototyping [5* , c6, 10* , c13s3, 1054 aspects of the process or system in
998 11* , c2s3.1] 1055 symbolic form. The symbols can then be
1056 used to increase the engineer’s
999 Modeling is part of the abstraction process 1057 understanding of the final system. An
1000 used to represent some aspects of a system. 1058 example is an equation such as F=Ma.
1001 Simulation uses a model of the system and 1059 Such mathematical models can be used to
1002 provides a means of conducting designed 1060 describe and predict properties or behavior
1003 experiments with that model to better 1061 of the final system or product.
1004 understand the system, its behavior, and
1005 relationships between subsystems, as well 1062 Simulation:
1006 as to analyze aspects of the design.
1063 All simulation models are a specification of
1007 Modeling and simulation are techniques
1064 reality. A central issue in simulation is to
1008 that can be used to construct theories or
1065 abstract and specify an appropriate
1009 hypotheses about the behavior of the
1066 simplification of reality. Developing this
1010 system; engineers then use those theories to
1067 abstraction is of vital importance, as
1011 make predictions about the system.
1068 misspecification of the abstraction would
1012 Prototyping is another abstraction process
1069 invalidate the results of the simulation
1013 where a partial representation (that captures
1070 exercise. Simulation can be used for a
1014 aspects of interest) of the product or system
1071 variety of testing purposes.
1015 is built. A prototype may be an initial
1016 version of the system but lacks the full 1072 Simulation is classified based on the type
1017 functionality of the final version. 1073 of system under study. Thus, simulation
1074 can be either continuous or discrete. In the
1018 Modeling: 1075 context of software engineering, the
1019 A model is always an abstraction of some 1076 emphasis will be primarily on discrete
1020 real or imagined artifact. Engineers use 1077 simulation. Discrete simulations may
1021 models in many ways as part of their 1078 model event scheduling or process

Page 10 of 18
1079 interaction. The main components in such a 1136 these are abstractions and, as such, may not
1080 model include entities, activities and 1137 model all attributes of interest.
1081 events, resources, state of the system, a
1082 simulation clock, and a random number 1138
1083 generator. Output is generated by the 1139 6. Standards: [5* , c9s3.2, 12* , c1s2]
1084 simulation and must be analyzed.
1140 Moore states that a “standard can be; (a)
1085 An important problem in the development 1141 an object or measure of comparison that
1086 of a discrete simulation is that of 1142 defines or represents the magnitude of a
1087 initialization. Before a simulation can be 1143 unit; (b) a characterization that establishes
1088 run, the initial values of all the state 1144 allowable tolerances for categories of
1089 variables must be provided. As the 1145 items; and (c) a degree or level of required
1090 simulation designer may not know what 1146 excellence or attainment. Standards are
1091 initial values are appropriate for the state 1147 definitional in nature, established either to
1092 variables, these values might be chosen 1148 further understanding and interaction or to
1093 somewhat arbitrarily. For instance, it might 1149 acknowledge observed (or desired) norms
1094 be decided that a queue should be 1150 of exhibited characteristics or
1095 initialized as empty and idle. Such a choice 1151 behavior”[12* , p8].
1096 of initial condition can have a significant
1152 Standards provide requirements,
1097 but unrecognized impact on the outcome of
1153 specifications, guidelines, or characteristics
1098 the simulation.
1154 that must be observed by engineers so that
1099 Prototyping: 1155 the products, processes, and materials have
1156 acceptable levels of quality. The qualities
1100 Constructing a prototype of a system is 1157 that various standards provide may be
1101 another abstraction process. In this case, an 1158 those of safety, reliability, or other product
1102 initial version of the system is constructed, 1159 characteristics. Standards are considered
1103 often while the system is being designed. 1160 critical to engineers and engineers are
1104 This helps the designers determine the 1161 expected to be familiar with and to use the
1105 feasibility of their design. 1162 appropriate standards in their discipline.
1106 There are many uses for a prototype, 1163 Organizations and individuals are not
1107 including the elicitation of requirements, 1164 forced to adhere to standards but do so
1108 the design and refinement of a user 1165 voluntarily because they find some benefit
1109 interface to the system, validation of 1166 from doing so. Compliance or conformance
1110 functional requirements, and so on. The 1167 to a standard lets an organization say to the
1111 objectives and purposes for building the 1168 public that they (or their products) meet the
1112 prototype will determine its construction 1169 requirements stated in that standard. Thus,
1113 and the level of abstraction used. 1170 standards divide organizations or their
1114 The role of prototyping is somewhat 1171 products into those that conform to the
1115 different for physical systems and software. 1172 standard and those that do not. For a
1116 With physical systems, the prototype may 1173 standard to be useful, conformance with the
1117 actually be the first fully functional version 1174 standard must add value—real or
1118 of a system or it may be a model of the 1175 perceived—to the product, process, or
1119 system. In software engineering, prototypes 1176 effort.
1120 are also an abstract model of part of the 1177 Apart from the organizational goals,
1121 software but are usually not constructed 1178 standards are used for a number of other
1122 with all of the architectural, performance, 1179 purposes such as protecting the buyer,
1123 and other quality characteristics expected 1180 protecting the business, and better defining
1124 in the finished product. In either case, 1181 the methods and procedures to be followed
1125 prototype construction must have a clear 1182 by the practice. Standards also provide
1126 purpose and be planned, monitored, and 1183 users with a common terminology and
1127 controlled—it is a technique to study a 1184 expectations.
1128 specific problem within a limited
1129 context[6* , c2s8]. 1185 There are three internationally recognized
1186 standards-making organizations: the
1130 In conclusion, modeling, simulation, and 1187 International Telecommunications Union,
1131 prototyping are powerful techniques for 1188 the International Electrotechnical
1132 studying the behavior of a system from a 1189 Commission (IEC), and the International
1133 given perspective. All can be used to 1190 Organization for Standardization (ISO). In
1134 perform designed experiments to study 1191 addition, there are regional and
1135 various aspects of the system. However, 1192 governmentally recognized organizations

Page 11 of 18
1193 that generate standards for that region or 1250 identify specific underlying cause(s) is to
1194 country. For example, in the United States, 1251 ask a series of why questions.
1195 there are over 300 organizations that
1196 develop standards. These include 1252 Techniques for Conducting Root
1197 organizations such as the American 1253 Cause Analysis[4* , c5, 5* , c3]
1198 National Standards Institute (ANSI), the
1254 There are many approaches used for both
1199 American Society for Testing and
1255 quality control and root cause analysis. The
1200 Materials (ASTM), the Society of
1256 first step in any root cause analysis effort is
1201 Automotive Engineers (SAE), and
1257 to identify the real problem. Techniques
1202 Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL), as
1258 such as statement-restatement, why-why
1203 well as the US government.
1259 diagrams, the revision method, present
1204 There is a set of commonly used principles 1260 state and desired state diagrams, and the
1205 behind standards. Standards makers 1261 fresh-eye approach are used to identify and
1206 attempt to have consensus around their 1262 refine the real problem that needs to be
1207 decisions. There is usually an openness 1263 addressed.
1208 within the community of interest so that
1264 Once the real problem has been identified,
1209 once a standard has been set, there is a
1265 then work can begin to determine the cause
1210 good chance that it will be widely
1266 of the problem. Ishikawa is known for the
1211 accepted. Most standards organizations
1267 seven tools for quality control that he
1212 have well-defined processes for their
1268 promoted. Some of those tools are helpful
1213 efforts and adhere to those processes
1269 in identifying the causes for a given
1214 carefully. Engineers must be aware of the
1270 problem. Those tools are check sheets or
1215 existing standards but must also update
1271 checklists, Pareto diagrams, histograms,
1216 their understanding of the standards as
1272 run charts, scatter diagrams, control charts,
1217 those standards change over time.
1273 and fishbone or cause-and-effect diagrams.
1218 In many engineering endeavors, knowing 1274 More recently, other approaches for quality
1219 and understanding the applicable standards 1275 improvement and root cause analysis have
1220 is critical and the law may even require use 1276 emerged. Some examples of these newer
1221 of particular standards. In these cases, the 1277 methods are affinity diagrams, relations
1222 standards often represent minimal 1278 diagrams, tree diagrams, matrix charts,
1223 requirements that must be met by the 1279 matrix data analysis charts, process
1224 endeavor and thus are an element in the 1280 decision program charts, and arrow
1225 constraints imposed on any design effort. 1281 diagrams. A few of these techniques are
1226 The engineer must review all current 1282 briefly described below.
1227 standards related to a given endeavor and
1283 A fishbone or cause-and-effect diagram is a
1228 determine which must be met. Their
1284 way to visualize the various factors that
1229 designs must then incorporate any and all
1285 affect some characteristic. The main line in
1230 constraints imposed by the applicable
1286 the diagram represents the problem and the
1231 standard. Standards important to software
1287 connecting lines represent the factors that
1232 engineers are discussed in more detail in an
1288 lead to or influenced the problem. Those
1233 appendix specifically on this subject.
1289 factors are broken down into sub-factors
1234 7. Root Cause Analysis: [4* , c5, 1290 and sub-sub-factors until root causes can be
1235 c3s7, c9s8, 5* , c9s3, c9s4, c9s5, 1291 identified.
1236 12* , c13s3.4.5] 1292 A very simple approach that is useful in
1237 1293 quality control is the use of a checklist.
1294 Checklists are a list of key points in a
1238 Root cause analysis (RCA) is a process 1295 process with tasks that must be completed.
1239 designed to investigate and identify why 1296 As each task is completed, it is checked off
1240 and how an undesirable event has 1297 the list. If a problem occurs, then
1241 happened. Root causes are underlying 1298 sometimes the checklist can quickly
1242 causes. The investigator should attempt to 1299 identify tasks that may have been skipped
1243 identify specific underlying causes of the 1300 or only partially completed.
1244 event that has occurred. The primary
1245 objective of RCA is to prevent recurrence 1301 Finally, relations diagrams are a means for
1246 of the undesirable event. Thus, the more 1302 displaying complex relationships. They
1247 specific the investigator can be about why 1303 give visual support to cause-and-effect
1248 an event occurred, the easier it will be to 1304 thinking. The diagram relates the specific
1249 prevent recurrence. A common way to 1305 to the general, revealing key causes and
1306 key effects.

Page 12 of 18
1307 Corrective and Preventive 1364 Architecture, 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA:
1308 Actions: 1365 Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2006.
1366 [4*] S. H. Kan, Metrics and Models in
1309 Root cause analysis aims at preventing the 1367 Software Quality Engineering, 2nd ed.
1310 recurrence of undesirable events. However, 1368 Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2002.
1311 the main aim of a software engineer should 1369 [5*] G. Voland, Engineering by Design,
1312 be to prevent occurrence of undesirable 1370 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
1313 events and this involves reduction of 1371 Prentice Hall, 2003.
1314 common cause variation. Reduction of 1372 [6*] R. E. Fairley, Managing and Leading
1315 variation due to common causes requires 1373 Software Projects. Hoboken, NJ:
1316 utilization of a number of techniques. An 1374 Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press,
1317 important point to note is that these 1375 2009.
1318 techniques should be used offline and not 1376 [7] "Accreditation Criteria and
1319 necessarily in direct response to the 1377 Procedures," Canadian Engineering
1320 occurrence of some undesirable event. 1378 Accreditation Board, Engineers
1321 Some of the techniques that may be used to 1379 Canada2011.
1322 reduce variation due to common causes are 1380 [8] E. A. Commission, "Criteria for
1323 given below. 1381 Accrediting Engineering Programs,
1324 i. Cause-and-effect
1382 2012-2013," ABET2011.
1325 diagrams may be used to
1383 [9*] S. McConnell, Code Complete, 2nd ed.
1326 identify the sub and sub-
1384 Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 2004.
1327 sub causes.
1385 [10*] E. W. Cheney and D. R. Kincaid,
1328 ii. Fault tree analysis is a
1386 Numerical Mathematics and
1329 technique that may be
1387 Computing, 6th ed. Belmont, CA:
1330 used to understand the
1388 Brooks/Cole, 2007.
1331 sources of failures.
1389 [11*] I. Sommerville, Software Engineering,
1332 iii. Designed experiments
1390 9th ed. New York: Addison-Wesley,
1333 may be used to
1391 2010.
1334 understand the impact of
1392 [12*] J. W. Moore, The Road Map to
1335 various causes on the
1393 Software Engineering: A Standards-
1336 occurrence of
1394 Based Guide, 1st ed. Hoboken, NJ:
1337 undesirable events (see
1395 Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press,
1338 Empirical Methods and
1396 2006.
1339 Experimental Techniques
1397 [13] A. Abran, Software Metrics and
1340 in this KA).
1398 Software Metrology: Wiley-IEEE
1399 Computer Society Press, 2010.
1341 iv. Various kinds of 1400 [14] W. G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know
1342 correlation analyses may 1401 and How they Know It: John Hopkins
1343 be used to understand the 1402 University Press, 1990.
1344 relationship between
1345 various causes and their
1403
1346 impact. These techniques
1347 may be used in cases
1348 when conducting
1349 controlled experiments is
1350 difficult but data may be
1351 gathered. (See Statistical
1352 Analysis in this KA.)
1353
1354 [1] IEEE/ISO/IEC, "IEEE/ISO/IEC
1355 24765: Systems and Software
1356 Engineering - Vocabulary," 1st ed,
1357 2010.
1358 [2*] D. C. Montgomery and G. C. Runger,
1359 Applied Statistics and Probability for
1360 Engineers, 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ:
1361 Wiley, 2007.
1362 [3*] L. Null and J. Lobur, The Essentials of
1363 Computer Organization and

Page 13 of 18
1404 8. Reference Matrix

Moore 2006 [12*]

Montgomery and
Runger 2007 [3*]

Voland 2003 [6*]

Accreditation [8]
Fairley 2009 [7*]

McConnell 2004
EA Commission
Null and Lobur
IEEE/ISO/IEC

Kan 2002 [5*]

Sommerville

Engineering

Cheney and

2007 [11*]
Canadian
2010 [1*]

2006 [4*]
2010 [2]

Kincaid
[10*]
[9]
Empirical C1
Methods and
experimental
techniques
Designed
experiment
Observational
study
Retrospective
Study
Statistical C9s1, C10s3
Analysis C2s1
Concept of unit of
analysis
(sampling units),
sample and
population
Unit of analysis
Population
Sample
Random Variable
Event
Distribution of a C3s6,
random variable C3s9,
C4s6
Concept of

Page 14 of 18
 Moore 2006 [12*]
Montgomery and
Runger 2007 [3*]

Voland 2003 [6*]

Accreditation [8]
Fairley 2009 [7*]

McConnell 2004
EA Commission
Null and Lobur
IEEE/ISO/IEC

Kan 2002 [5*]

Sommerville

Engineering

Cheney and

2007 [11*]
Canadian
2010 [1*]

2006 [4*]
2010 [2]

Kincaid
[10*]
[9]
parameters
Concept of C6s2,
estimation C7s1,
C7s3
Types of C7s3,
estimates C8s1
Properties of
estimators
Tests of C9s1
hypothesis
Concepts of C11s2,
correlation and C11s8
regression
Correlation
Regression
Measurements C3s1, C4s4, C7s5
and measures C3s2
Major theories of
measurement
Operational
definitions
Levels (scales) of C3s2 C7s5
measurement
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale

Page 15 of 18
 Moore 2006 [12*]
Montgomery and
Runger 2007 [3*]

Voland 2003 [6*]

Accreditation [8]
Fairley 2009 [7*]

McConnell 2004
EA Commission
Null and Lobur
IEEE/ISO/IEC

Kan 2002 [5*]

Sommerville

Engineering

Cheney and

2007 [11*]
Canadian
2010 [1*]

2006 [4*]
2010 [2]

Kincaid
[10*]
[9]
Direct and C7s5
Derived measures
Reliability and C3s4,
validity C3s5
Assessing C3s5
Reliability
Engineering C1s2,
Design C1s3,
C1s4
Design in p12 General
Engineering Criteria
Education 3.
Design as a C1s4, C5s1
problem solving C2s1,
activity C3s3
Steps involved in
Engineering
Design
Modeling, C2s3.1 C6 C13s3
prototyping and ,
Simulation
Modeling
Simulation
Prototyping
Standards C9s3. C1s2
2
Root Cause C5, C9s3, C13s3.4.

Page 16 of 18
 Actions
Analysis

Preventative
Corrective and
Techniques for

Cause Analysis
conducting Root
Sommerville
2010 [1*]

IEEE/ISO/IEC
2010 [2]

Montgomery and
Runger 2007 [3*]

Null and Lobur

2006 [4*]
C5

Kan 2002 [5*]

C9s8
C3s7,

C3

Voland 2003 [6*]

C9s5
C9s4,

Fairley 2009 [7*]

Page 17 of 18
Canadian
Engineering
Accreditation [8]

EA Commission
[9]

McConnell 2004
[10*]

Cheney and
Kincaid
2007 [11*]
5

Moore 2006 [12*]

1405 9. Further Readings
1406 Software Metrics and Software Metrology.[13]

1407 This book provides very good information on the proper use of the terms measure, measurement
1408 method and measurement outcome. It provides strong support material for the entire section on Measurement.

1409 What Engineers Know and How They Know It. [14]

1410 This book provides an interesting introduction to engineering foundations through a series of case
1411 studies that show many of the foundational concepts as used in real world engineering applications.

1412

Page 18 of 18