INTRODUCTION TO

What is

Logic is the study of method and principles used

in distinguishing correct (good) from incorrect
(bad) arguments.
A proposition or (a statement) is a declarative
sentence which is either true or false, but not both.

The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth

value.
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by
T if it is a true statement, otherwise, the truth value
is false, denoted by F.
Propositional variables are used to represent
propositions, usually denoted by small letters, such
as p, q, r, s and t.
Example:
p: Everyone should study logic.
p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic”
Determine whether each of the following is a proposition or
not, if a proposition, give its truth value.

1. p: Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.

p is a true proposition
2. q: Find a number which divides your age.
q is not a proposition
3. r: Zero is a rational number.
r is a true proposition
4. s: Cats can fly.
s is a false proposition
Determine whether each of the following is a proposition or
not, if a proposition, give its truth value.

5. t: Where are you going?

t is not a proposition
6. 𝑞1 : 6 is an even number
𝒒𝟏 is true proposition
7. 𝑟1 : 9 is a prime number
𝒓𝟏 is a false proposition
An open sentence contains one or more variables,
that is, it is either true or false depending on the value
of the placeholder.
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING OPEN SENTENCES:

1.She was the first Miss Philippines.

2.x is less than 10
3. y + 4 = 12
4. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 30
5. He was the father of problem solving.
A closed sentence, on the other hand, is a mathematical sentence
that is known to be either true or false.

1. 9 is an odd number.
2. 4 + 4 = 8
3. 10 − 1 = 8
4. 6 − 6 = −1
5. The square root of 4 is 1.
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simple
propositions using logical connectors or some combinations of
logical connectors. Logical connectors involving propositions p
and/or q may be expressed as:

not p
if p then q
p and q
p if and only if q
p or q
A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any further
into other component propositions.

Example:
For each of the propositions, determine whether it is a simple
or compound proposition. If it is compound proposition,
identify the simple components.
Simple or Compound Proposition?

𝑝2 : If you study hard, then you will get good grades.

• h : You study hard.
• g : You get good grades.
 𝑝2 : If h, then g.
Simple or Compound Proposition?

𝑝3 : Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.

• f : Logic is fun
• i : Logic is interesting
• b : Logic is boring.
 𝑝3 : f and i, or b
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Given a proposition, its truth table shows all its possible truth values.
A proposition p would have For proposition p and q, truth
the truth table. value would be: p q
p T T
T T F
F F T
F F

In general, a truth table involving n propositions has 2𝑛 rows.

 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Negations
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ~𝑝 is the
proposition “It is not the case that p”, ~𝑝 is read as “the negation
of p” or “not p”.
Definition: If p is true, then ~𝑝 is false; and if p is false, then ~𝑝 is true.

p ~𝑝
Truth Table for Negation T F
F T
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Examples: Write the negation of each of the following statements.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines.

Negation: Manila is not in the Philippines.
2. Mary is a girl.
Negation: Mary is a boy.
3. The product of two odd integers is odd.
Negation: The product of two odd integers is even.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Examples: Write the negation of each of the following statements.

4. 3 times 7 = 20
Negation: 𝟑 × 𝟕 ≠ 𝟐𝟎
5. January has 31days
Negation: January does not have 31 days.
6. Eleven is not a prime number.
Negation: Eleven is a prime number.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Conjunctions

A compound statement formed by connecting two

propositions with the word “and’ is called a conjunction. In
symbols, it is written as “𝑝˄𝑞" which is read as "𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞“.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Conjunctions
Definition: If p and q are true, then 𝑝˄𝑞 is true; otherwise 𝑝˄𝑞 is false.
Truth Table of Conjunction
p q 𝒑˄𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Examples: Determine the truth value of each the following
conjunctions.
1. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Rodrigo Duterte is the
current Philippine President.

Answer: Since the propositions “Manny Pacquiao is a boxing

champion” and “Rodrigo Duterte is the current Philippine
President” are both true, thus the conjunction is true.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
2. 5 + 6 = 11 and 50 is divisible by 3.

Answer: Since “5 + 6 = 11” is a true proposition and “50 is

divisible by 3” is false, the conjunction of the compound
proposition is false.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
3. The earth is triangle and the moon is square.
(False)
4. Square has four sides and snakes are mammal.
(False)
5. 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 and 𝜋 is an irrational number.
(True)
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Disjunctions
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with
the word “or” is called a disjunction. Symbolically, “𝑝˅𝑞" which is
read as "𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞“.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Disjunctions
Definition: If p and q are false, then 𝑝˅𝑞 is false; otherwise 𝑝˅𝑞 is true.
Truth Table of Disjunction
p q 𝒑˅𝒒
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Examples: Determine the truth value of each the following disjunctions.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines or China is in the Philippines.

Answer: Since the propositions “Manila City is in the

Philippines” is true, and “China is in the Philippines” is false,
hence the disjunction of the compound proposition is true.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
2. 3 is a negative integer or −3 is a positive integer.

Answer: Since the propositions “3 is a negative integer” and

" − 3 is a positive integer” are both false, thus the disjunction of
the compound proposition is false.
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
3. Chocolate is sweet or today is Sunday.
(True)
4. Chicken is not a bird or the freezing point of water is 100℃.
(False)
5. October has 31 days or 2028 is a leap year.
(True)
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Conditional Statement
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with
the words “if…,then” is called a conditional. Symbolically,
“𝑝 → 𝑞" which is read as "𝐼𝑓 𝑝, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞“ or “p implies q”.

The statement p is called the antecedent (or the hypothesis or

premise) and statement q is the consequent (or the conclusion) of
the conditional.
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Conditional Statement
In this case, the resulting sentence is only false whenever the antecedent
is true and the consequent is false, and is true otherwise.
Truth Table of Conditional Statement
p q 𝒑→𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Examples:
Construct the conditional statement and write its truth value.

1.The antecedent, p, is “A square is a quadrilateral”. And the

consequent, q, is “A square has four sides.”

Answer: If a square is a quadrilateral, then a square

has four sides.
(True because p and q are true)
Examples:
Construct the conditional statement and write its truth value.

2. The antecedent, p, is “Vinegar is sweet ” and the

consequent, q, is “Sugar is sour.”

Answer: If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.

(True because p and q are false)
Examples:
Construct the conditional statement and write its truth value.

3.The antecedent, p, is “I am studying hard”. And the

consequent, q, is “I will not get good grades.”

Answer: If I am studying hard, then I will not get good

grades.
(False because p is true and q is false)
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Conditional Statement
Each of the following phrases is equivalent to the conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞.

If p, then q. Not p unless q.

q follows from p. p only if q.
p implies q. q if p.
q whenever p. Whenever p, q
q is necessary for p. p is sufficient for q.
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Biconditional Statement
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with
the words “if and only if ” is called a biconditional. Symbolically,
“𝑝 ↔ 𝑞" which is read as "𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞“.

The biconditional statement is actually formed by the conjunction

of the conditional statements "𝑝 → 𝑞“ and "q → 𝑝“.
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Biconditional Statement
In this case, the resulting sentence is true whenever the antecedent p
as well as the consequent q have the same truth values and false
otherwise.
p q 𝒑↔𝒒
T T T
Truth Table of Biconditional Statement
T F F
F T F
F F T
Examples:
Construct the biconditional statement and write its truth value.

1.The antecedent, p, is “17 is a prime number”. And the

consequent, q, is “17 is not an integer”

Answer: 17 is a prime number if and only if 17 is not

an integer.
(False because p is true and q is false)
Examples:
Construct the biconditional statement and write its truth value.

2. The antecedent, p, is “Fishes live in the moon”. And the

consequent, q, is “Birds can fly”.

Answer: Fishes live in the moon if and only if birds can fly.
(False because p is false and q is true)
Examples:
Construct the biconditional statement and write its truth value.

3. The antecedent, p, is “I am breathing”. And the

consequent, q, is “I am alive”

Answer: I am breathing if and only if I am alive .

(True because p and q are true)
BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Exclusive-or
The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the
compound proposition “p exclusive-or q”.
Symbolically, p ⊕ q, where ⊕ the symbol for
“exclusive-or”.
 BASIC L O G I CA L O P E RAT O R S :
Exclusive-or
Definition: If p and q are true or both false, then p ⊕ q is false; if p
and q have opposite truth values, then p ⊕ q is true.

p q 𝒑 ⊕𝒒
T T F
Truth Table of Exclusive-or Statement T F T
F T T
F F F
Examples of exclusive-or

1. You passed or you failed.”

2. Lights are switched on or lights are switched off.
3. She is single or she has a love life.
4. It is daytime or nighttime.
5. The sun rises or the sun sets.
Determine if the statement is true or false.
1. Coconut provides shelter and sun gives light.

TRUE FALSE
Determine if the statement is true or false.
2. Manny Pacquiao is a boxer if and only if
December is a summer month in the
Philippines.

TRUE FALSE
Determine if the statement is true or false.
3. Cigarette smoking causes cancer or Filipino is
the universal language.

TRUE FALSE
Determine if the statement is true or false.
4. If ice cream is sweet, then cake is bitter.

TRUE FALSE
Determine if the statement is true or false.
5. Success follows from being hardworking.

TRUE FALSE
CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLES

A truth table is a mathematical table used to determine if a

compound statement is true or false.

In general, a truth table involving n propositions has

𝑛
2 rows.
CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLES
Construct the truth table of the following:

1. 𝑝 ˅ ~𝑞
2. ~𝑝 ˄ 𝑞
3. 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 ˄~𝑟
4. ~𝑝 ˄~𝑞 → (𝑟˄~𝑞)
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION & CONTINGENCY

Tautology
A compound statement that is always true, regardless
of the truth values of its components, is called a
tautology.
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION & CONTINGENCY

Tautology
The proposition 𝑝 ˅ ~𝑝 is a tautology as the following table illustrates.
p ~𝒑 𝒑 ˅ ~𝒑
T F T
F T T

Also, the statement 𝑝 → (𝑝˅𝑞)is a tautology since it is always true.

TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION & CONTINGENCY

Contradiction

A contradiction is a compound proposition that is always

false.
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION & CONTINGENCY

Contradiction
The proposition 𝑝 ˄ ~𝑝 is a contradiction as the following table
illustrates.
p ~𝒑 𝒑 ˄~𝒑
T F F
F T F

Also, the statement (𝑝˄~𝑞)˄(𝑝˄𝑞) is a contradiction since it is always

false.
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION & CONTINGENCY

Contingency
A contingency is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example:

The statement ( 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ 𝑞) → 𝑝 is a contingency.

CONSTRUCT A TRUTH TABLE AND DETERMINE IF THE FOLLOWING
IS A TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION OR CONTINGENCY.

1. 𝑝 ˅ ~ 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞
2. ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞
3. 𝑝 ˅~𝑝 ˄ 𝑞
4. (𝑝 → 𝑞)˄(𝑞 → 𝑝)
EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS

Equivalent statements, denoted by ≡, are statements whose

truth values is always either both true or both false whenever
they have identical truth tables.
EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
Example:
𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 ~𝑞 → ~𝑝

p q 𝑝→𝑞 ~𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
 EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
Another examples:
Determine if each of the following is equivalent by
constructing their truth tables.

1. ~ 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑝 ˅ ~𝑞
2. ~ 𝑝 ˅ 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑝 ˄~𝑞
3. 𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞
ASSIGNMENT
Construct a truth table and determine if the following is a
tautology, contradiction or contingency. (1 whole short BP)

1. 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞) → (~𝑝 ˅ 𝑞
2. 𝑝 ˄ 𝑞)˄ (~𝑝 → 𝑞
3. ~(𝑝 ˅ 𝑞) → ~𝑝
An argument is an assertion that a given series of s
𝑃1 ,𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑚 called premises yields (has a consequence)
another statement Q, called the conclusion. The premises
are intended to demonstrate or at least provide some
evidences for the conclusion.
Example:
Some of the following are arguments. Identify their premises
and conclusions.

1. He’s a Libra, since he was born in the last week of September.

Answer:
Premise: He was born in the last week of September.
Conclusion: He’s a Libra.
2. He was breathing and therefore alive.
Answer:
Premise: He was breathing.
Conclusion: He was alive.
3. 142 is an even integer, thus 142 is divisible by 2.
Answer:
Premise: 142 is an even integer.
Conclusion: 142 is divisible by 2.
4. Can I go now?
Answer: Not an argument

5. Nikki is my niece because her mother is my younger sister.

Answer:
Premise: Her mother is my younger sister.
Conclusion: Nikki is my niece.
The premise indicators, an expression prefixed to a
sentence to indicate that it states a premise.
Premise Indicators
for It is a fact that
since As shown by the fact that
given that Granted that
For the reason that
The conclusion indicators, an expression prefixed to a
sentence to indicate that it states a conclusion.
Conclusion Indicators
therefore consequently
thus then
hence implies
so
An argument is said to be valid when all the
premises are true it forces the conclusion to be
true. An argument which is not valid is called an
invalid argument or fallacy.
Theorem: The argument consisting of the premises
𝑃1 ,𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 and conclusion Q is valid if and only if
the proposition 𝑃1 ˄ 𝑃2 ˄ … ˄ 𝑃𝑛 → 𝑄 is a
tautology.
1. Law of Detachment (also called modus ponens)
Symbolically, the argument is written:
Premise 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Premise 2: 𝑝____
∴𝑞
1. Law of Detachment (also called modus ponens)
p q 𝑝 → 𝑞 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄ 𝑝 [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄ 𝑝] → 𝑞
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
The truth table above shows that we have a valid argument, since the compound
statement is a tautology.
Example:
Consider the following arguments. Verify if it is valid or invalid.

a. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.

Mark finishes his homework.
Therefore, Mark can watch a movie.

Let p be “Mark finishes his homework”, and q be “ Mark can watch

a movie.’ Clearly, by Law of Detachment, this argument is valid.
b. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.
Mark watches a movie
Therefore, he finishes his homework.

Let p be “Mark finishes his homework”, and q be “ Mark can watch

a movie.”
Using the truth table shown below, we can show that this argument
is invalid.
p q 𝑝 → 𝑞 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄ 𝑞 [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄ 𝑞] → 𝑝
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
c. If you watch TV Patrol, then you see Noli de Castro.
You watch TV Patrol.
Therefore, you see Noli de Castro

Let p be “You watch TV Patrol”, and q be “ You see Noli de

Castro.”

Clearly, by Law of Detachment, this argument is valid.

2. Law of Contraposition (also called modus tollens)
Symbolically, the argument is written:
Premise 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Premise 2: ~𝑞____
∴ ~𝑝
2. Law of Contraposition (also called modus tollens)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞 ~𝑞 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄~𝑞 ~𝑝 [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ˄ ~𝑞] → ~𝑝
T T T F F F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F F T T
F F T T T T T
The truth table above shows that we have a valid argument, since the compound
statement is a tautology.
Example:
Consider the following arguments. Verify if it is valid or invalid.

a. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.

Mark cannot watch a movie.
Therefore, Mark did not finish his homework.

Let p be “Mark finishes his homework”, and q be “ Mark can watch

a movie.’ Clearly, by Law of Contraposition, this argument is valid.
3. Law of Syllogism
Symbolically, the argument is written:
Premise 1: 𝑝 → 𝑞
Premise 2: 𝑞 → 𝑟____
∴𝑝→𝑟
3. Law of Syllogism
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝→𝑞 𝑞→𝑟 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ (𝑞 → 𝑟) 𝑝 → 𝑟 [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → (𝑝 → 𝑟)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T

The truth table above shows that we have a valid argument, since the compound
statement is a tautology.
Consider the following arguments. Verify if it is valid or invalid.

a. If Mark finishes his homework, then he can watch a movie.

If he watches a movie, then he will buy pack of popcorn.
If Mark finishes his homework, then he will buy a pack of popcorn.

Let p be “Mark finishes his homework”, and q be “ Mark can watch a

movie.” and r be “Mark will buy a pack of popcorn.”
Clearly, by Law of Syllogism, this argument is valid.
b. If it rains today, I will wear my rain jacket.
If I will wear my rain jacket, I will keep dry.
Therefore, if it rains today, I will keep dry.

Let p be “It rains today”, and q be “ I will wear my rain jacket.”

and r be “I will keep dry”.

Clearly, by Law of Syllogism, this argument is valid.

Consider each of the following argument. Identify the form of
valid argument that establishes its validity.

1. If 3+4=7, then 8+3=11.

8+3≠1.
Therefore, 3+4≠7.

Law of Contraposition
Consider each of the following argument. Identify the form of
valid argument that establishes its validity.

2. If company loan interest rates drops, then employees

will apply for a loan.
Company loan interest rates drops.
Therefore, employees will apply for a loan.

Law of Detachment
Consider each of the following argument. Identify the form of
valid argument that establishes its validity.

3. If 6 is an even number, then 17 is an odd number.

If 17 is an odd number, then 𝜋 is an irrational number.
Therefore, if 6 is an even number, then 𝜋 is an irrational
number.

Law of Syllogism
Consider each of the following argument. Identify the form of
valid argument that establishes its validity.

4. If Soledad is a senior citizen, then she is at least 60

years old.
Soledad is less than 60 years old.
Therefore, Soledad is not a senior citizen.

Law of Contraposition
DETERMINE THE VALIDITY OF THE FOLLOWING ARGUMENT BY:

A.Converting this to symbols

B.Constructing its truth table.

If May 13 is a holiday, then I will go home.

If I will go home, then I will study for the final exam in
Math 11n.
Therefore, if May 13 is not a holiday, I will not study for the
final exam.
 [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → ( ~𝑝 → ~𝑟)
𝒑 𝒒 𝒓 𝑝→𝑞 𝑞→𝑟 ~𝑝 ~𝑟 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] ~𝑝 → ~𝑟 [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ˄ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → ( ~𝑝 → ~𝑟)

T T T T T F F T T T
T T F T F F T F T T
T F T F T F F F T T
T F F F T F T F T T
F T T T T T F T F F
F T F T F T T F T T
F F T T T T F T F F
F F F T T T T T T T

The truth table above shows that we have an invalid argument, since the
compound statement is a not a tautology.