Architectural

Styles
 Modern
Architectur
e
Modern architecture, or modernist architecture, was
based upon new and innovative technologies of
construction, particularly the use of glass, steel and
Several works or collections of modern architecture
have been designated by UNESCO as World
Heritage Sites. In addition to the early experiments
reinforced concrete; the idea that form should follow associated with Art Nouveau, these include a
function (→functionalism); an embrace of minimalism; number of the structures mentioned above in this
and a rejection of ornament. article: the Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht, the
Bauhaus structures in Weimar and Dessau, the
It emerged in the first half of the 20th century and
Berlin Modernism Housing Estates, the White City
became dominant after World War II until the 1980s,
of Tel Aviv, the city of Asmara, the city of Brasilia,
when it was gradually replaced as the principal style
the Ciudad Universitaria of UNAM in Mexico City
for institutional and corporate buildings by
and the University City of Caracas in Venezuela, and
postmodern architecture.
the Sydney Opera House.
Functionalism
In architecture, functionalism is the principle
that buildings should be designed based solely
on the purpose and function of the building.

This principle is a matter of confusion and controversy

within the profession, particularly in regard to modern
architecture, as it is less self-evident than it first
appears.
The theoretical articulation of functionalism in
buildings can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad,
where 'utilitas' (variously translated as 'commodity',
'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside 'firmitas'
(firmness) and 'venustas' (beauty) as one of three
classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views were
typical of some gothic revival architects.
 Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism is a movement of
postmodern architecture which appeared in the
1980s. It gives the impression of the fragmentation
of the constructed building. It is characterized by an
absence of harmony, continuity, or symmetry.
Its name comes from the idea of "Deconstruction",
a form of semiotic analysis developed by the French
philosopher Jacques Derrida. Architects whose work
is often described as deconstructionism (though in
many cases the architects themselves reject the
label) include Peter Eisenman, Frank Gehry, Zaha
Hadid, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, Bernard
Tschumi, and Coop Himmelb(l)au.
Besides fragmentation, Deconstructivism often
manipulates the structure's surface skin and creates
by non-rectilinear shapes which appear to distort
and dislocate elements of architecture. The finished
visual appearance is characterized by
unpredictability and controlled chaos.
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
Computer aided design is now an essential tool in
most aspects of contemporary architecture, but the
particular nature of deconstructivism makes the use of
computers especially pertinent. Three-dimensional
modelling and animation (virtual and physical) assists
in the conception of very complicated spaces, while
the ability to link computer models to manufacturing
jigs (CAM - Computer-aided manufacturing) allows
the mass production of subtly different modular
elements to be achieved at affordable costs. In
retrospect many early deconstructivist works appear
to have been conceived with the aid of a computer,
but were not; Zaha Hadid's sketches for instance. Also,
Gehry is noted for producing many physical models as
well as computer models as part of his design process.
Though the computer has made the designing of
complex shapes much easier, not everything that looks
odd is "deconstructivist."
Vernacular
Architectur
e is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context,
Vernacular architecture is architecture characterised by the
use of local materials and knowledge, usually without the
supervision of professional architects. Although it
encompasses 95% of the world's built environment,
vernacular architecture tends to be overlooked in traditional
histories of design. It is not one specific style, so it cannot
be distilled into a series of easy-to-digest patterns,
materials, or elements. Because of the usage of traditional
building methods and local builders, vernacular buildings
are considered part of a regional culture.
Vernacular architecture can be contrasted against elite or
polite architecture which is characterized by stylistic
elements of design intentionally incorporated for aesthetic
purposes which go beyond a building's functional
requirements. This article also covers the term traditional
architecture, which exists somewhere between the two
extremes yet still is based upon authentic themes.
Environment,
materials
construction elements
The local environment and the construction materials it
can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular
and
architecture. Areas rich in trees will develop a wooden
vernacular, while areas without much wood may use
mud or stone. Vernacular, almost by definition, is
sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources. If it
and cannot be vernacular.
Construction elements and materials frequently found in
vernacular buildings include:
 Adobe - a type of mud brick, often covered with
white-wash, commonly used in Spain and Spanish
colonies
 Bad girs - a type of chimney used to provide natural
ventilation, commonly found in Iran, Iraq and other
parts of the Middle-East
 Cob - a type of plaster made from subsoil with the
addition of fibrous material to give added strength
 Mashrabiya - (also known as shanashol in Iraq) - a
type of oriel window with timber lattice-work,
designed to allow ventilation, commonly found in
Iraq and Egypt in upper-class homes
 Mud bricks - loam or sand mixed with water and
vegetable matter such as straw
 Rammed earth often used in foundations
 Thatch - dry vegetation used as roofing material
 Wychert - a blend of white earth and clay
 Organic
Architecture
Organic architecture is a philosophy of architecture which Architect and planner David Pearson proposed a list of

Contemporary
promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural
world. This is achieved through design approaches that aim to be
sympathetic and well-integrated with a site, so buildings,
furnishings, and surroundings become part of a unified,
interrelated composition.
rules towards the design of organic architecture. These
rules are known as the Gaia Charter for organic
architecture and design. It reads:

"Let the design:

Organic architecture is also translated into the all inclusive nature
of Wright's design process. Materials, motifs, and basic ordering
principles continue to repeat themselves throughout the building
as a whole. The idea of organic architecture refers not only to the
buildings' literal relationship to the natural surroundings, but how
the buildings' design is carefully thought about as if it were a
unified organism. Geometries throughout Wright's buildings build
a central mood and theme.
Essentially organic architecture is also the literal design of every
element of a building: From the windows, to the floors, to the
individual chairs intended to fill the space. Everything relates to
one another, reflecting the symbiotic ordering systems of nature.
 be inspired by nature and be sustainable, healthy,
conserving, and diverse.
 unfold, like an organism, from the seed within.
 exist in the "continuous present" and "begin
again and again".
 follow the flows and be flexible and adaptable.
 satisfy social, physical, and spiritual needs.
 "grow out of the site" and be unique.
 celebrate the spirit of youth, play and surprise.
 express the rhythm of music and the power of
dance."
 Architecture
Renaissance
Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the
21st century. No single style is dominant; contemporary
Most of the landmarks of contemporary architecture are
the works of a small group of architects who work on an

Architectur
architects are working in a dozen different styles, from
postmodernism and high-tech architecture to highly
conceptual and expressive styles, resembling sculpture on
international scale. Many were designed by architects
already famous in the late 20th century, including Mario
Botta, Frank Gehry, Jean Nouvel, Norman Foster, Ieoh
Ming Pei and Renzo Piano, while others are the work of a

e
an enormous scale. The different styles and approaches
have in common the use of very advanced technology and
modern building materials, such as Tube structure which
new generation born during or after World War II,
including Zaha Hadid, Santiago Calatrava, Daniel
Libeskind, Jacques Herzog, Pierre de Meuron, Rem
allows construction of the buildings that are taller, lighter
and stronger than those in the 20th century, and the use Koolhaas, and Shigeru Ban. Other projects are the work of
of new techniques of computer-aided design, which allow collectives of several architects, such as UNStudio and
buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in SANAA, or giant multinational agencies such as Skidmore,
three dimensions, and constructed with more precision Owings & Merrill, with thirty associate architects and large
and speed. teams of engineers and designers, and Gensler, with 5,000
employees in 16 countries.
Contemporary buildings are designed to be noticed and
to astonish. Some feature concrete structures wrapped in
glass or aluminum screens, very asymmetric facades, and
cantilevered sections which hang over the street.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE is the European architecture of the period
between the early 14th and early 16th centuries in different regions,
demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of
ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically,
Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded
by Baroque architecture.

Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and

the regularity of parts, as they are demonstrated in the architecture of
classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which
many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and
lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches

Gothic
and aedicula replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular
profiles of medieval buildings.

Architectur
e
Classical architecture is derived from
the architecture of ancient Greece and
ancient Rome. With a collapse of the
western part of the Roman empire, the
architectural traditions of the Roman
empire ceased to be practised in large
parts of western Europe. In
the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways
of building lived on but relatively soon
developed into a distinct Byzantine
Gothic architecture (Latin: francigenum opus) is a
style that flourished in Europe during the High and Late
Middle Ages. It evolved from Romanesque architecture
and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture.
Originating in 12th-century France, it was widely used,
especially for cathedrals and churches, until the 16th
century.
Its most prominent features included the use of the rib
vault and the flying buttress, which allowed the weight of
the roof to be counterbalanced by buttresses outside the
building, giving greater height and more space for
windows. Another important feature was the extensive
use of stained glass, and the rose window, to bring light
and color to the interior. Another feature was the use of
realistic statuary on the exterior, particularly over the
portals, to illustrate biblical stories for the largely
illiterate parishioners. Some key architectural features,
such as the pointed arch and a decorative kind of rib
vault, existed earlier outside Europe, and may have been
derived from Islamic architecture.
MATERIALS The local availability of materials affected
both construction and style. In France, limestone was
readily available in several grades, the very fine white
limestone of Caen being favoured for sculptural
decoration. England had coarse limestone and red
sandstone as well as dark green Purbeck marble which
was often used for architectural features. The resultant
style, Brick Gothic – called Gotyk ceglany in Poland and
Backsteingotik in Germany and Scandinavia – is also
associated with the Hanseatic League. In Italy, stone was
used for fortifications, so brick was preferred for other
buildings. The availability of timber also influenced the
style of architecture, with timber buildings prevailing in
Scandinavia. Availability of timber affected methods of
roof construction across Europe. It is thought that the
magnificent hammerbeam roofs of England were devised
as a direct response to the lack of long straight seasoned
timber by the end of the Medieval period, when forests
had been decimated not only for the construction of vast
roofs but also for ship building.
 Classical
Architecture
Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is
Gothic Revival
more or less consciously derived from the principles of
Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity, or
sometimes even more specifically, from the works of the
Roman architect Vitruvius. Different styles of classical
architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian
Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian
Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can
vary greatly, they can in general all be said to draw on a
common "vocabulary" of decorative and constructive
elements. In much of the Western world, different classical
architectural styles have dominated the history of
architecture from the Renaissance until the second world
war, though it continues to inform many architects to this
day.
Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient
Greece and ancient Rome. With a collapse of the western part
of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman
empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe.
In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on
but relatively soon developed into a distinct Byzantine style.The
first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of
form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be
traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th
centuries. The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey (c. 800), in present-
day Germany thus displays a system of alternating attached
columns and arches which could be an almost direct paraphrase
of e.g., that of the Colosseum in Rome. Byzantine architecture,
just as Romanesque and even to some extent Gothic
architecture (with which classical architecture is often posed),
can also incorporate classical elements and details but do not to
the same degree reflect a conscious effort to draw upon the
architectural traditions of antiquity; for example, they do not
observe the idea of a systematic order of proportions for pillars.
In general, therefore, they are not considered classical
archerchitectural styles in a strict sense.
 Architecture
Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian
DETAILS OF ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
Gothic, neo-Gothic, or Gothick) is an architectural
These illustrations are from Charles Knight's Pictorial
movement popular in the Western world that began in the
Gallery of the Arts, published in England in 1858. They
late 1740s in England. Its momentum grew in the early 19th
show detailed perspectives on the incorporation of
century, when increasingly serious and learned admirers of
modern design influences in the Gothic style:
neo-Gothic styles sought to revive medieval Gothic
architecture, in contrast to the neoclassical styles prevalent
at the time. Gothic Revival draws features from the original
Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, lancet
windows, hood moulds and label stops.

The Gothic Revival movement emerged in 18th-century

England, gaining ground in the 19th. Gothic Revival
architecture varied considerably in its faithfulness to both
the ornamental style and principles of construction of its
medieval original, sometimes amounting to little more
than pointed window frames and a few touches of Gothic
a. Architecture and arch elements
decoration on a building otherwise on a wholly 19th-
century plan and using contemporary materials and
b. Decorative architectural elements
construction methods.
c. More examples of decorative architectural
elements
 Victorian
Architecture
Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival
styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the
reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901), called the Victorian era,
during which period the styles known as Victorian were used
in construction. However, many elements of what is typically
termed "Victorian" architecture did not become popular until
later in Victoria's reign. The styles often included
interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles. The
name represents the British and French custom of naming
architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this
naming and classification scheme, it followed Georgian
architecture and later Regency architecture, and was
succeeded by Edwardian architecture.

Art Deco
Art Deco, sometimes referred to as Deco, is a style of It featured rare and expensive materials, such as ebony
visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in and ivory, and exquisite craftsmanship. The Chrysler
France just before World War I. Art Deco influenced the Building and other skyscrapers of New York built during
design of buildings, furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, movie the 1920s and 1930s are monuments of the Art Deco style.
theatres, trains, ocean liners, and everyday objects such as
In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Art Deco
radios and vacuum cleaners. It took its name, short for
became more subdued. New materials arrived, including
Arts Décoratifs, from the Exposition internationale des
chrome plating, stainless steel, and plastic. A sleeker form
arts décoratifs et industriels modernes (International
of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the
Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts) held
1930s; it featured curving forms and smooth, polished
in Paris in 1925. It combined modern styles with fine
surfaces. Art Deco is one of the first truly international
craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art
styles, but its dominance ended with the beginning of
Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith
World War II and the rise of the strictly functional and
in social and technological progress.
unadorned styles of modern architecture and the
Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, International Style of architecture that followed.
sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be
Art Deco was not a single style, but a collection of different
modern. From its outset, Art Deco was influenced by the
and sometimes contradictory styles. In architecture, Art
bold geometric forms of Cubism and the Vienna

Greek Revival
Secession; the bright colors of Fauvism and of the Ballets
Russes; the updated craftsmanship of the furniture of the
eras of Louis Philippe I and Louis XVI; and the exotic styles
Deco was the successor to and reaction against Art
Nouveau, a style which flourished in Europe between 1895
and 1900, and also gradually replaced the Beaux-Arts and
neoclassical that were predominant in European and
of China and Japan, India, Persia, ancient Egypt and Maya
American architecture.
art.
 Architecture
The Greek Revival was an architectural movement of the
late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in
Northern Europe and the United States. It revived the style
of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the Greek
temple, with varying degrees of thoroughness and
consistency. A product of Hellenism, it may be looked
upon as the last phase in the development of Neoclassical
architecture, which had for long mainly drawn from
Roman architecture. The term was first used by Charles
Robert Cockerell in a lecture he gave as Professor of
Architecture to the Royal Academy of Arts, London in
1842.
With a newfound access to Greece, or initially the books
produced by the few who had actually been able to visit
the sites, archaeologist-architects of the period studied
the Doric and Ionic orders.
In each country it touched, the style was looked on as the
expression of local nationalism and civic virtue, and
freedom from the lax detail and frivolity that was thought
to characterize the architecture of France and Italy, two
countries where the style never really took hold. This was
especially the case in Britain, Germany and the United
States, where the idiom was regarded as being free from
ecclesiastical and aristocratic associations.
The taste for all things Greek in furniture and interior
design, sometimes called Neo-Grec, was at its peak by the
beginning of the 19th century, when the designs of
Thomas Hope had influenced a number of decorative
styles known variously as Neoclassical, Empire, Russian
Empire, and Regency architecture in Britain. Greek Revival
architecture took a different course in a number of
countries, lasting until the Civil War in America (1860s) and
even later in Scotland.
 Postmodern
Architecture
Postmodern architecture is a style or movement
which emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against the
austerity, formality, and lack of variety of modern
architecture, particularly in the international style
advocated by Le Corbusier and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
The movement was introduced by the architect and urban
planner Denise Scott Brown and architectural theorist
Robert Venturi in their book Learning from Las Vegas.
Characteristics
Complexity and contradiction
Postmodern architecture first emerged as a reaction against
the doctrines of modern architecture, as expressed by
modernist architects including Le Corbusier and Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe. In place of the modernist doctrines of
simplicity as expressed by Mies in his famous "less is more;"
and functionality, "form follows function" and the doctrine
of Le Corbusier that "a house is a machine to live in,"
postmodernism, in the words Robert Venturi, offered
complexity and contradiction.
Postmodern buildings had curved forms, decorative
elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features often
borrowed from earlier periods. Colors and textures
unrelated to the structure or function of the building.
Postmodernist compositions are rarely symmetric,
balanced and orderly. Oblique buildings which tilt, lean,
and seem about to fall over are common.
Color
Color is an important element in many postmodern
buildings; to give the façades variety and personality,
colored glass is sometimes used, or ceramic tiles, or stone.
The buildings of Mexican architect Luis Barragan offer
bright sunlight colors that give life to the forms.
Humor and "camp"
Humor is a particular feature of many postmodern
buildings, particularly in the United States. An example is
the Binoculars Building in the Venice neighborhood of Los
Angeles, designed by Frank Gehry in collaboration with the
sculptor Claes Oldenberg (1991–2001).
 Brutalist
Architecture
Brutalist architecture, or Brutalism, is an Characteristics
architectural style which emerged in the mid-20th century
Brutalist buildings are usually constructed with reoccurring
and gained popularity in the late 1950s and 1960s. It
modular elements forming masses representing specific
descended from the modernist architectural movement of
functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped
the late 19th century and of the first half of 20th century. It
together into a unified whole. Concrete is used for its raw
is characterized by simple, block-like structures that often
and unpretentious honesty, thus contrasting dramatically
feature bare building materials. Exposed concrete is favored
with the highly refined and ornamented buildings
in construction; however, some examples are primarily
constructed in the elite Beaux-Arts style. Surfaces of cast
made of brick. Though beginning in Europe, Brutalist
concrete are made to reveal the basic nature of its
architecture can now be found around the world. The style
construction, showing the texture of the wooden planks
has been most commonly used in the design of institutional
used for the in-situ casting forms. Brutalist buildings may
buildings, such as libraries, courts, public housing and city
use other materials such as brick, glass, steel, rough-hewn
halls.
stone, and gabions.
Brutalism's stark and geometric designs contrast with the
Peter Smithson believed that the core of Brutalism was a
more ornate features of some 1910s, 1920s and 1930s
reverence for materials, stating "Brutalism is not
architecture. Brutalist designs have historically been
concerned with the material as such but rather the quality
polarising. Specific buildings, as well as the movement as a
of material,"and "the seeing of materials for what they
whole, have drawn a range of criticism and support from
were: the woodness of the wood; the sandiness of sand."
architects and the public. Many brutalist buildings have
become architectural and cultural icons, with some
obtaining listed status.
 Romanesque
Architectur
Romanesque architecture
e
is an architectural
style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular
Characteristics

arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the
Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to
the 11th century, this later date being the most commonly
held. In the 12th century it developed into the Gothic style,
marked by pointed arches. Examples of Romanesque
architecture can be found across the continent, making it
the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial
Roman architecture. The Romanesque style in England is
traditionally referred to as Norman architecture.
Combining features of ancient Roman and Byzantine
buildings and other local traditions, Romanesque
architecture is known by its massive quality, thick walls,
round arches, sturdy pillars, barrel vaults, large towers and
decorative arcading. Each building has clearly defined
forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan; the
overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with
the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be
identified right across Europe, despite regional
characteristics and different materials.
The general impression given by Romanesque
architecture, in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings, is
one of massive solidity and strength. In contrast with both
the preceding Roman and later Gothic architecture, in
which the load-bearing structural members are, or appear
to be, columns, pilasters and arches, Romanesque
architecture, in common with Byzantine architecture, relies
upon its walls, or sections of walls called piers.
Romanesque architecture is often divided into two periods
known as the "First Romanesque" style and the
"Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a matter of
the expertise with which the buildings were constructed.
The First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller
windows and unvaulted roofs. A greater refinement marks
the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of the
vault and dressed stone.
 Beaux-Arts
Architectur
Beaux-Arts architecture
e Characteristics of Beaux-Arts architecture
included:
(/ˌboʊˈzɑːr/; French: [bozaʁ]) was the academic
architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in
Paris, particularly from the 1830s to the end of the 19th
century. It drew upon the principles of French
neoclassicism, but also incorporated Gothic and
Renaissance elements, and used modern materials, such as
iron and glass. It was an important style in France until the
end of the 19th century. It also had a strong influence on
architecture in the United States, because of the many
prominent American architects who studied at the Beaux-
Arts, including Henry Hobson Richardson, John Galen
Howard, Daniel Burnham, and Louis Sullivan.
Beaux-Arts architecture depended on sculptural decoration
along conservative modern lines, employing French and
Italian Baroque and Rococo formulas combined with an
impressionistic finish and realism. In the façade shown
above, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in a natural
action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with
architecture.
 Flat roof
 Rusticated and raised first story
 Hierarchy of spaces, from "noble spaces"—grand
entrances and staircases—to utilitarian ones
 Arched windows
 Arched and pedimented doors
 Classical details: references to a synthesis of historicist
styles and a tendency to eclecticism; fluently in a number
of "manners"
 Symmetry
 Statuary, sculpture (bas-relief panels, figural sculptures,
sculptural groups), murals, mosaics, and other artwork, all
coordinated in theme to assert the identity of the building
 Classical architectural details: balustrades, pilasters,
garlands, cartouches, acroteria, with a prominent display
of richly detailed clasps (agrafes), brackets and supporting
consoles
 Subtle polychromy
 Tudor
Architecture

The Tudor architectural style is the final development of
Medieval architecture in England, during the Tudor period
(1485–1603) and even beyond, and also the tentative
introduction of Renaissance architecture to England. It is
generally not used to refer to the whole period of the Tudor
dynasty (1485–1603), but to the style used in buildings of
some prestige in the period roughly between 1500 and
1560. It followed the Late Gothic Perpendicular style and
was superseded by Elizabethan architecture from about
1560 in domestic building of any pretensions to fashion. In
the much more slow-moving styles of vernacular
architecture "Tudor" has become a designation for styles
like half-timbering that characterize the few buildings
surviving from before 1485 and others from the Stuart
period. In this form the Tudor style long retained its hold
on English taste.[1] Nevertheless, 'Tudor style' is an
awkward style-designation, with its implied suggestions of
continuity through the period of the Tudor dynasty and the
misleading impression that there was a style break at the
accession of Stuart James I in 1603.
The low Tudor arch was a defining feature. Some of the
most remarkable oriel windows belong to this period.[1]
Mouldings are more spread out and the foliage becomes
more naturalistic.During the reigns of Henry VIII and
Edward VI, many Italian artists arrived in England; their
decorative features can be seen at Hampton Court Palace,
Layer Marney Tower, Sutton Place, and elsewhere. However,
in the following reign of Elizabeth I, the influence of
Northern Mannerism, mainly derived from books, was
greater. Courtiers and other wealthy Elizabethans
competed to build prodigy houses that proclaimed their
status.
Byzantine Architectur
e Byzantine style, with increasingly exotic domes and ever-
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of
the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.
The Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 CE, when
Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital to
Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of
the Byzantine Empire in 1453. However, there was initially
no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman empires,
and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and
structurally indistinguishable from earlier Roman
architecture. This terminology was introduced by modern
historians to designate the medieval Roman Empire as it
evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on
the new capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul)
rather than the city of Rome and its environs.
Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval
architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and
became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and
Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.
Characteristics
When the Roman Empire went east (and also Christian) with
its new capital at Constantinople, its architecture became
more sensuous and more ambitious than ever before. This
richer mosaics, traveled west to Ravenna and Venice and as
far north as Moscow. Most of the churches and basilicas
have high-riding domes. As result, they created vast open
spaces at the centres of churches, heightening the sense of
grace and light. The round arch is a fundamental of
Byzantine style. Magnificent golden mosaics with their
graphic simplicity and immense power brought light and
warmth into the heart of churches. Byzantine capitals break
away from the Classical conventions of ancient Greece and
Rome. Sinuous lines and naturalistic forms are precursors to
the Gothic style.
According to descriptions, interiors were plated with marble
or stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble.
Other widely used materials were bricks and stone, not just
marble like in Classical Antiquity.[1] Mural paintings or
mosaics made of shiny little stones were also elements of
interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds,
chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups
with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.
 Georgian Architectur
e
Georgian architecture is characterized by its proportion
Georgian architecture is the name given in
and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to
most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural
determine the height of a window in relation to its width
styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for
or the shape of a room as a double cube. Regularity, as
the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—
with ashlar (uniformly cut) stonework, was strongly
George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned
approved, imbuing symmetry and adherence to classical
in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830.
rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions
The style was revived in the late 19th century in the United
were added to earlier structures remaining visible, was
States as Colonial Revival architecture and in the early 20th
deeply felt as a flaw, at least before Nash began to
century in Great Britain as Neo-Georgian architecture; in
introduce it in a variety of styles.
both it is also called Georgian Revival architecture.
Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable
The Georgian style is highly variable, but marked by
feature of Georgian town planning. Until the start of the
symmetry and proportion based on the classical
Gothic Revival in the early 19th century, Georgian designs
architecture of Greece and Rome, as revived in Renaissance
usually lay within the Classical orders of architecture and
architecture. Ornament is also normally in the classical
employed a decorative vocabulary derived from ancient
tradition, but typically restrained, and sometimes almost
Rome or Greece.
completely absent on the exterior.
 Palladian
Architecture
Palladian architecture is a European style of
architecture derived from and inspired by the
designs of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio
(1508–1580). What is recognised as Palladian
architecture today is an evolution of his original
concepts. Palladio's work was strongly based on the
symmetry, perspective, and values of the formal
classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks
and Romans. From the 17th century Palladio's
interpretation of this classical architecture was
adapted as the style known as "Palladianism". It
continued to develop until the end of the 18th
century.
The style continu ed to be utiliz ed in Europ e throughout the 19th and ea rly 20th c enturies, wher e it w as fr equently emplo yed in the d esign of public and municip al building s. Fro m the latt er half of the 19th century it w as r ival led by th e Gothic revi val in th e Engli sh -speaking world, who se cha mpions such as Augustu s Pugin, rememb ering the or igins of Pa lladi anism in anci ent temp les, deemed it too pagan for Anglican and Anglo-Catholic wor ship.[ 3] Howev er, a s an architectural styl e it ha s continued to b e popular and to evo lve; it s pedi ment s, symm etry and propo rtions are cl early evid ent in the d esign of
The style continued to be utilized in Europe
.
throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where
it was frequently employed in the design of public
and municipal buildings. From the latter half of the
19th century it was rivalled by the Gothic revival in
the English-speaking world, whose champions such
as Augustus Pugin, remembering the origins of
Palladianism in ancient temples, deemed it too
pagan for Anglican and Anglo-Catholic worship.
However, as an architectural style it has continued to
be popular and to evolve; its pediments, symmetry
and proportions are clearly evident in the design of
many modern buildings today.
 Sustainable
Architecture
Sustainable energy use
Sustainable architecture is architecture
that seeks to minimize the negative
environmental impact of buildings by
efficiency and moderation in the use of
materials, energy, and development space and
the ecosystem at large. Sustainable
architecture uses a conscious approach to
energy and ecological conservation in the
design of the built environment.
The idea of sustainability, or ecological design,
is to ensure that our use of presently available
resources does not end up having detrimental
effects to our collective well-being or making
it impossible to obtain resources for other
applications in the long run.
• Heating, ventilation and cooling system
efficiency
• Renewable energy generation
• Solar panels
• Wind turbines
• Solar water heating
• Heat pumps
• Recycled materials
• Lower volatile organic compounds
• Materials sustainability standards
• Waste management
The term “sustainability” in relation to architecture has so far
been mostly considered through the lens of building
technology and its transformations. Going beyond the
technical sphere of “green” design, invention and expertise,
some scholars are starting to position architecture within a
much broader cultural framework of the human
interrelationship with nature. Adopting this framework allows
tracing a rich history of cultural debates about our
relationship to nature and the environment, from the point of
view of different historical and geographical contexts.
Biophilic Design
This principle is a matter of confusion and
controversy within the profession, particularly in
regard to modern architecture, as it is less self-
evident than it first appears.
The theoretical articulation of functionalism in
buildings can be traced back to the Vitruvian
triad, where 'utilitas' (variously translated as
'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands
alongside 'firmitas' (firmness) and 'venustas'
(beauty) as one of three classic goals of
architecture. Functionalist views were typical of
some gothic revival architects.
 Biomimetic
Architecture
Biomimetic architecture is
contemporary philosophy of architecture that seeks
solutions for sustainability in nature, not by replicating
the natural forms, but by understanding the rules
governing those forms. It is a multi-disciplinary
approach to sustainable design that follows a set of
principles rather than stylistic codes. It is part of a larger
movement known as biomimicry, which is the
examination of nature, its models, systems, and
processes for the purpose of gaining inspiration in
order to solve man-made problems.
a Characteristics
Biomimetic architecture uses nature as a model, measure
and mentor to solve problems in architecture. It is not the
same as biomorphic architecture, which uses natural
existing elements as sources of inspiration for aesthetic
components of form. Instead, biomimetic architecture
looks to nature as a model to imitate or take inspiration
from natural designs and processes and applies it to the
man-made. It uses nature as a measure meaning
biomimicry uses an ecological standard to judge the
efficiency of human innovations. Nature as a mentor
means that biomimicry does not try to exploit nature by
extracting material goods from it, but values nature as
something humans can learn from.
 Neoclassical
Architecture
Neoclassical architecture is an architectural
style produced by the neoclassical movement that began
in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style
principally derived from the architecture of classical
antiquity, the Vitruvian principles, and the work of the
Italian architect Andrea Palladio.
In form, neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall
rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities
to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its
details as a reaction against the Rococo style of
naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as
an outgrowth of some classicising features of the Late
Baroque architectural tradition. Neoclassical architecture
is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical
Architecture for contemporary buildings.
In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred
to as Classicism (German: Klassizismus, Russian:
Классицизм), while the newer revival styles of the 19th
century until today are called neoclassical.
Characteristics
High neoclassicism was an international movement. Though
neoclassical architecture employed the same classical vocabulary
as Late Baroque architecture, it tended to emphasize its planar
qualities, rather than sculptural volumes. Projections and
recessions and their effects of light and shade were more flat;
sculptural bas-reliefs were flatter and tended to be enframed in
friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual features
were isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and
complete in themselves.
Neoclassicism also influenced city planning; the ancient Romans
had used a consolidated scheme for city planning for both
defence and civil convenience, however, the roots of this scheme
go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid
system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main
slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were
characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design.
Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city
design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with the
importance of public buildings.
Many of these urban planning patterns found their way into the
first modern planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional
examples include Karlsruhe and Washington, D.C. Not all planned
cities and planned neighbourhoods are designed on neoclassical
principles, however. Opposing models may be found in Modernist
designs exemplified by Brasília, the Garden city movement,
levittowns, and new urbanism.