CPCI Design Manual 5

CPCI
DESIGN MANUAL
5th Edition
Structural/
Architectural
CPCI
DESIGN MANUAL
5th Edition
Precast and Prestressed Concrete
Canadian Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute
PO Box 24058 Hazeldean
Ottawa, ON, Canada K2M 2C3
Tel: (613) 232-2619

Email: info@cpci.ca
Web: www.cpci.ca
STRUCTURAL / ARCHITECTURAL
i
Copyright 2017
by
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
www.cpci.ca
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not
be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
First Edition 1982

Second Edition 1987
Third Edition 1996
Fourth Edition 2007
Fifth Edition 2017
ISBN 978-1-7750090-1-6
Printed in Canada
ii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – METHODS AND MATERIALS
CHAPTER 2 – ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
CHAPTER 3 – DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
CHAPTER 4 – DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
CHAPTER 5 – ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
CHAPTER 6 – RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 7 – PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY
CHAPTER 8 – GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
INDEX
iii
iv
FOREWORD
The Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI) is a not-for-profit corporation founded in 1961 for the
purpose of advancing the design, manufacture and use of architectural and structural precast and prestressed
concrete throughout Canada. Since its inception CPCI has established itself as the body of knowledge (BOK) for
precast and prestressed concrete in Canada.
CPCI represents a fast-growing segment of the Canadian construction industry. The first prestressed concrete
structure in Canada was a precast, prestressed concrete bridge erected in 1952 in North Vancouver. Since then,
precast prestressed concrete has been used in buildings and all types of engineered structures. Structural
and architectural, reinforced, pretensioned and post-tensioned, precast concrete has been successfully and
economically utilized in an ever-expanding variety of applications.
CPCI developed into a unique trade and professional association, with a representative mix of companies and
individuals. CPCI members include producers (Active Members), suppliers (Associate and Supporting Members),
engineers and architects (Professional Members), plus Affiliate and Student Members.
From the beginning, CPCI established a close working arrangement with the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
(PCI). CPCI continues to enjoy a mutually beneficial relationship with PCI sharing state of the art information about
the industry, its products and services, that results in combined knowledge, developments and experience.
The focus of CPCI’s current activities includes the design and construction community in Canada in the areas of:
research, new product development, best practice documents, sustainability, specifications, codes and standards,
liaison with technical schools and universities, awards programs, seminars, trade shows and conventions of owner/
user groups.
In addition to the Design Manual, CPCI’s other two flagship programs are the CPCI Certification Program for
Structural, Architectural and Specialty Precast Plant and Production Processes (2007) and the North American
Sustainable Precast Concrete Plant Program (2012). Both programs are industry leaders and are recognized by
specifiers and agencies and government departments across Canada.
CPCI is a founding member of the Concrete Council of Canada, a consortium of allied concrete industry members
to promote concrete as a resilient, safe, fire resistant, sustainable construction material.
The Active Membership in the Institute represents over 80% of the industry’s production capacity in Canada. CPCI
continually disseminates information on design, production practices, field techniques and environmental issues,
via national and regional chapter programs and technical publications, all directed towards advancing the state of
the art for Canadian owners and designers.
Architects, engineers, owners, and developers are invited to contact CPCI for additional information on the design
and construction of precast and prestressed concrete, and on membership in CPCI.
Please visit these websites for more information on CPCI and its flagship programs:
www.cpci.ca
www.precastcertification.ca
www.sustainableprecast.ca
v
PREFACE
In 1964, the Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI) published the first design manual in North
America on precast, prestressed concrete. This was a major undertaking for a fledgling industry. This handbook
consisted of 4 parts: Part 1 contained the CSA Standard CSA-A135-1962 and a commentary, Part 2 contained
design theory and practice, Part 3 dealt extensively with connection design and Part 4 contained sections on
specifications and plant standards. The handbook was well received with orders received from around the world.
During the 1970’s, the standard design references for precast and prestressed concrete in North America were
published by the Prestressed/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) in Chicago. The first edition of the PCI Design
Handbook was published in 1971, followed by the second edition in 1978 and a series of new editions including a
comprehensive updated sixth edition published in 2004, and the seventh edition in 2010. The eighth edition of the
PCI manual is scheduled for publication in 2017.
The Canadian Government’s decision in the mid 70’s to adopt Sl metric units and the adoption of limit-states
design codes reduced the relevance of PCI publications in Canada. CPCI undertook what was to become the single
largest undertaking in its history; the publishing in 1978 of the First Edition of the CPCI Metric Design Manual. This
publication, four years in the making, was based on the PCI Design Handbook and the PCI Structural Design of
Architectural Precast Concrete Handbook. The manual was written entirely in Sl units with extensive references to
Canadian design codes.
In 1984, CPCI published a Second Edition of the CPCI Metric Design Manual. This decision was based upon
extensive revisions to CSA Standard A23.3.
The Third Edition of the CPCI Design Manual, published in 1996, introduced significant changes in the state of the
art for precast, prestressed concrete, plus important changes in CSA A23.3 that recognized the benefits of quality
control in certified precast concrete plants.
The Fourth Edition was published in 2007. Among other important updates, it included changes to element design
arising from an increase in the concrete resistance factor in CSA A23.3, from 0.65 to 0.7, for precast concrete
produced in a precast plant certified in accordance with CSA A23.4.
See page viii for important updates contained in this Fifth Edition.
DISCLAIMER
Substantial effort has been made to ensure that the Fifth Edition of the CPCI Design Manual is accurate. However,
the Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI) cannot accept responsibility for any errors or oversights
in the use of material or in the preparation of architectural or engineering plans. The design professional must
recognize that no manual, design guide or code can substitute for experience and engineering judgment. This
publication is intended for use by professional personnel competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of
its contents and able to accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. Users are encouraged
to offer comments to CPCI on the content and suggestions for improvement. Questions concerning the source and
derivation of any material in the manual should be directed to CPCI.
vi
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
CPCI DESIGN MANUAL 5

Editor in Chief – Dr. Paul Gauvreau, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON
Chapter 1 – Methods and Materials

Editor – Robert Burak, CPCI, Ottawa, ON
Peer Reviewers: Bill LeBlanc, Armtec and Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates
Chapter 2 – Analysis and Design Of Structures

Editor – Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates, Calgary, AB
Seismic Editor: Hélène Dutrisac, Cement Association of Canada
Peer Reviewers: Raymond Lee, Lafarge Precast and Dr. Medhat Ghabrial, HGS Limited
Chapter 3 – Design of Elements

Editor – Dr. Medhat Ghabrial, HGS Limited, Windsor, ON
Peer Reviewers: Dave Marshall, Black Mint Software, Anil Mehta, Prestressed Systems Inc.,
Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates and Dr. Mike Lau, Dillon Consulting Ltd.
Chapter 4 – Design of Connections

Editor – Ken Kapusniak, HGS Limited, Windsor, ON
Peer Reviewers: Karl Truderung, Tower Engineering, Malcolm Hachborn, M.E. Hachborn Engineering and
Wayne Kassian, Kassian Dyck & Associates
Chapter 5 – Architectural Precast Concrete

Editor – Malcolm Hachborn, M.E. Hachborn Limited, Barrie, ON
Peer Reviewers: Ifan Lim, Lafarge Precast and Robert Burak, CPCI
Chapter 6 – Related Considerations

Editor – Robert Burak, CPCI, Ottawa, ON
Fire Resistance Editor: Stephen Skalko, P.E. & Associates, LLC
Vibration in Concrete Structures Editor: Dr. Mike Lau, Dillon Consulting, Ltd.
Peer Reviewers: Clark Weber, Bluerock Engineering Ltd. and Dr. Paul Gauvreau, University of Toronto
Chapter 7 – Product information and Capacity

Editor – Dr. Mike Lau, Dillon Consulting Ltd., Winnipeg, MB
Peer Reviewers: Bill LeBlanc, Armtec and Sonia Saari, Coreslab Structures Inc.
Chapter 8 – General Design Information

Editor – Sonia Saari, Coreslab Structures, Dundas, ON
Peer Reviewers: Malcolm Hachborn, M.E. Hachborn Engineering and Ken Kapusniak, HGS Limited
vii
FIFTH EDITION — IMPORTANT UPDATES
Chapter 1 – Methods and Materials

The chapter on methods and materials has been updated to reflect current applications of precast prestressed concrete. It
also includes a new section on the history of precast and prestressed concrete in Canada and an updated section on total
precast structural solutions including the addition of sample detail drawings for parking garages, residential, educational,
industrial, commercial and stadium applications.
Chapter 2 –Analysis and Design of Structures

The chapter on the design of structures has been modified to reflect changes in the National Building Code of Canada
(2015), particularly the seismic design requirements which have significantly changed the design examples in the
‘earthquake design and analysis’ section of this chapter.
Chapter 3 – Design of Elements

The chapter on element design has required revisions due to changes in A23.3 and NBCC 2015. Sections dealing with
slabs, hollowcore and both prestressed and non-prestressed beams have been examined to include recent revisions in
A23.3. A new example on partial prestressing has been added, and all examples dealing with shear and torsion have
been evaluated in the context of the new A23.3 code. Fourth edition errata have been included in this edition, and design
examples, graphs and figures have been updated throughout.
Chapter 4 – Design of Connections

Design examples and calculations have been updated throughout. The example design of the cazaly hanger has been
extensively updated from the last edition. Two new design examples are included; A design example for the baseplate and
anchor bolt sizing of a column connection has been added; A design example for strength analysis of a weld group has
also been added.
Chapter 5 – Architectural Precast Concrete

The design of architectural precast concrete has been updated to reflect current industry practices. Important new
publication references include CPCI Architectural Precast Concrete Walls: Best Practice Guide (2017) and two new precast
building envelope guides by RDH Building Science Inc., Maintenance and Inspection Manual for Precast Concrete Building
Enclosures (2016), and Meeting and Exceeding Building Code Thermal Performance Requirements (2017).
Chapter 6 – Related Considerations

Technical content has been updated throughout the chapter. New information on apparent sound transmission class
(ASTC) has been added in accordance with the new requirements of NBCC 2015, and includes a worked design example
for a hollowcore floor assembly. Additional information on building performance for precast concrete wall assemblies,
particularly rain control, has also been added from the guide High Performing Precast Concrete Building Enclosures: Rain
Control (2013) by RDH Building Science, Inc. The sustainable design and construction section has been updated to include
the results of a cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment (LCA) for a precast concrete commercial building.
Chapter 7 – Product information and Capacity

Several new girder products have been added: NU, NEBT, trapezoidal and single void box girders. A significant change is
the presentation of girder span tables; these are no longer presented in relation to strand pattern, superimposed load and
camber – new span vs. girder spacing tables have been developed in accordance with the CSA S6 CHBDC. Span tables for
stadium risers and precast stairs have also been added and new tables have been added for 1220 mm x 254mm and 1220 mm
x 356 mm hollowcore slabs.
Chapter 8 – General Design Information

Several new tables have been added; New information has been added on concrete modulus of elasticity vs density of
concrete. The chart on prestressing metric strand diameters has been updated to nominal values. A chart on typical bar
bends was added as well as a new chart on bar area equivalents. A new chart is added on the material properties for
bolts, nuts and washers. Three new charts have been added on weld symbols, welded joint in precast construction, and
weld groups.
viii
CPCI CERTIFICATION
HOW PRECAST CERTIFICATION IS A REQUIREMENT OF THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE

National Building Code of Canada (2015) – Division B:
Clause 4.3.3.1.(1) - Buildings and their structural members made of plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete shall
conform to CSA A23.3, Design of Concrete Structures.
CSA A23.3 – Design of concrete structures:

CSA A23.3-14 - Clause 16.2.1 – All precast concrete elements covered by this standard shall be manufactured and
erected in accordance with CSA A23.4.
CSA A23.4 – Precast concrete – Materials and construction:

CSA A23.4-16 - Clause 4.2 - Prequalification – Precast concrete elements produced and installed in accordance with
this Standard shall be produced by prequalified manufacturers.
CPCI Precast Concrete Certification Program for Structural, Architectural and Specialty Precast
Concrete Products and Production Processes
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
The CPCI certification program is designed to qualify manufacturers who fabricate architectural and structural
precast concrete. Manufacturers must meet the requirements of CSA Standard A23.4-16, including Annexes A
and B, together with PCI MNL-116 and 117 and CPCI certification requirements. Manufacturers are evaluated on
their quality system, documentation, production and erection procedures, management, engineering, personnel,
equipment, finished products and assemblies. Independent professional engineers conduct audits twice annually.
Each audit is two days in duration.
Certification confirms a manufacturer’s capability to produce quality products and systems.
The CPCI Certification Program assures project specifiers and owners of a Manufacturer’s comprehensive in-house
quality assurance program and acceptable production methods.
Purpose
The purpose of the audit program is to provide owners and designers with manufacturers who are:
• Qualified to manufacture the products they supply to the marketplace
• Competent to provide quality precast with adequate personnel and facilities
• Committed to improving the quality of their products and systems
Quality Audits are the heart of the precast certification program
• Audits ensure manufacturers have a quality system in place that is consistently adhered to
• Audits ensure adherence to national standards
• Audits ensure adherence to requirements of the precast certification program
• Audits evaluate and identify areas requiring upgrading or corrective action (continual improvement)
QUALITY ASSURANCE REPORTING PROGRAM

The Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute certification program is committed to delivering safe and cost-
effective building and infrastructure products to support Canada’s growing infrastructure demands. If you are an owner or
specifier and have a concern on the quality of the precast from a CPCI certified plant, please download Quality Concern
Reporting Form [http://www.precastcertification.ca/en/certification_program/#p1] and complete. Return the form to
QACadministrator@precastcertification.ca. All concerns are kept confidential with the CPCI Quality Assurance Council
(QAC).
Continues next page
ix
CPCI CERTIFICATION
Continued from previous page
PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS
The manufacturing of precast concrete must be in accordance with the requirements of the latest editions of CSA
Standard A23.4 and the PCI Quality Control Manuals MNL-116 and 117 (US), with the more stringent requirements
being the governing criteria.
CSA Standards:
• A23.1 – Concrete materials and methods of concrete construction
• A23.2 – Methods of test and standard practices for concrete
• A23.3 - Design of Concrete Structures
• A23.4 - Precast concrete — Materials and Construction
• S6 - Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code
• B66 – Design, material and manufacturing requirements for prefabricated septic tanks and sewage holding
tanks
Quality Assurance Council (QAC) Documents:

• CPCI Quality Audit Manual
• CPCI Design Manual
• Architectural Precast Concrete - Colour and Texture Selection Guide
• CPCI Quality Assurance Council - Binder of Non Conformances and Advisories
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (US):

• Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Precast and Prestressed Concrete Products – MNL-116
• Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of Architectural Precast Concrete Products – MNL-117
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Documents:

• PCI Design Handbook
• PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual
Manufacturers are required to:
• Establish and maintain the highest standard of integrity, skill and practice in the design and fabrication of their
products and systems,
• Undertake the performance of only those services and produce only those products for which they are
qualified,
• Not knowingly associate with, or permit the use of their name or the Accredited Certification Organization’s
name in any business venture by any person or firm that they know, or have reason to believe is engaged in
questionable or unprofessional practices,
• Be in compliance with current governing codes and regulations, and
• Supply products only from a Manufacturer that is certified under the CPCI Certification Program.
QUALITY SYSTEM MANUAL

Manufacturers are required to develop, maintain and submit a plant-specific Quality System Manual for approval by
the Accredited Certification Organization
QUALITY ASSURANCE COUNCIL (QAC)

The Quality Assurance Council is a multidisciplinary body that oversees the CPCI Certification Program. The Quality
Assurance Council plans, formulates, oversees and reviews the CPCI Precast Concrete Certification Program by:
• Establishing auditing criteria and grading standards,
Continues next page

x
CPCI CERTIFICATION
• Providing administrative review to ensure that policies and procedures are administered uniformly and are
followed by all Manufacturers,
• Developing, reviewing and approving all information related to the CPCI Certification Program,
• Initiating and overseeing Accredited Certification Organization policies and manuals, and
• The Accredited Certification Organization is responsible to the Quality Assurance Council.
QUALITY ASSURANCE COUNCIL MEMBERS

• Chair of the Quality Assurance Council
• The ACO (Accredited Certification Organization) Director (non-voting)
• CPCI Administrator (non-voting)
• A minimum of one, but not more than two, professional engineers or registered architects not in the employ of
a precast manufacturer
• Up to two municipal engineers or building officials
• A minimum of three, but not more than six, Ministry representatives from the following regions: Maritime
Provinces, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia
• A minimum of four, but not more than six, manufacturer’s representatives whose companies are registered in
the CPCI Certification Program. Ideally, each of the following zones shall be represented: Maritime Provinces,
Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba/Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia.
• A maximum of one General Interest representative from any of the categories above
Note: The manufacturer’s representatives shall be chosen to represent plants manufacturing all product categories
included in the CPCI Precast Concrete Certification Program
DEFINITION OF PREQUALIFICATION VERSUS CERTIFICATION

The CSA A23.4-16 Standard, Precast concrete – Materials and construction Clause 4.1.1 requires that plants are
‘prequalified’ in appropriate categories as defined within the standard. The CPCI Certification program prequalifies
a plant first but requires full certification for a plant to be listed as a certified plant. The QAC has distinctly defined
prequalification and certification as follows:
Prequalification is the process of determining if a manufacturer has the requisite resources, technical capabilities
and experienced personnel to produce products in certain categories as defined by CSA A23.4. The CPCI
certification program evaluates this in the initial stages of the certification process through a third party review of
the manufacturer’s Quality System Manual, followed by a two-day on site pre-certification evaluation to identify any
corrective measures that might be required before fully certifying a plant.
Certification is the formal graded audit procedure that follows prequalification, whereby the CPCI accredited
certification organization (ACO) assesses and verifies the manufacturer’s demonstrated capability, quality control
procedures and processes in accordance to the requirements of: the latest editions of CSA A23.4, the (US) PCI
MNL 116 or 117, the CPCI Program Requirements, and the ongoing special Advisories issued by the CPCI Quality
Assurance Council (QAC). The manufacturer is issued a CPCI Certificate of Compliance and is required at a
minimum to successfully pass the required audit twice annually to maintain certification. Only upon completion
of a successful full certification audit, (a pass) can the manufacturer be considered capable of producing certified
product.
Notes:
1. Certification is a requirement of the National Building Code of Canada. Generally a code is intended to be given
the force of law through adoption by a provincial, territorial or municipal authority.
2. Certification shall be prior to the award of a contract to determine the validity of a manufacturer bid and to avoid
uncertified manufacturers from being awarded contracts for which they are incapable of carrying out.
xi
CPCI CERTIFICATION
HOW TO SPECIFY CPCI CERTIFICATION
1. Precast concrete manufacturers to be certified to Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI)

Plant Certification Program in [Architectural Precast Concrete Products, A1,] [Subcategory AT], [Precast
and Prestressed Bridge Products, B,] [Subcategory] [B1] [BA1] [B2] [BA2] [B3] [BA3] [B4] [BA4] [Commercial
Precast and Prestressed Concrete Products (Structural), C,] [Subcategory] [C1] [CA1] [C2] [CA2] [C3] [CA3]
[C4] [CA4] [Precast Concrete Drainage Products, D,] [Subcategory] [D1] [Standard Products, S] prior to the
time of bid.
2. Only precast elements fabricated under the CPCI plant certification program to be acceptable, and plant
certification is to be maintained for the duration of fabrication, [erection,] and until warranty expires.
3. Precast fabrication to meet the requirements of CAN/CSA-A23.4-16, including Annexes A and B, together
with PCI MNL-116 and 117 and CPCI certification requirements.
4. Note: Visit http://www.precastcertification.ca/en/certified_plants/product_groups/ for the CSA A23.4
category descriptions, and to view the most current list of CPCI certified plants.
The Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute certification program is committed to delivering safe and
cost-effective building and infrastructure products to support Canada’s growing infrastructure demands.
For more information contact the administrator at QACadminstrator@precastcertification.ca and visit the CPCI
Certification Program website at www.precastcertification.ca
xii
RELEVANT CANADIAN CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PRECAST
AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN
NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF CANADA 2015

• “Major changes to NBCC 2015 include revisions to the seismic design requirements. Hazard values for
seismic design in Part 4 and Appendix C have been updated and design exemptions withdrawn so that all
buildings in Canada will now be designed for earthquake forces regardless of the level of hazard. Apparent
Sound Transmission Class (ASTC) is introduced in Part 5 to assess compliance with minimum airborne sound
requirements between dwelling units. Provincial building codes are largely based on the NBCC”.
http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/publications/codes_centre/2015_national_building_code.html
DESIGN
• CSA A23.3-14, Design of concrete structures, Canadian Standards Association
This standard governs the design of buildings and most other concrete structures (except bridges). Chapter
16 covers the unique requirements for precast concrete. CSA A23.3 allows an increased material resistance
factor, fc = 0.70 for precast concrete members that are certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 in recognition
of the quality control and accurate placement of forms and reinforcement. (See clause 16.1.3 of that
standard). The material resistance factor, fc = 0.65 applies to cast-in-place and non-certified precast concrete
members.
• CSA S413-14, Design of parking structures, Canadian Standards Association
This standard covers the design and construction of new parking structures, including durability
requirements. In addition to reinforced concrete cast-in-place concrete it also includes provisions for precast
and prestressed concrete.
• CSA S6-14, Canadian highway bridge design code, Canadian Standards Association
This standard includes provisions for all types of bridge structures, and includes special provisions for
precast and prestressed structures such as joint gaskets, joint shear for precast box units, segmental beam
bridges, full depth precast concrete deck slabs, and precast concrete piles.
• CSA S806-12 (R 2017), Design and Construction of Building Components with Fibre-Reinforced Polymers,
Canadian Standards Association
This standard governs the design of components using fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP), and structural
precast elements reinforced with FRP.
• CSA S16-14, Design of steel structures, Canadian Standards Association
This standard is used to design steel connections and other structural steel supports used in precast
concrete construction.
• CSA A371-04 (R 2014), Masonry Construction for Buildings, Canadian Standards Association
Among other things, this standard covers construction installation practices and tolerances for masonry
buildings. Masonry is often used with hollowcore precast flooring.
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

• CSA A23.1-14/A23.2-14, Concrete materials and methods of concrete construction / Methods of test and
standard practices for concrete, Canadian Standards Association
The CSA A23.1 standard primarily governs cast-in-place construction, however there are a number of
concordance items with CSA A23.4 (See CSA A23.4-16 Annex E – Concordance to CSA A23.1). Also,
aggregate and concrete test methods in CSA A23.2 are referenced throughout the CSA A23.4 standard.
Continues next page
xiii
RELEVANT CANADIAN CODES AND STANDARDS FOR PRECAST
AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN
• CSA 23.4-16, Precast concrete – materials and construction, Canadian Standards Association
There are many significant changes and updates to the standard, including:
• Product categories, originally in an Annex, are now mandatory and in the main body of the Standard
• A new product category has been added for Drainage products
• New and revised requirements for sampling have been added that recognize the unique sampling
requirements for precast manufacturing
• Cylinder testing for no-slump concrete
• Curing requirements for precast concrete are now stand-alone and do not reference back to the
requirements in CSA A23.1
• These revised curing requirements recognize the controlled environment for precast manufacturing and
allow for air drying after one-day curing for both accelerated and non-accelerated cured concretes, with
provisions
• Requirements for prestressing are updated to be more consistent with typical practice
• The maximum allowable internal concrete temperature for curing is revised to 70 oC for all conditions
• The plant engineer responsibilities are revised in Annex A, Responsibilitie
• The Annex on Acceptability for Architectural Precast Concrete is revised
• A new Annex D has been added on Environmentally Sustainable Precast Concrete Operations
• CSA A3000-Series-13, Cementitious materials compendium, Canadian Standards Association
This national standard contains the testing, inspection, chemical, physical and uniformity requirements of
various cements, blended cements and supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash, blast-furnace slag
and silica fume – all used in the production of cast-in-place and precast concrete.
• CSA A370-14, Connectors for Masonry, Canadian Standards Association
WELDING
• CSA W186-M1990 (R2016), Welding of reinforcing bars in reinforced concrete construction, Canadian Standards
Association
• CSA W47.1-09 (R2014), Certification of companies for fusion welding of steel, Canadian Standards Association
These standards are both referenced in A23.4 and govern welding materials and practices in precast plants.
Note: To purchase any of the above CSA standards go to http://shop.csa.ca
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the people responsible for developing the First, Second, Third
and Fourth Editions of the CPCI design manuals. Readers should refer to these editions for
the names of the more than 100 contributors. They laid the foundation for this Fifth Edition.
A wide range of consultants, university professors and industry professionals gave generously of their time to
prepare material and review draft copies and final proofs of this Fifth Edition Design Manual.
CPCI acknowledges the outstanding contributions of Dr. Paul Gauvreau, editor-in-chief, University of Toronto, for
his careful and thoughtful review of the entire contents of the CPCI Design Manual prior to publication.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the contributions of each of the Chapter Editors and Section Editors for their
thoroughness, dedication and time to update each of the chapters of the manual to current practice (see page vii).
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the contributions of each of the Peer Reviewers for each Chapter (see page vii).
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the generosity of the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) for permission to
use certain tables from their PCI Design Handbook.
CPCI is indebted to the National Research Council of Canada for permission to reproduce certain tables and
figures from the National Building Code of Canada, 2015 and the supplement to the National Building Code of
Canada, 2015, and certain parts of the NRC publication “Guide to calculating airborne sound transmission in
buildings”.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the Reinforcing Steel Institute of Canada for permission to use certain information
from the Reinforcing Steel Manual of Standard Practice.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the Research Council on Structural Connections for permission to use certain
information from their Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the Cement Association of Canada for permission to reproduce certain information
from their Concrete Design Handbook.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the CPCI Technical Committee for their continued oversight during the process of
the development of this manual, and contributing the necessary funding through their annual budget approvals.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Sami Basma, Hatem Ibrahim, and Hassan Emadeldeen, Kassian
Dyck & Associates, for their thorough review of certain sections of the CPCI Design Manual.
CPCI gratefully acknowledges Deb Stover, Image Media, Sterling, Virginia, for her excellent attention to layout and
design of the manual.
xv
xvi
CHAPTER 1
METHODS AND MATERIALS
1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS................................................................................................................1-3

1.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................1-3
1.1.2 A Short History of the Precast Prestressed Concrete Industry in North America and Canada ..........1-3
1.1.4 Product Manufacturing...........................................................................................................................1-14
1.1.5 Designing With Precast Concrete—Structural and Infrastructure Solutions......................................1-16
Parking Garage Detail Drawings............................................................................................................1-24
Residential/Educational/Industrial/Commercial Detail Drawings.......................................................1-35
Stadium Detail Drawings........................................................................................................................1-42
1.1.6 Storage And Treatment Tanks................................................................................................................1-63
1.1.7 Architectural Wall Panels........................................................................................................................1-64
1.1.8 Veneer Faced Wall Panels and Formliners............................................................................................1-65
1.1.9 Double Wythe Insulated Wall Panels.....................................................................................................1-66
1.1.10 Ultra High Performance Concrete..........................................................................................................1-66
1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS............................................................................................................1-68

1.2.1 Concrete Materials and Design Standards............................................................................................1-68
1.2.2 Concrete...................................................................................................................................................1-69
1.2.2 Grout, Mortar and Drypack.....................................................................................................................1-73
1.2.3 Reinforcement..........................................................................................................................................1-74
1.2.4 Protection of Connections......................................................................................................................1-77
1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete..........................................................................................................1-79
1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE.................................................................................................................1-84

1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials.......................................................................................................................1-84
1.3.2 Segmental Construction.........................................................................................................................1-85
1.4 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................1-87
CPCI Design Manual 5 1-1

CHAPTER 1 Methods and Materials
1-2 CPCI Design Manual 5

1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS

1.1.1 Introduction
Plant-cast precast concrete is more durable than site- cast concrete because it can be cast with lower water-to-
cementing material ratios and with greater accuracy under controlled conditions. This natural durability is enhanced
by the use of admixtures making the concrete matrix less permeable and more resistant to steel corrosion. The past
decades have seen the development of more efficient structural sections and more complex architectural shapes and
surface treatments. The strict demands of owners and architects for quality finishes have led to the development of new
surface textures and surface treatments.
Precast concrete manufactured by CPCI members in certified plants ensures the production of high quality architectural
and structural members and systems. Precasting facilitates the production of a wide variety of shapes and sizes. The use
of prestressing substantially extends the span capability of the structural members. These capabilities enable architects
and engineers to achieve highly innovative and competitive building products and systems for a variety of buildings and
structures.
Some of the important and unique features of precast and prestressed concrete include:
1. Prestressing: greater span-to-depth ratios, more controllable performance, less material usage.
2. Architectural precast concrete: wide variety of highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and colors.
3. Construction speed.
4. All weather construction.
5. Plant-fabrication quality control.
6. Plant prefabrication allows inspection and control prior to installation of precast in a finished structure.
7. Fire resistance and durability.
8. Thermal and acoustical control.
9. Enhanced site safety.
10. Minimizes raw material use resulting in efficient sections.
The following general principles are offered to achieve the most economical and effective use of precast concrete:
1. Precast concrete is basically a “simple-span” material. However, continuity can be, and often is, effectively achieved
with properly detailed connections.
2. Sizes and shapes of members should consider production, hauling and erection considerations.
3. Concrete is a heavy material. This is an advantage for such matters as stability under wind loads, thermal changes,
acoustical vibration and fire resistance. The high dead-to-live load ratio will provide a greater safety factor against
gravity overloads.
4. Maximum economy is achieved with maximum repetition. Standard or repetition of similar sections (master molds)
should be used whenever possible.
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an effective structural layout and carefully detailed connections.
6. Restrained deformations caused by creep, shrinkage and temperature changes must be considered in every
structure.
7. Architectural precast panels can be used as cladding as well as for load bearing members. Panels can be used to
support loads in both the vertical and lateral directions.
8. Prestressing improves the economy and performance of precast members.
1.1.2 A Short History of the Precast Prestressed Concrete Industry in North America and Canada
Precast prestressed concrete was introduced to the North American market approximately 65 years ago. Since then,
precast concrete has been used for thousands of projects ranging from bridges, transit structures, arenas, parking
garages, total precast structures, commercial and public buildings, residential and architectural precast applications.
The following is a short history of precast concrete in Canada and some of the important projects that stimulated new
innovations that are used today.

Mosquito Bridge (Vancouver BC, 1952) RCYC Cazaly Bridge (Toronto ON, 1958)
In the mid 1940s to the early 50s, Professor Gustave Magnel (1885-1955) of Belgium gave lectures to engineers in the US
and Canada. Magnel’s book “Prestressed Concrete” attracted considerable interest in North America for the potential
for prestressed concrete. These initial lectures lead to the construction of the Walnut Lane Bridge in 1949, in Philadelphia
PA, a most significant event in the beginning of the precast prestressed concrete industry in North America.
Although it was constructed in the United States, it was this dramatic groundbreaking project that showed North Ameri-
can engineers the practical value of combining the compressive strength of concrete with high tensile strength prestress-
ing steel. The design of the bridge was based on European prestressing technology and design methods introduced
to North America after the Second World War. The successful completion of the first bridge structure in the US with its
impressive (at that time) 48.8 m main-span and 22.6 m end span precast prestressed concrete girders inspired many
engineers on both sides of the border to closely examine the properties, benefits and design methods of prestressed
concrete. Over 300 engineers from seventeen states and five countries witnessed the formal testing to destruction of an
identical girder used in the main span of the bridge.
The Mosquito Creek Bridge in Vancouver, built in 1952, has the distinction of being the first prestressed concrete bridge
built in Canada. This bridge proved to be both economical and satisfactory from a structural viewpoint. The bridge is still
in service, having been widened on both sides over the years. This was followed by other significant early bridge proj-
ects in Canada such as the Ross Creek Bridge in Medicine Hat, AB in 1954, and the Champlain Bridge in 1959-1962 in
Montreal, QC. At the time, this was the largest application of prestressed concrete in Canada. Designed in concrete and
steel, the precast concrete option used 53.6 m long precast pretensioned girders supported on T-shaped piers for 46
spans across the St. Lawrence River and the Seaway at Montreal.
The Royal Canadian Yacht Club (RCYC) foot bridge was designed by Laurence Cazaly and built in 1958. The bridge
spans a narrow inlet off Toronto’s Inner Harbour, linking RCYC Island to South Island, both of which belong to the owner
of the bridge (RCYC). It is a prestressed concrete tied arch structure, with span of 48.8 m and a rise of 6.1 m. At the time
of its construction, it was the longest spanning prestressed concrete structure in Canada. This structure is a fine example
of how precast, prestressed concrete can be used to create structures of great slenderness.
Another significant project during this period was Grosvenor House, a residential apartment building constructed in
1960. This apartment building was originally designed as cast-in-place concrete. The City of Winnipeg was just accept-
ing prestressed concrete at the time of construction. An alternate design was prepared in precast with assistance from
Lawrence Cazaly. When completed, this 8-storey apartment building was the tallest all-precast building in Canada.
In 1962, the first standard code CSA A135 Standard for prestressed concrete, was published. The CSA standard was in-
cluded in the “CPCI Canadian Prestressed Handbook” by Cazaly & Huggins. Published in 1964, this was the first precast
handbook in North America.

Another significant event in the 1960s was the development

of hollowcore slabs. For many years, hollow core slabs were
produced with voids formed by inflatable rubber tubes.
After the concrete had hardened, the air was released and
the tubes were pulled out of the slabs. This was an expen-
sive, labour intensive process. In 1962, the Spiroll process
was invented in Winnipeg under the direction of Glen C.
Booth, Building Products and Coal Ltd. A vibrating machine
which used zero slump concrete, was developed to extrude
a hollow core slab over the prestressing tendons. Today
this same process with many subsequent refinements is
used all around the world to manufacture floor and roof
building slabs in a wide variety of widths and cross sections.
Approximately 1.4 million square metres of these slabs are
produced annually in Canada.
Grosvenor House (Winnipeg MB, 1962)
Significant bridge construction projects continued in the
1960s. The Kinnaird Bridge, built over the Columbia River,
BC in 1964 is a spectacular 5-span, 408 m long bridge that
stands 55 m above the fast flowing Columbia River. Fifteen
special 45.8 m drop-in precast prestressed concrete girders
span between the triangular pier shafts and abutments.
The girders, each weighing over 100 tonnes, vary in depth
from 1.8 m at the supports to 2.7 m at mid-span. They were
post-tensioned in 3 stages during construction. A launching
truss was used to install the girders in sets of three at 4.4 m
c/c for the five spans. Precast prestressed concrete hexag-
onal piles support the piers. Precast diaphragm elements
were used in the cast-in-place bridge piers.
The Bensfort Bridge, built in 1969, in Peterborough, ON
was significant for refining spliced-girder techniques which
Kinnaird Bridge (Columbia River BC, 1964)
lead to the construction of many other spliced-girder
bridges across Canada. The bridge is 10.4 m wide. Five
lines of standard 1.37 m deep CPCI Type IV girders 24.4
m long were spliced with 20.4 m haunched pier segments
to achieve the two 42.7 m main spans and the two 33.5
m end spans. The girders were erected on timber false
work with a double key cast-in-place joint. The bridge
was continuously post-tensioned over all five spans. This
bridge design was very significant: precast girders capa-
ble of spanning only 36.6 m in one piece were spliced in
segments to achieve much longer spans.
1972 saw the construction of Bear River Bridge, in Digby,
NS, the first precast segmental box-girder bridge in North
America to be built using the short-line match-casting
method. The curved bridge is 609 m long with six interior
spans of 80.8 m and two end spans of 62.1 m. 145 single- Bensfort Bridge (Peterborough ON, 1969)
cell box girder sections, typically 11.4 m wide and 3.6 m
deep, were required. Typical sections were 4.3 m long and
weighed 82 tonnes.

1975 saw the construction of an innovative clinker storage

silo in St. Constant, QC. This conical structure, used to store
109,000 tonnes of cement clinker is entirely constructed
above ground using precast prestressed concrete ele-
ments. The circular structure is divided into sixty-four equal
segments. The precast consisted of 64 identical pieces of:
8.2 m long radial tie beams, 4.6 m long slanted V-columns,
10.1 m lower cone elements, 14.2 m ft long wall panels
and 35.4 m long conical roof elements. Connections were
welded between precast elements for erection stability
and to transfer forces, and cast-in-place joints with over-
lapping reinforcement for continuity and post-tensioning
to join the segments at the two exterior ring beams. A
temporary erection tower supported the upper ends of
Bear River Bridge (Digby NS, 1972)
the roof elements during construction. This very large
and heavily loaded structure was designed effectively and
economically using only five different types of precast
components. The structure is in full use today after almost
40 years of service.
Bromley Place, in Calgary, AB was the site for a 31-storey
apartment building, built in 1977. At the time it was (and
still remains) the tallest totally precast concrete building in
Canada.
In 1982-1986 the Vancouver, BC Advanced Light Rail
Transit (ALRT) was constructed. The aerial guideway is a
16 km long ribbon of precast prestressed concrete that
follows the curvature of the track profile. The guideway
has long spans, in-depth crossheads and a minimal visual
Clinker Storage (St. Constant QC, 1975) impact on the urban areas through which it passes. This
project was the largest precast contract ever awarded
- and one of the most complex precast projects ever
built in Canada at the time. Beam production cost $54
million, the total guideway cost $249 million and the total
project cost was $802 million. Typical spans up to 45 m
used single precast trapezoidal girders in each direction,
as a series of two-span continuous structures that rested
on graceful T-shaped column piers. For Phase II, 1040
(484 tangent, 556 curved) girders were manufactured
between April 1983 and October 1984. Girders were
cast in two stages: first the bottom flange and webs with
the prestressing and shear reinforcing. The following
day the interior forms were removed and the reinforced
top flange was cast. A jig containing threaded inserts
was used to accurately position the track fastenings in
the girders. A complex adjustable articulated form was
used to cast the curved and super-elevated girders.
The prestressed straight and curved box girders were
found to be the most economical solution for the aerial
guideway.
Bromley (Calgary AB, 1977)

1981-1983 saw the construction of the innovative Calgary,

AB Saddledome. The stadium was built to host the 1988
Winter Olympics. The building form is a 67.7 m radius
sphere, intersected by a hyperbolic parabaloid generat-
ing the roofline and a plane to delineate the base. This
arrangement provided the absolute minimum building
volume and unobstructed views of the playing surface.
The Saddledome is divided into five independent parts:
two grandstands having three tiers each, two grandstands
having two tiers each and a roof constrained at two ends
by four stability A-frames anchored into rock. The entire
structure is of precast prestressed concrete construction.
The sphere is divided into thirty-two equal parts by radial
columns that support the ring beam. The ring beam was
precast in sixteen massive sections which were joined
together with cast-in-place joints and post-tensioning. A
6 m x 6 m grid network of sagging and hogging cables
support 391 lightweight precast concrete roof panels
which were concreted together to form a thin-shell roof. Vancouver Advanced Light Rail Transit (Vancouver BC, 1986)
The roof can freely move on multidirectional bearings
(transfer vertical loads only) on top of the exterior col-
umns. The grandstand structures (concourses and seating
inside the stadium) are all precast and consist of interior
framing, bleacher support raker beams, double tee floor
slabs and bleacher slabs. Framing members were welded
and post-tensioned together to resist lateral loads. The
Saddledome was a featured venue when Calgary hosted
the 1988 Winter Olympics.
Also built for the 1988 Olympics was the Olympic Oval.
This structure features a unique precast prestressed
concrete, segmental arch roof that resulted in a world-
class lattice arch structure built on a very austere budget.
The building measures 87.5 m wide by 198.5 m long.
Typical arch segments are 1.8 m deep precast concrete Saddledome (Calgary, AB 1983)
trapezoidal thin-walled box sections. Typical segment
length is 24 m and weight is 48 tonnes. Eighty-four precast
arch segments and twenty-eight perimeter beams were
erected on interior scaffolding and exterior steel truss
supports. Interior node joints between the segments
were concreted. The joints were post-tensioned through
ducts in the arch segments. The scaffolding towers were
lowered 10 mm at a time in a predetermined sequence to
evenly distribute the load through thrust bearings to the
twenty-eight buttresses that surround the building. This
economical solution was built using an existing precast
plant and standard techniques.
No accounting of the accomplishments in prestressed
concrete in the 20th century would be complete without
including the Confederation Bridge, a two-lane fixed-link Olympic Oval (Calgary, AB, 1987)

Confederation Bridge (NB to PEI, 1997)
12.9 km bridge spanning from Cape Tormentine, NB, to

Borden, PEI and constructed from 1993-1997. The main
bridge has forty-four 250 m spans that rise up to a naviga-
tion channel in the middle of the structure. This part of the
bridge used 175 precast concrete components (hardpoint
segments, pier bases and shafts, main and drop-in girders).
The bridge used the latest in high performance concrete
technology and is designed to achieve a 100-year service One King Hotel (Toronto ON, 2005)
life. The bridge was built in record time using massive
precast concrete segments, the largest being the 160 m long pier sections that weigh 7500 tonnes. Components were
moved about the casting yards using 8000 tonne capacity Huisman sleds and installed by the Svanen, a specially de-
signed floating catamaran crane. The shallow water approaches were built using tapering box girder segments erected
using the balanced cantilever method.
When One King West opened in 2005, the dramatic 51-storey structure rising to 176 m above street level represented
the first significant new hotel in downtown Toronto in over a decade, as well as being the city’s first real condo hotel. The
tower rises up through and above the Dominion Bank building, and is the most slender building in the world and the
tallest residential building in Canada. A unique structural feature is the concrete base for a 465 square meter roof-top
mass damper that reacts to sudden bursts of wind and minimizes perceived building sway. The swimming-pool style
damper is comprised of 10 compartments of water that are designed to move in the opposite direction the building is
moving. There are 1071 precast panels covering 8,640 square metres installed on the One King West tower. The exte-
rior face of the panels was cast using a custom designed facing mix to suit the architect’s specifications. Panels were
sandblasted at the precast plant to expose the sand, cement and fine aggregates. A specially manufactured Comedil
CTL250A freestanding tower crane was imported from Italy and allowed larger precast panels of up to 5.9 tonnes to
be installed the full height of the tower. Panels were designed to span between vertical columns and walls rather than
loading the floor slab.
Completed in 2012, the Hodder Avenue underpass in Thunder Bay, ON is proof that the extensive use of ultra-high-per-
formance concrete (UHPC) in a modular project delivers versatility, durability and design excellence. At the forefront
of the growth in UHPC use are its very specific properties, the foremost being ductility, one of the factors that sets it
apart from conventional concrete, and even traditional high performance concrete. Its unique set of characteristics frees
designers from the constraints of traditional solutions. Engineering expertise and partnerships with architects, designers,
design offices and precasters have enabled the development of a great many uses. Today we can demonstrate Ultra
High Performance Concrete’s unequalled performance and longevity.
The Hodder Avenue Underpass is the first structure in North America to incorporate precast UHPC pier cap and
pier column shells along with high-performance precast concrete box girders, parapet walls and approach slabs.

Field connections, joints and closure strips were field

cast using UHPC, resulting in smaller, simpler joints with
superior durability. The bridge spans six highway lanes
and is founded on a combination of hard till and bedrock.
Because the structure would be exposed to the harsh
northern Ontario climate, it was necessary to choose a
construction material that could stand up to the extreme
weather conditions. The precast prestressed concrete
solution increased structural capacity and the design
requirements while the UHPC allowed for smaller joints and
improved durability, strength, and continuity. The project
demonstrates that the use of precast ultra-high-performance
and high-performance concrete bridge elements combined
with field-cast UHPC connections gives designers an
opportunity to advance bridge performance, shorten Hodder Bridge Avenue Underpass (Thunder Bay, ON, 2012)—
PCI Design Awards Winner in 2013 for “Bridges with Main
construction time, and extend the durability of these spans.
Span from 76-149 ft” and the “Harry H. Edwards Industry
1.1.3 Total Precast Concrete Solutions Advancement Award.”
The use of precast concrete often extends beyond an archi-

tectural enclosure to include structural elements and stair systems. Integration of the structure, building envelope and
vertical circulation is often referred to as a Total Precast System. Precast buildings can be framed in different configura-
tions depending on overall geometry, floor spans, interior and exterior layout and cladding arrangements. Engineering
total precast concrete structures also requires the analysis of the manufacturing, handling, transportation and erection of
the precast system in addition to the analysis and design for the design loads.
Total precast building designs can be optimized by following these general principles:
1. Maximize repetition.
2. Use modular dimensions for plan layouts and member dimensions.
3. Use simple spans when possible.
4. Standardize the size and locations of openings in precast members.
5. Use standard, locally available member sizes.
6. Minimize the number of different member types and sizes.
7. Consider the size and weight of products to avoid costs associated with producing, shipping and erecting over-
size and/or overweight pieces.
8. Use prestressing reinforcement in precast members for long spans and to minimize member depth.
9. Use precast exterior wall panels as load bearing members and/or shear walls whenever possible.
10. Maximize form use on architectural products.
11. Contact your local CPCI member as early as possible during the design development stages of a project for assis-
tance in answering the above questions.
The load tables in Chapter 7 can be used for preliminary design.
Preliminary Analysis
Considerations in developing a preliminary layout are:
1. Framing dimensions.
2. Span-to-depth ratios.
3. Connection concepts.
4. Gravity and lateral load resisting system.
5. Mechanisms for the control of volume changes.

Figure 1.1.1 Multi-storey beam-column construction. Beam-column framing is suitable for both low and high-rise
buildings. Multi-storey columns with simple-span beams are the preferred method.
Framing Dimensions
Bay sizes should be a multiple of the widths of the double tee and hollow core floor and roof slabs. Double tee and
hollow core floor and roof slabs should be used at spans close to their maximum capacity to reduce the number of slabs
to be installed. Planning modules are useful to ensure client needs are met at minimum cost. Economies will be realized
when a building’s wall/floor area ratio is kept to a minimum. Notches and setbacks can be framed on upper floors with
additional framing supports.
Optimum framing dimensions will result when the total number of precast components is minimized. The maximum
shipping size and weight and the plant and erection crane capacity must be considered when establishing maximum
component sizes.
Span-to-Depth Ratios
During preliminary analysis, it is helpful to determine beam and slab depths and the space required for other construc-
tion elements, including suspended ceilings and mechanical duct work, to establish the floor-to-floor dimensions of a
building. See Chapter 2 for typical span-to-depth ratios of precast, prestressed concrete members.
Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting Systems

The building system should be selected during preliminary analysis. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems may
function separately or may be combined. Bearing wall construction and beam- column framing have been successfully
used for low, medium and high rise buildings. Lateral forces can be resisted by interior shear walls, exterior shear walls,
moment frames, or a combination of these.
Diaphragm action will dictate placement of lateral force resisting elements. Refer to Chapter 2 for lateral force resisting
system analysis and design.

Figure 1.1.2 Single-storey load bearing wall construction. This system provides economy by eliminating the need for
a perimeter structural frame. The wall panels can be selected from a variety of standard sections, flat panels or specially
formed architectural precast shapes. Long-span double tee or hollow core slabs can be used for the roof.
Figure 1.1.3 Interior shear wall framing system

Lateral loads are transmitted by floor and roof diaphragms to a structural core built using precast shear walls.

Figure 1.1.4 Exterior shear wall framing system

The exterior shear wall system permits greater design flexibility because it eliminates the need for a structural core. The
exterior shear wall system may be more economical because gravity loads and lateral forces are resisted by the same
panels.
Figure 1.1.5 Single-storey beam-column construction

The standard precast beam and column sections shown in Chapter 7 can be used for single-storey structures. The type
of beam used depends on span length, superimposed loads, depth of ceiling construction and desired architectural
expression.

Figure 1.1.6 Multi-storey beam-column construction

Precast bearing walls can be cast in one-storey or multi-storey configurations. Some walls can be started
at the second floor level with the first floor framing consisting of beams and columns to obtain more
open space on the first level.

1.1.4 Product Manufacturing
A steel form is used to manufacture precast prestressed panels Long-stroke hydraulic jacks are used to pretension individual
end to end. Similar long-line forms are used to manufacture prestressing strands.
pretensioned beams, hollow core and double tee slabs.
Most precast architectural panels are manufactured using wood

molds. Molds are coated with resin that is often reinforced with
fibreglass cloth. A well designed and maintained wood mold can Heavily reinforced Bulb-Tee bridge girder. Strands in the bottom
be used to cast 20 to 40 similar panels. flange are pretensioned. Strand is post- tensioned in three ducts
after girder installation to provide continuous prestressing. The
shear steel is prefabricated to allow for casting on a daily cycle.

Precast prestressed pile manufacturing

These square piles are prestressed on long-line beds with four corner strands. Transverse reinforcement is a spiral wire tie closely
spaced at the ends where the stresses are higher. Piles are made in standard lengths and stock- piled at the plant until required at the
jobsite.
Tunnel liner manufacturing

Precast tunnel liners are manufactured and cured in accurate
steel or concrete molds. Liners are segments of a complete
tunnel ring installed behind a tunnel-boring machine.

1.1.5 Designing With Precast Concrete—Structural and Infrastructure Solutions

Total Precast Concrete Structures
Total precast concrete building systems are a popular choice for many construction projects. Architectural and structural
precast prestressed concrete components can be combined to create the entire building. This design approach can take
several forms, including precast columns and beams with panelized cladding or load bearing precast walls and double
tee or hollowcore flooring. The advantages benefit every member of the construction team — especially the owner,
whose goals are always paramount.
ARCHITECT: In addition to helping to meet all of the building owner’s goals, total precast concrete systems provide
advantages to architects, such as a wide choice of colours, textures and finishes, and design solutions that can make the
design process smoother.
ENGINEER: Experienced structural engineers easily adapt to design with total precast concrete systems, and they also
benefit from available industry design tools and resources that ensure designs meet building code requirements and
take advantage of the material’s ease of use and efficiency. Engineering designs can also accommodate the require-
ments for seismic design and blast resistant structures.
CONTRACTOR: General contractors find the use of precast concrete components make their job easier at the site, en-
suring a smooth process for the owner and designer in both the short and long terms. There are fewer trades to coordi-
nate with precast construction.
Fast Construction
Developers who use total precast systems say precast can significantly shorten the project timetable when compared
with steel and even more when compared with cast-in-place concrete construction. These savings are critical in bringing
a new building into a competitive marketplace or in meeting a tenant’s need for occupancy on a specific date. A total
precast system’s speed helps keep projects on track.
Scheduling Advantages:
• One-stop shopping sources much of a building’s structure and shell within one efficient, precast contract.
• Plant fabrication of precast elements during permitting and/or site preparation and foundation construction saves
time resulting in fast efficient construction regardless of weather conditions.
• Designing precast systems is easier thanks to assistance from CPCI member’s engineering departments.
• Precast components can be erected in winter conditions, maintaining tight schedules. Speedy erection allows the
contractor to enclose the building quickly, giving interior trades faster access.
Fire Resistance:
• Precast components are naturally fire protected
because they will not burn. Precast’s inherent fire
resistance eliminates the messy, time-consuming, and
costly fireproofing required for a steel structure and
subsequent repairs caused by other trades.
• In addition, insurance costs are less for precast struc-
tures during the construction phase.
• The fire insurance portion of property insurance is 7
to 11 times higher for combustible materials, such as
wood, than for concrete structures, reflecting the far
greater fire peril due to wood’s combustibility. Many
insurance companies in Canada are hesitant to under-
write wood frame structures, or will aggressively limit
their risk exposure for such structures, during construc-
tion and over the life of the asset. [20]

Aesthetic Variety
Precast concrete panels offer a wide range of styles.
Panels can be produced in a variety of colours, tex-
tures and finishes providing an almost endless range
of aesthetic options. Precast panels can replicate
granite, brick or stone, achieving a bold image at a
fraction of the cost. In addition to the myriad of archi-
tectural finish options, structural precast can also be
aesthetically pleasing. Hollowcore slabs are normally
left exposed. There is no need to add additional cost
to the project for drywall or suspended ceiling at the
underside of the deck slab. The joints can be caulked
and the slabs can be painted and textured to display
a bright, attractive ceiling. Using the cores as electri-
cal raceways easily hides all of the electrical conduits
giving an uninterrupted clean surface. Double Tees
are also left exposed in parking garages or long span
applications to display the very smooth and attractive
concrete finish that is possible in a precast plant.
High Quality
CPCI members supply precast concrete components
certified to the CPCI Certification Program for Struc-
tural, Architectural and Specialty Precast Concrete
Products and Systems. Certification is in accordance
with the more stringent requirements of either CSA
A23.4 Precast Concrete – Materials and Construction
or the Precast Concrete Institute (PCI) Manuals MNL
116 and 117 (USA). Tight quality control ensures that
components are produced with uniform consistency.
More information on the certification requirements
and a list of CPCI certified plants can be found at
www.precastcertification.ca.
Low Maintenance
Precast concrete exterior walls require less maintenance than buildings built using other materials. High quality concrete
requires little to no maintenance, except for cleaning, and incorporating the architecture into the structure using large
panel sizes minimizes the number of joints to maintain.
Effective Pricing
Costs can be more accurately estimated earlier in the process with precast construction. Changes during design devel-
opment can be quickly reassessed by CPCI member’s engineering departments to update estimates. The contractor,
owner and design team are assured that project budgets are accurate and achievable.
Safety
Precast construction keeps the site cleaner and eliminates trades from the construction zone, improving logistics and
enhancing worker safety. Site storage is usually not required — precast components are lifted by crane directly from
the truck into position in a building. A clean site is particularly vital on building additions and new construction in dense
urban areas, to ensure adjacent businesses maintain normal activities.

Interior Design Flexibility

Long-span precast concrete systems help building owners
adapt to changing client needs in future years. Hollowcore
slabs can span up to 16 m (50 ft) to match typical composite-
steel framing bay sizes and minimize the need for interior
columns required with cast-in-place systems. Precast double
tees can span as far as 30 m (100 ft) to provide flexibility
for challenging interior requirements providing high load
capacity.
Early Input
CPCI members can provide early and precise design assis-
tance to help select the most efficient sizes and shapes for
components, and optimization for casting, transporting and
erecting precast components. Repetition reduces costs and reduces overall schedules while retaining design flexibility.
These cost efficiencies can free up more of the budget for other critical design areas.
Strong Finish- Approval Process

Precasters can provide finish samples, range samples and large-scale mockups, ensuring that design concepts translate
into reality. Designers can inspect window interfaces, joint connections and other critical elements to ensure they are
visually acceptable and will properly interface between trades. Visits to manufacturing facilities to discuss technical and
aesthetic concerns provide the necessary control without constant site supervision.
Sustainable Design
Precast concrete offers a number of benefits that make it environmentally friendly and also meet the goals of programs
such as Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED™ Canada) and Architecture Canada’s 2030 net zero chal-
lenge. Precast concrete buildings can be designed for disassembly and adaptability, and are easily deconstructed for
reuse at the end of a building’s life.
Precast’s energy efficiency, reduction in materials, recyclability, reusability and ability for repurposing, along with minimal
waste in the precast plant and on the jobsite, are keys to meeting environmental standards. In addition, with building
codes requiring higher energy efficiency, integrated solutions using hollowcore slabs for heating and cooling are a grow-
ing trend in building design that reduces energy consumption. With precast’s ability to aid in meeting LEED™ standards,
other benefits such as thermal mass become more apparent to designers. The use of fly ash, slag and other waste mate-
rials aid in reducing a buildings environmental footprint. Precast’s high durability produces buildings with a total service
life that outpaces other systems or materials.
Precast concrete demonstrates comparable environmental impact performance over alternative structures and building
envelope solutions demonstrated by the ISO compliant research study, CPCI Life Cycle Assessment of Precast Concrete
Commercial Buildings (2012). Visit www.sustainableprecast.ca
Two related Canadian standards offer important resources for
design professionals when designing with precast. CSA Z782-
06 Guideline for Design for Disassembly and Adaptability in
Buildings provides a framework for reducing building construc-
tion waste at the design phase, through specific principles. CSA
Standard Z783, Deconstruction of Buildings and their Related
Parts provides minimum requirements for processes and pro-
cedures connected with the deconstruction of buildings. It is
intended for use by contractors, consultants, designers, building
owners, regulators, and material chain organizations undertaking
deconstruction of a building that is at the end of its life or when
it is undergoing renovations or alterations.

Construction
Contractors can minimize the added “cushion”
created in schedules to accommodate bad
weather conditions, since precast components
can be produced and erected all year round.
Efficient Erection
Designs meet specifications and expectations
because precast concrete pieces are fabricated
and inspected in precast plants under controlled
conditions using high-quality materials. Field
adjustments are reduced, creating a smooth
erection process.
AII- In- One Components

Total precast concrete systems allow the architec-
tural wall panels to also serve structural functions.
Combining architecture and structure can pro-
vide efficiencies in a building’s support systems.
Insulated spandrel panels can support floor systems and windows while providing architectural exterior finishes. Precast
elevator and stair cores can support floor systems while providing secure, fire rated enclosures.
Comprehensive Design and Coordination

A total precast concrete system ensures one-stop shopping for the entire core/shell design. CPCI members can design
and supply the entire system using 3-D building information systems (BIM), generating a well coordinated set of draw-
ings to allow design, fabrication, con-
struction and erection to proceed more
efficiently. This eliminates the added ef-
fort needed to coordinate various trades
when using mixed systems controlled by
different suppliers.
Shape and Design

Precast components are custom manu-
factured to match design requirements.
Unusual shapes, sizes and specific
technical requirements are expertly fab-
ricated in CPCI member precast plants.
Repetition of shapes and sizes greatly
enhances the economical use of precast
components.

Precast Structural Components

Precast concrete beams, columns and stairs are the ideal
solution for owners and builders who want to achieve wide-
open spans, fire resistance, energy savings and attractive
design with one structural system. Precast beams may be
either continuous with single storey columns or single span
beams with multi-storey columns. The use of standardized
forms accelerates the manufacturing process. The quality
of smooth formed finishes produced in a precast plant
saves money by allowing designers to expose the structure
in a finished building.
PC-3D and BIM

Total precast projects can now be modeled using PC-3D
and building information modelling (BIM). These software
solutions allow manufacturers, designers, and consultants
to readily develop and visualize the many facets of precast construction. Construction methods, layouts, details, reinforc-
ing and erection procedures can all be readily visualized. Drawings required to produce individual precast pieces and
erection layout drawings are all generated directly from the software.
Design Note: Total precast structures and structures that incorporate precast as part of the structural system
must be adequately tied together, to resist lateral loads as a system. Clause 16.5 (Structural Integrity) in CSA A23.3
Design of Concrete Structures provides the designer with the code requirements necessary to provide structural
integrity in buildings where precast concrete elements make up a portion or all of the structural system.
Projects can be “pre-built” within the virtual world of BIM

software. Geometry, details, and connections can be devel-
oped. Design issues can be easily identified and resolved
prior to manufacture and erection. Potential project com-
plications can be examined within the model, and resolved
prior to issuing drawings for construction. PC-3D and BIM
modeling inherently removes the possibility of misaligned
connections or geometry conflicts, and provides a data-
base of information useful for estimating, production, and
erection.


Long and Short Span Parking Garages

Parking structures often represent the first and last impres-
sion a visitor has when visiting a facility. Excellent parking
structures are designed specifically for the types of visitors
a structure will serve. Unless a parking structure is safe,
secure and easy to use, parkers will find other options.
Creating the best parking structure to fit the site requires a
careful balance of all elements and a logical plan from start
to finish. The involvement of your local CPCI member from
the beginning, while key design decisions are being made,
can make a dramatic difference to the final result. Their ex-
pertise and input can minimize the time and cost required
to complete a project. Precast parking garages offer fast
construction, versatility of design, attractive exterior fin-
ishes, durability and economy making precast prestressed
concrete a popular choice for commercial, municipal and
institutional clients.
Loads and Forces

Precast concrete parking structures allow for the effects of
creep, and for volume changes arising from shrinkage and
temperature differences. Components are cured before
they are delivered to the site. The connections between
members allow a structure to relieve pressures from
ordinary expansion and contraction that otherwise could
cause cracking in structural cast-in-place (CIP) elements.
Lateral design loads due to wind, earthquake or earth can
be resisted in a precast concrete structure by transferring
loads through the floor diaphragm to shear walls and/or to
column beam frames.
Care in locating shear walls and
isolation (expansion) joints will
enhance performance. Loading
exterior walls with framing beams
or floor members can minimize
connections between shear walls
to resist uplift forces. Connections
can be designed to prevent beam
rotation and absorb bumper loads
without undue restraint against
volume changes.
Bay Sizes
For maximum economy, bay sizes
should be as large as practical and
modular with the standard precast
concrete floor elements selected.
For long span parking, the bay size
selected need not be a multiple

of the width of the parking stall. Clear spans of 18 m (60

ft) with fewer columns create an open concept for added
security.
Drainage
Sloping of floors to achieve good drainage is essential to
quickly remove rain and salt laden water from the struc-
ture. The drainage pattern selected should repeat for all
floors wherever possible to allow for repetition in manu-
facturing the precast elements. Locate isolation (expan-
sion) joints at high points to minimize possible leakage.
Slope the floors away from columns, walls and spandrels
to promote proper drainage.
Durability
High strength precast concrete components are cast un-
der controlled conditions in the precast plant. Prestressed
slabs and beams are virtually crack-free and highly resis-
tant to attack by chloride ions. Where cast-in-place (CIP)
composite topping is used over precast floor members,
wire mesh reinforcement should be incorporated in the
topping. A properly cured high strength concrete topping
having a water/cement ratio of 0.40 or less, 6% entrained
air, will produce the best results (see CSA S413 Parking
Structures). A series of crack control joints should be tooled
into the topping above all joints in the precast members
below. A V-shaped trowel will produce a 25 mm deep
by 12 mm wide joint. Later these joints are prepared by
grinding with a V-shaped abrasive wheel and filled with a
polyurethane sealant.
Pre-topped double tees are a recommended alternative
to field-placed concrete toppings. This system provides excellent 35 to 55 MPa plant produced wearing surfaces with a
broom finish to provide improved driving traction. Standard details are used for adjacent camber differential, joint treat-
ments, erection stability and drainage with this system. Connections and exposed hardware can use hot dipped galva-
nizing or stainless steel for the double tee flange to flange and other connections. Where connections are subsequently
welded, the welds should be minimal and located where they can be covered or easily maintained.

Parking Garage Detail Drawings
Figure 1.1.7 Pre-Topped Double Tees and Inverted Tee Beam

Connection for Parking Structures
Figure 1.1.8 Pre-Topped Double Tee and L Beams At Expansion Joint
Figure 1.1.9 Pre-Topped Double Tee

Supported By Wall Corbel

Figure 1.1.10 Pre-Topped Double Tee with Cast-In Figure 1.1.11 Double Tees Supported on Interior Walls
Wash at Wall
Figure 1.1.12 Double Tees at Top of Wall Figure 1.1.13 Pre-Topped Double Tee Supported on
Spandrel

Figure 1.1.14 Double Tee with Cast-In-Place Wash Figure 1.1.15 Non-Bearing Spandrel at Double
Supported by Spandrel Tee Connection with Cast-In-Place Wash
igure 1.1.16 Non-Bearing Spandrel at Pre-

F Figure 1.1.17 Inverted Tee Beams to Column
Topped Double Tee Connection

Figure 1.1.18 Inverted Tee Beams at Wall Connection
Figure 1.1.19 Double Tee to Double Tee Flange Connection
Figure 1.1.20 Spandrel at Exterior Flat Column Connection

Residential Buildings
Precast and prestressed concrete enjoys broad
acceptance in low-rise and mid-rise apartment
buildings, hotels, motels, and nursing homes
where the repetitive use of standard compo-
nents manufactured in a factory can be fully
utilized. The superior fire resistance and sound
control features are specifically recognized by
owners and developers.
Floors and Roofs

Hollowcore slabs are popular for this type of
construction. The most common floor and roof
elements employed are 203 mm (8 in) deep un-
topped hollowcore units. These slabs can span
up to 9 m or more without intermediate sup-
ports. Longer spans can be achieved by using
254 mm (10 in), 305 mm (12 in) or 355 mm (14 in)
deep hollowcore units. For hotels, motels and
apartments the hollowcore slabs are oriented
to span most commonly between load bearing
elements. The underside of hollowcore slabs
can be utilized as the finish ceiling for the floor
below thus reducing costs. Balconies can be
cast as separate units to provide a thermal break
at the exterior walls.
Speed of Construction
Precast components can be manufactured and
erected by one trade more efficiently and quickly
than any other building system. Speedy completion
means buildings can be occupied and start generat-
ing revenue sooner. The use of precast walls speeds
the erection process. Construction rates of one floor
per week and better are often achieved. Integrally in-
sulated architectural wall panels used for the exterior
of a building can provide a durable, attractive, energy
efficient envelope.
Faster Occupancy
Owners and developers are discovering that for low-
rise and mid-rise apartment buildings, hotels, motels,
and nursing and long- term care facilities, precast hol-
lowcore concrete floors combined with precast walls
can be the true winner for getting projects finished
fast, generating revenue sooner and maintaining
quality, value and fire resistance.

Comfort and Security

The solid, secure, high-quality appearance of solid precast
construction encourages greater occupancy at higher rents, with
better selling and resale values. Precast concrete offers some
of the lowest sound transmission of any building material used
for multi-unit housing. When ceilings and floors are made with
precast floors and walls, complaints about noise become a thing
of the past. Tenants like the sense of security of a building that
is solidly built, fire resistant and free of decay. Occupants know
their families are safe and their possessions are protected.
Precast and Fire Safety

A major concern when building assisted living/retirement
multi-family housing is fire safety of lives and property. An effec-
tive approach to this fire containment challenge utilizes “Bal-
anced Design” that consists of three elements: containment,
detection and suppression. Containment, the key ingredient
in Balanced Design, requires fire resistant building materials
with a two-hour or higher fire rating. A multi-unit structure built
with precast floors and roofs, combined with precast dividing
walls, can contain a fire to within the unit of origin, leaving the
occupants safe and the surrounding areas virtually undamaged.
Other systems such as wood frame construction do not offer the
same benefits of precast concrete for Balanced Design and fire
safety, without the addition of costly materials and fire suppres-
sant strategies.
Educational Buildings
Precast prestressed concrete has been the preferred material for
school, college and university building structures, providing design flexibility and fast construction. The superior finishes
achievable in a precast plant have enabled
many designers to expose the structure in
the finished building. Durable, good look-
ing exterior finishes using architectural pre-
cast panels provide years of maintenance
free use. In addition to classroom and office
facilities, student residences, auditoriums,
gymnasiums and school swimming pools
have been constructed using long span
precast concrete floor and roof members.
Educational buildings are being designed
using architectural and structural precast,
prestressed concrete components that
include:
• Load-bearing and non load-bearing
precast concrete wall panels
• Hollowcore and double tee floor/roof
slabs
• Precast columns and beams

Unmatched advantages are realized when precast compo-

nents are combined to form a total precast concrete school
structure including:
• economy
• reduced construction time
• improved quality and durability
• An educational building designed as a total precast
system provides the best design solution.
Fabrication & Erection Speed

Precast components can be fabricated in the precast plant
while foundation work is in progress. Wall panels, double
tees, and hollowcore slabs can be erected quickly, allowing
interior trades to begin work earlier, cutting weeks and
months from the schedule. The fast enclosure of a build-
ing constructed of precast concrete reduces a contractor’s
costs and risks from weather or delays during construction.
Instant Brick
Brick-faced precast panels can be provided to ensure a
high-quality, even-spaced appearance that is difficult to
achieve even with site-laid brickwork. Thin-brick and/

or half brick can be cast in the face of precast panels at
the precast plant to provide the exterior finish that many
school districts desire. Plant installed inset bricks elimi-
nate the long construction time needed for on-site hand-
laid brick, thus removing several trades from the project
site. Precasters can also use brick form-liners to create a
brick pattern finish that is then stained to closely simulate
a brick finish as very economical alternative to actual full-
or thin-brick.
Optimized Floor Area

Integrally insulated precast wall panels offer an energy
efficient, thin cross-section that helps to maximize interior
floor space. Typical insulated precast panels are 200 mm
(8 in) to 305 mm (12 in) thick. Masonry walls may be up
to 450 mm (18 in) thick. This space saving throughout a
school can increase interior space, speed construction
and produce a more energy-efficient building.

Long Spans
Precast hollowcore and double tee slabs offer tremendous design flexibility by providing long clear spans. Load-bearing
precast wall panels can reach heights of 18 m (60 ft), while double tee floors and roofs can span up to 30 m (100 ft). This
opens up the interiors of auditoriums, gymnasiums and pools while reducing material costs and interior columns.
Durability
Precast concrete is highly durable, ensuring long life with minimal maintenance. Integrally insulated precast wall panels
provide an attractive and durable interior finished surface, a particular advantage in gymnasiums and other areas that
receive heavy-duty use.
Low Maintenance
Maintenance is minimized during a school’s lifetime thanks to precast’s
durability. Panels typically require recaulking of their joints every 15 to
20 years. Solid precast construction provides durable and long lasting
interior concrete floors and walls that resist damage and alleviates
concerns about mould formation.
Fire Safety
Precast concrete is a non-combustible material that meets all fire-code
provisions without requiring any additional spray coatings or pro-
tection. This resistance speeds construction, eliminates other trades
from the site and provides an inherent passive level of protection.
Precast components will not create lethal smoke and will maintain
their structural integrity even when subjected to the most intense heat.
Designing with a total precast system maximizes the time for detection,
evacuation and suppression.
Industrial Buildings
High strength precast concrete resists fire, moisture penetration and a
variety of chemical substances. The clean, smooth surfaces obtainable
in a precast concrete factory make this material ideal for food process-
ing, computer component manufacturing and wet processing opera-
tions where cleanliness is a concern. The ability of precast prestressed concrete to span long distances; hollowcore up to
15 m (50 ft); double tees up to 30 m (100 ft); and carry heavy loads with minimum span/depth ratios are particularly useful
in the construction of warehouses and industrial buildings. Spans of 45 m (150 ft) or more can be obtained using custom
solutions (prestressed bridge girder sections).
Precast floor and roof framing can be designed to accommodate a variety
of mechanical systems and support heavy industrial uses such as hang-
ing loads and bridge cranes. Precast insulated wall panels can be readily
used as load bearing exterior walls or cladding. Roof and floor elements
can bear directly on pockets or haunches provided on the inside faces of
wall panels. Exterior walls can be formed using standard shapes efficient-
ly prestressed in long line production facilities. Custom shapes can be
produced in architectural molds with a variety of smooth, sandblasted
or exposed aggregate exterior surface finishes. Precast components
require little maintenance. Precast concrete resists abrasion, weathering
and many harsh chemicals. Precast walls and ceilings can easily withstand
high pressure wash downs and cleanings. Precast concrete floor and roof
systems can be constructed without horizontal ledges, common to steel
roof construction. This eliminates locations where dirt and bacteria can
accumulate.

Pulp & Paper Mill

Pulp mills require clean non-corrosive interior
surfaces. Precast structures can often be designed
to accommodate industrial equipment, cranes,
monorails, mechanical systems and electrical sys-
tems. Often a modular grid of openings, sleeves
or inserts is provided throughout the precast struc-
ture to allow for multiple options during construc-
tion and for flexibility to accommodate potential
changes, modifications and additions to the mill’s
processes and equipment. Precast structures save
owners money by avoiding high material and
labour costs often associated with industrial build-
ings that are constructed in remote areas.
Precast Panel Systems

Integrally insulated precast wall panels are ideal for industrial applications. Panels can be provided with insulation values
to suit project requirements. Exterior and interior finishes can be smooth, coloured or textured. Panels can be easily re-
used and relocated to accommodate future building expansions (see CPCI publication, “Insulated Wall Precast Concrete
Technical Guide” for more information).

Commercial Buildings
The combination of high quality architectural load bearing
exterior walls with standard factory produced structural pre-
cast floor and roof members can produce open, attractive,
fire resistant, economical buildings. The quality finishes and
improved construction schedules result in early occupancy,
tenant satisfaction and reduced financing costs that makes
precast concrete buildings very suitable for commercial office
buildings. Significant time savings can be achieved by se-
lecting a total precast concrete structure. The superstructure
is prefabricated in the precast plant while the on-site foun-
dations are being formed and placed. Potential delays are
reduced with the complete building system being supplied
under one contract without numerous trades being involved.
Erection of large precast concrete components can proceed
even during adverse weather conditions to quickly enclose
the structure. Load bearing architectural precast panels pro-
vide the finished exterior as the superstructure is erected. The
prestressed floors provide an immediate working platform
allowing the interior trades an early start on the mechanical,
electrical and interior finishing work.
Long span double tee or hollowcore floors reduce interior

framing and provide large column-free areas within the
building, allowing flexibility and diversity with interior lay-
outs. Architectural precast finishes can be throughout the
interior of a building for columns, atrium framing, entranc-
es and elevator shaft walls.
Interior or exterior shear wall systems and rigid beam/col-
umn frames have all been successfully used to resist lateral
forces and provide building stability.

Precast Column and Composite Beam with Hollowcore (continuous beam and
continuous column isometric views)
Precast Column and Inverted Tee

Connection with Hollowcore—Isometric
view

Residential/Educational/Industrial/Commercial Detail Drawings
Figure 1.1.21 Section-Precast Column Base to Figure 1.1.22 Section-Precast Wall Base
Foundation
Figure 1.1.23 Precast wall to Exterior Foundation

Figure 1.1.24 Beam on Continuous Column
Figure 1.1.25 Cantilever or Continuous Beam / Column

Connection
Figure 1.1.26 Continuous/Cantilever Beam to Column

Connection

igure 1.1.27 Wall to Floor Connection at Interior

F
Variable Levels
Figure 1.1.28 Exterior Wall To Floor w/ Figure 1.1.29 Interior Wall to Floor
Ledge Connection
Note: Exterior walls can be insulated walls
or solid as per architectural requirements

Figure 1.1.30 Interior Wall to Floor Connection 2
Figure 1.1.31 Beam/Wall/Floor
Figure 1.1.32 Beam/Slab/Column/Wall Assembly

Figure 1.1.33 Interior Steel Lintel Figure 1.1.34 Wall/Wall Connection
Figure 1.1.35 Balcony with Exterior Wall igure 1.1.36 Wall/Wall Connection—Exterior
F
Corner detail
Figure 1.1.37 Hollowcore Slab to Lintel Connection 2 Figure 1.1.38 Wall to Wall Connection

Figure 1.1.39 Wall to Wall Connection—Interior Corner Detail
Figure 1.1.40 Exterior wall w/ Corbel to Slab Figure 1.1.41 Exterior Wall to Non-Bearing Slab
Connection Connection
Note: Exterior walls can be insulated walls or solid as
per architectural requirements

Stadiums and Arenas

Large stadiums and arenas are impressive structures.
Often these projects are built on tight schedules to
accommodate imminent sporting events. Precast pre-
stressed concrete has been the overwhelming choice for
these projects. The technique of post-tensioning precast
segments together has allowed this versatile material to
form complex cantilever arm and ring beam systems to
support the large roofs of these structures. Long-spans
and the ability to eliminate costly site formwork makes
precast and prestressed concrete the best choice for
stadium construction. Mass produced precast seating
units are manufactured in a variety of configurations
and spans to provide quick installation and long lasting
arena structures.
Pedestrian ramps, concession areas, restrooms, and

dressing room areas can all be framed and constructed
using precast prestressed concrete elements. Construc-
tion of stadium components that are difficult to cast-
in-place, such as raker beams and ring beams, can be
simplified by precasting these units in a precast plant,
delivering them to the site and lifting them into place.
Consult local CPCI members for assistance in determin-
ing cost efficient solutions for the structure and stadia
seating units.

Stadium Detail Drawings
Figure 1.1.43 Stadia to Floor Connection
Figure 1.1.42 Raker Beam to Column
Figure 1.1.45 Lower Seating to Cast in Place Wall
Figure 1.1.44 Stadia to Vomitory Wall Connection
Figure 1.1.46 Typical Stadia Seating Connection Figure 1.1.47 Stadia Seating to Raker Beam

Stadium Detail Drawings
Figure 1.1.48 Raker Beam to Column
Figure 1.1.49 Stair to Vomitory Wall

Structural & Architectural Precast Concrete Systems

No other building material can match the long-term durability, low-maintenance and cost-reduction qualities of
precast concrete. Many structures require large, unobstructed open plans for flexible space planning. Precast offers
flexible building systems that encourage and enhance new approaches to meet the changing needs of modern
buildings. Precast is cost-competitive, consistently high quality and offers more flexibility than most other structural
and cladding materials.
Hollow Core Slabs

Hollow core slabs are constructed using low-slump concrete and high strength prestressing strands. Continuous voids
are formed through each unit to reduce weight and improve structural performance. Slabs are available in 203 mm
(8 in), 254 mm (10 in), 305 mm (12 in) and 356 mm (14 in) depths, with spans ranging up to 15.5 m (to over 50 ft). Contact
your local CPCI member for specific sizes, span/loading and
detailing information.
Precast Prestressed Double Tees

For spans and loads that exceed the capacity of hollow core
slabs, double tees are an economical option. Double tees range
from 1220 mm (4 ft. 0 in) widths to 3000 mm (10 ft. 0 in) and 3660
mm (12 ft. 0 in) or more. Depths can vary from 300 mm (1 ft.) to
1000 mm (3 ft.). Spans can range from 10 to 25 m for floor load-
ings to over 33 m (33, 82 and 108 ft.) for roofs. Double tee dimen-
sions are based on many factors including structural efficiency,
fire rating requirements, parking modularity, and design loading.
Contact your local CPCI member for specific sizes, span/loading
and detailing information.
Precast Framing Systems

Precast beam and column framing systems provide incredible
flexibility in layout. Frames can be massive and strong or light and delicate. Most CPCI structural precast producers have
standard shapes and sizes for columns, beams, walls and stairs. Ideally, the building design should take advantage of
repetition and modularity of standard precast member sizes. However, precast components can also be modified and
customized to suit specific project requirements. Prestressing beams will reduce construction depth and allow longer

clear spans. Lateral forces can be resisted

by cantilevered columns, diagonal bracing,
shear walls, frame action or a combination
of methods. Contact your local CPCI
member for specific sizes, span/loading
and detailing information.
Precast Concrete
Wall Systems
Precast concrete double wythe insulated
panels are economical and will enclose
a building faster than comparable struc-
tural systems. Typically, the use of precast
results in a reduction to the overall project
schedule. Panels are available in a wide
range of custom and standard widths,
lengths, thicknesses, R-values and exterior
finishes. Contact your local CPCI member
for specific sizes, span/loading and detail-
ing information.
The true benefit of architectural precast
concrete is found in the virtually limitless
aesthetic effects that can be achieved
from its use. Custom forms are used to
create precast panels in the exact size and
shape using reveals, patterns, shapes and other architectural detailing specified by the designer. Colour effects can be
achieved using various coloured sands, aggregates, cements, pigments and site applied penetrating stains. Textures can
be customized with the use of retarders, acid washes and sandblasting. Custom shapes, patterns and unique features
can be created with the use of standard or custom “formliners”. Contact your local CPCI member for recommended
panel sizes, design and detailing information.
Fast Construction
Shorter construction timetables and the ability to more accurately pinpoint completion and occupation dates are critical
in planning new facilities. Precast construction is more predictable. Extremely short schedules are possible as precast
components are factory constructed in CPCI member certified plants. Precast erection can proceed on a steady sched-
ule year round in any weather. Precast components are delivered to the work site ready to install directly from the truck.
In addition, precast decks provide an immediate work platform so other trades can start sooner.

Precast Concrete–An Intelligent Material for Resilient Infrastructure Construction

Disaster resilience is everyone’s business and is a shared responsibility among citizens, the private sector, and govern-
ment. Increasing resilience to disasters requires bold decisions and actions that may pit short-term interests against
longer-term goals. As a nation we have two choices; We can maintain the status quo and move along as we have for
decades, or we can begin by addressing important, immediate issues through such measures as Canada’s National
Disaster Mitigation Strategy, launched in 2008 (the goal of the National Disaster Mitigation Strategy is: To protect
lives and maintain resilient, sustainable communities by fostering disaster risk reduction as a way of life).
Such a path requires a commitment to a new vision that includes shared responsibility for resilience and one that puts
resilience and resilient structures in the forefront of many of our public policies that have both direct and indirect effects
on enhancing resilience.
While few would argue with the need to enhance the resilience of the nation’s infrastructure, structures and our commu-
nities to natural hazards, conflicts arise in how to move towards enhancing resilience, how to manage the costs of doing
so, and how to assess its effectiveness. The costs of disasters are increasing as a function of more people and structures
in harm’s way as well as the effects of the extreme events themselves. These costs are being incurred at a time when
more and more communities are financially constrained and unable to pay for essential services such as public safety and
education. The choices that local communities have to make are thus difficult and not without some pain. At the same
time, federal, provincial and local governments have their own sets of constraints in terms of budget priorities, national
interests, aging and declining infrastructure, and the political realities of implementing the kinds of changes needed to
increase resilience within our communities.
Critical facilities commonly include all public and private facilities that a community considers essential for the delivery of
vital services and for the protection of the community. They usually include emergency response facilities (fire stations,
police stations, rescue squads, and emergency operation centres [EOCs]), (long-term care facilities, hospitals, and other
health care facilities), schools, emergency shelters, utilities (water supply, wastewater treatment facilities, and power),
communications facilities, and any other assets determined by the community to be of critical importance for the protec-
tion of the health and safety of the population. The adverse effects of damaged critical facilities can extend far beyond
direct physical damage. Disruption of health care, fire, and police services can impair search and rescue, emergency
medical care, and even access to damaged areas.
Fire resistant precast concrete build-
ing components make them the ideal
non-combustible building material. Fire
ratings of one to four hours are avail-
able. Precast doesn’t burn. It doesn’t
give off smoke or toxic fumes when ex-
posed to fire. Concrete doesn’t fuel the
fire. Concrete maintains its structural in-
tegrity and can be designed for effective
containment of fires, keeping fires from
spreading to other parts of a building.
This results in more time to evacuate
safely and extinguish the fire and little
chance of injury or damage outside
of the area where the fire started. This
means savings in insurance and liability
costs. The public is better protected in
the event of an emergency.

Precast concrete walls and structural precast floors

and roofs are impermeable to damage by termites
and other pests, they control exterior and interior
noise, control vibration and damage due to mould,
humidity, corrosive materials and direct impact.
Design requirements for large, open areas such as
libraries, gymnasiums, field houses, auditoriums and
cafeterias can easily be met by precast prestressed
structural systems. Slender, long spans, capable
of carrying heavy loads, result in reduced building
height. Precast concrete wall panels can be designed
as load bearing—removing the need for interior fram-
ing. Precast structural systems can minimize the risk of
corrosion from humidity and chemicals.
Taxpayers rely on administrators and designers to
provide maximum value when building new and
expanded facilities. Construction deadlines, man-
ageable budgets, highly functional facilities and low
maintenance are all critical concerns when planning
new public projects.

Railway, Light Rail & Transit Structures/

Facilities
Precast prestressed concrete has become the structural
and architectural system of choice for a variety of transit
facilities. Uses range from rail ties, canopies, station plat-
forms, curbs and gutters, to the on-site parking structures.
Acting as social hubs for thousands of daily commut-
ers, LRT’s are often designed with unique architectural
treatments. No single construction material lends itself
to a more dazzling array of architectural treatments than
precast prestressed concrete. Rich aggregates, decorative
shapes, reveals and attractive stone and masonry veneers
can all be employed to express a wealth of architectural
detail.
In addition to these architectural

requirements, transit facilities under-
go a tremendous amount of cyclic
loading conditions. Quality precast
concrete, produced and erected
under stringent quality controls meet
these demands. Precast also effec-
tively resists corrosion and damage
from de-icing chemicals used at
these facilities, while at the same
time retaining its architectural appeal
for years with no significant stain-
ing, discolouration or surface decay.
Required maintenance is low—saving
long-term costs as well as minimizing
shutdown delays over the life of these
facilities.
Privacy & Protection

Sound Walls and Fences
Sound barriers, positioned along the edges
of major roads and highways, can reduce the
transmission of direct sound to residential areas.
Barriers should be as close to the sound source
as possible and block the direct path of the
sound. Sound reaching a residential area will be
limited mainly by diffraction over the top of the
wall when there are no significant sound leaks
and the wall has a mass exceeding 20 kg/m2.
Having a sound-absorbing surface on the side
of the barrier that faces the traffic will increase
the sound attenuation.

Precast concrete sound walls have many

advantages over wood, masonry and metal
paneling. Precast concrete walls and pilas-
ters can be manufactured in a wide variety
of finishes, textures, patterns and colours.
Panels can be finished on both sides to
present a finished appearance to the road-
way and the protected properties behind.
Precast sound walls can be installed quickly
in any weather. Precast concrete contributes
toward sustainable construction and does
not involve cutting down trees or the use
of toxic wood preservatives. Precast sound
walls are manufactured locally. They have
excellent resistance to wind, seismic, snow
plows and vehicle impacts. Precast sound
walls resist corrosion and vandalism and can be sealed to ease the removal of graffiti.
Retaining Walls
Retaining walls provide lateral support to vertical slopes of soil. Retaining walls can be constructed of many different
precast materials and with a variety of building techniques. Retaining wall design and wall type selection are driven by
several factors; cost, required wall height, ease and speed of construction, ground water conditions and soil characteris-
tics as well as building codes, site accessibility and aesthetics.
Designing a retaining wall requires knowledge of lateral earth pressure. It is possible to engineer an attractive long-last-
ing, precast concrete retaining wall structure that will meet all foreseen environmental, structural and construction
demands.
Several soil parameters must be determined before an engineer can assess a particular wall design and its overall
stability:
• soil unit weight
• angle of internal friction of the soil
• cohesion and plasticity indices for cohesive soils (for instance, clays)
• water table location.
Once the lateral earth pressures are known, a wall can be checked for stability. This includes checks for wall overturning,
base sliding, and soil bearing capacity failures.
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining walls consist of a facing system and a lateral tieback system. The facing
systems usually consist of modular concrete panels with lateral restraining members. The lateral tiebacks are usually
geogrids that are buried in the stable area of the backfill. In addition to supporting the wall, the geogrids also stabilize
the soil behind the wall allowing higher and steeper walls to be constructed.
Counterfort retaining walls have vertical precast concrete columns at regular intervals along the wall. These counterfort
columns are T-shaped, may be tapered at the back and are anchored to the foundation by reinforcing or post-tension-
ing. Precast concrete panels are placed between the flanges of the counterfort columns to hold back the earth. Counter-
fort retaining walls resist the shear forces and bending moments imposed on the wall by the soil. Counterfort retaining
walls are usually more economical than cantilever walls for heights above 7.5 m (25 ft).
Precast concrete crib wall systems use high strength precast concrete standard basket type units that are stacked
and filled with earth for stability. After planting with ground cover, the wall becomes part of the natural environment.
These walls offer stability and fulfill the concerns of citizens by providing sound reduction while conforming to the
natural landscape. Crib walls can be used as retaining walls or slope stabilizers for earth or rock embankments, or as a

noise freestanding barrier; especially suitable

for highways, railroads and parks, gardens,
residential and commercial districts.
Landscaping
Precast concrete landscape units are often used
to beautify an urban setting. The look can be
modern or rustic, simple or complex. A wide
range of colours and architectural finishes are
available. Further, precast concrete landscaping
is functional in many forms such as seating, steps
and paving. Consult your local CPCI member for
input and cost information early in the design
process.
Utilities
Light Poles and Utility Poles
Low maintenance, competitive price, and aesthetic appearance of pre-
cast concrete poles make them superior to steel or wood for use in utility,
sports lighting, communication and area lighting applications. The ease
and speed of installation means faster project completion and lower
installed costs. Also, the use of concrete poles pre-
serves our forests, requires no chemical treatment,
and utilizes sustainable materials in production and
placement. Other benefits include corrosion resis-
tance, long service life—in excess of 50 years and
minimal maintenance costs.
Precast concrete poles can save erection time and
money by eliminating the need for anchor base
structures which may take days or weeks to install.
A precast concrete pole, under most conditions can
be set in hours (drill a hole, place the pole, backfill
with crushed aggregate, concrete or the original soil, then finish off with
concrete or sod). This process eliminates unsightly base plates, studs or
nuts that are normally used with steel poles. Precast poles are locally avail-
able. Contact CPCI for a certified parecaster.
Utility Products (Vaults, Culverts, Etc.)

Precast concrete drainage products, such as concrete pipe, manholes, catchbasins, and box units provide economical
solutions to sustainable drainage systems with a variety of products for collection, treatment, grey water re-use, infil-
tration, attenuation and conveyance. Concrete pipe and culverts have a proven service life of more than 100 years and
require minimal maintenance after proper installation.
Concrete pipe is manufactured in controlled production facilities where the quality standards are built into each pipe to
ensure watertight joints are manufactured to close tolerances to speed up installation, and reduce inflow and infiltration
for reduced maintenance and potential replacement costs for the life of the project. Reinforced Concrete Pipe are made
in standard diameters of 250 mm to 3000 mm with full range of accessories and fittings available for all pipes, including
bends, tees, end sections, headwalls and anchor blocks.
Concrete pipe can be safely and efficiently installed with mechanical installation equipment specifically designed to
handle pipe and manhole products. Highly chemical resistant concrete pipe ensures the safe movement of sanitary

effluent improving the environment of communities. Similarly, concrete pressure pipe used for drinking water is tested
and certified ensuring that they do not contribute to potential adverse human health effects.
Precast Box Culverts and three-sided precast arch products are high quality, low maintenance concrete components that
have a large number of applications including storm sewers, service tunnels, or small bridges and pedestrian crossings.
Precast box units and project specific designed manhole structures are replacing the need for cast-in-place concrete
structures. These precast components expedite the timeline for construction which in turn reduces social and economic
impacts of traditional in-situ construction methods.
Precast Concrete Septic Tanks are a key part of household and commercial septic systems. Septic systems treat sewage
waste in an environmentally responsible way. Tanks are available in a range of sizes to match the sewage load of any
project, from 600 to 19,000 gallons.
Precast Concrete Catch Basins (CBs) are inlet devices that collect stormwater offline, and convey this flow to the storm
system. Catch basin specifications vary region to region.
Detention/infiltration Precast Concrete Products take a
unique approach, connecting individual precast con-
crete modules into a configuration that meets each proj-
ect’s requirements. This delivers a simple and flexible
design solution without compromising above ground
land use.
Many CPCI members make both standard and custom
utility products. Consult a CPCI member near you. For
drainage product technical information, consult the Ca-
nadian Concrete Pipe and Precast Association website:
www.ccppa.ca.
Freight Handling/Storage Buildings/Industrial Buildings and Structures

The ability of precast prestressed concrete to span long distances
and carry heavy loads with minimum span/depth ratios are particular-
ly useful in the construction of warehouses and industrial buildings.
High strength precast concrete resists fire, moisture penetration and
a variety of chemical substances. The clean, smooth surfaces obtain-
able in a precast concrete factory make this material ideal for food
processing, computer compo-
nent manufacturing and wet
processing operations where
cleanliness is a concern.
Precast floor and roof framing
can be designed to accommo-
date a variety of mechanical
systems and support heavy
industrial uses such as hanging
loads and bridge cranes. Precast insulated wall panels can be readily used
as load bearing exterior walls or cladding. Exterior walls can be formed
using standard shapes efficiently prestressed in long line production facili-
ties. Custom shapes can be produced in architectural molds with a variety
of smooth, sandblasted or exposed aggregate exterior surface finishes.
Precast concrete resists abrasion, weathering and many harsh chemicals.
Precast walls and ceilings can easily withstand high-pressure wash downs
and cleanings.

Docks & Wharfs

Precast prestressed concrete is used extensively for the construction of
docks and wharves, particularly on our East and West coasts—where
marine traffic is highest.
Precast construction is the ideal solution for building over water where
climactic conditions are variable and access is usually limited. Precast
prestressed piles are often used to support dock structures. Precast
fender panels can be designed to resist ship impact loads. Precast pre-
stressed deck units will support heavy traffic loads on longer spans.
Precast concrete can be designed for long service life in harsh environ-
ments. The use of high strength low permeable concrete will protect
the reinforcement and resist environmental damage.
Land Piles
Precast piles come in many different shapes and sizes: square (solid or
hollow), octagonal, hexagonal and round. Sizes range from 250 mm
to 600 mm for square piles, 250 mm to 600 mm for octagonal, 900
mm to 1350 mm for round piles, and 300 to 400 mm for hexagonal.
Precast prestressed piles can double as foundations and piers where
soil conditions are favourable. Where pile foundations are warranted,
prestressed concrete piles can also serve as piers and abutments,
thereby reducing
the amount of
on-site forming
and concreting.
The CPCI Design
manual offers guidance on the section properties and factored
resistance for the various pile sizes. Precast pile construction is also
the ideal material for building over water where weather conditions
are variable and access is usually limited. In these situations, precast
prestressed piles are often used to support dock structures or to
support bridge piers.
Mining, Oil & Gas Sector Precast components have a multitude of uses in the
mining, oil and gas sectors, owing to its ability to meet the demands of the harsh
and, often times, aggressive corrosive environments. Uses range from tunnels, under-
ground utility vaults, and utility buildings, to above and below ground drainage chan-
nels and chemical containment. Precast expedites the construction process in these
typically remote areas, and enables construction to go unabated throughout the year
regardless of the weather conditions. Total precast structures have also been used
to construct quick and affordable housing for transient and permanent construction
workers. The ability to design precast structures for extreme fire and blast require-
ments can also be beneficial in certain situations.

Prisons
Precast concrete has been put to good use for a variety of detention and
correctional facilities and the support buildings that serve a vital role in
institutional complexes. Precast concrete wall panels, framing and floor/roof
slabs are excellent building components that are both durable and secure.
Exterior walls can be comprised of precast double wythe insulated panels
with an architectural finish and can function as the structural frame, building
envelope and aesthetic exterior of the complex. Special security hardware is
often specified. Security door and window frames can be pre-installed in the
precast concrete elements at a CPCI member precast plant to save time and
money.
On very large-scale projects, custom forms can be designed to produce
special units such as entire single and double cell units. Otherwise, standard
precast components can be successfully modified for prison construction.
As in most precast structures, using practical and economical joint details
is most important. All joint treatments should recognize realistic produc-
tion and erection tolerances. Exterior joints should allow movement and
be weatherproofed to prevent air and water infiltration. When joints are
exposed in high security locations, they are generally sealed with high
strength, non-shrink grout. This material can be used to seal narrow joints
and fill the cavities over recessed structural connections.
Tunnel Liner Segments

Tunnel liners are specialized precast concrete products that are cast in
segments, and used to form a complete ring in large-diameter tunnels.
Liner segments are manufactured to extremely tight tolerances, at a spe-
cific design radius. When installed in the field, they provide immediate and
long-term support from earth and hydraulic pressures. The first segmental
precast tunnel was built in North America in 1979 and precast segments
are now routinely considered for a wide range of subway and rail tunnelling
applications.
Precast tunnel liner segments
offer expedient construction and are often considered as a risk manage-
ment solution in difficult soil and rock situations where support is an issue.
The use of precast concrete tunnel linings has increased due to its efficient
and economical installation process compared to that of normal cast in-situ
lining practice. Features of tunnel segments include segment thickness,
length and radius designed for specific tunnel requirements, consistent
quality, and long-term durability. Very high strength concrete (>100 Mpa)
can be produced in a quality controlled environment in order to minimize
tunnel liner thickness.

Special Applications & New Products

A high degree of design flexibility makes architectural
and structural precast prestressed concrete ideal for a
wide variety of innovative structures. Properties such as
corrosion resistance (piling), durability (railway ties), fire
resistance (pipe racks), tight tolerances (tunnel liners),
architectural finishes (chimney stacks), strength (silos)
and fast installation and economy (water tanks), are
The Hodder Avenue underpass incorporated full range of precast
concrete elements and extensive use of ultra-high performance
concrete (UHPC). In 2013 it was awarded the PCI Harry H. Edwards
Industry Advancement Award (http://tinyurl.com/m984pp9) for
its use of innovative materials and design, advancing the next
generation of precast technology.
all used to good advantage. Where repetition and standard-

ization exist, precast components can economically provide
quality, plant manufactured products and eliminate expensive
and risky field procedures. Precast concrete is in an ideal
solution to projects in remote areas where local materials and
The Olympic Oval, constructed in 1986 for the labor may not be available. Further, Northern areas pose a
1988 Winter Olympics, is an example of a special
challenge due to the shortened construction window. Precast
application where the roof structure is constructed
entirely of precast lattice arch structure with precast concrete provides an optimal solution since all components
perimeter beams. are cast off site, throughout the year in an enclosed facility.
New applications await the collaboration of creative design-
ers and CPCI members.

Vehicle & Pedestrian Bridges

Proven Economy
There were no prestressed concrete bridges in North America prior to 1950. Thousands of prestressed bridges
have now been built in the past 50 years and many more are under construction in all parts of Canada and the US.
They range in size from short span bridges to some of the largest bridge projects in the world. The design of pre-
stressed concrete bridges is covered by CSA Standard CAN/CSA-S6-06 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code
specifications.
Prestressed Girder Bridges

Precast prestressed concrete bridges have gained wide acceptance because of:
1. Proven economic factors:
a. low initial and long-term cost
b. minimum maintenance
c. fast easy construction
d. minimum traffic interruption
2. Sound engineering reasons:
a. simple design
b. assured plant quality
c. durability
Bridge designers are often surprised to learn that precast prestressed bridges are usually lower in first cost than
other types of bridges. Coupled with savings in maintenance, precast bridges offer maximum economy.

Figure 1.1.50 Typical girder types and span ranges
Girder Type Typical range of depths* Typical span range*
300 mm to 500 mm 5 m to 15 m
Solid Slab Girders
450 mm to 600 mm 9 m to 17 m
Hollow Slab Girders
700 mm to 1100 mm 12 m to 23 m
Channel Girders
700 mm to 1200 mm 15 m to 35 m
Box Girders
1000 mm to 1800 mm 16 m to 42 m
Bulb Tee Girders
1600 mm to 2200 mm
34 m to 43 m
Trapezoidal Girders
900 mm to 2300 mm 12 m to 45 m
I-Girders
1000 mm to 2800 mm 27 m to 60 m
NU Girders
*Depths and spans for conceptual purposes only. Chapter 7 provides dimensions, gross section properties and engineering capabilities of the
shapes most commonly used throughout the industry.

Benefits of Precast Prestressed Concrete for Bridge Construction

Low Initial Cost
Precast prestressed concrete bridges are usually lower in first cost than other
types of bridges. Precast bridges offer maximum economy with savings in
time and maintenance.
Fast Easy Construction
Precast prestressed bridge girders require minimal lead times because they
are locally manufactured in standard shapes and sizes. The precast com-
ponents are easy to erect all year round. Simple connections join the deck
girders to the substructure.
Formwork for the superstructure can be eliminated when the tops of girders
are placed together to form the entire deck slab. Ties between adjacent units
often consist of a grouted keyway and welded or transverse post-tensioned
connections. For logging or low volume secondary roads, traffic can run di-
rectly on the girder deck.
Carefully planned details will speed the construction process and save budget
expenditures.
Minimum Traffic Interruption
Maintaining traffic and eliminating detours are difficult problems for bridge
owners. Precast prestressed concrete integral deck bridges can minimize traffic interruption because of the avail-
ability of long span, plant-produced sections and the speed of erecting a bridge. In emergencies, precast girders
can be rush ordered and a bridge reopened in a matter of days or weeks using standard components.
Simple Design
Replacement of substandard bridges can be easily accomplished with precast prestressed sections. In some cases,
existing abutments can be reused. In others, precast concrete piles, footings, abutments, wingwalls and piers can
be precast and installed along with the deck girders.
Simple span precast bridge deck girders can be pinned to the abutments to resist horizontal earth pressures or
be designed as integral abutments to eliminate troublesome expansion joints. Multi-span bridges can be made
continuous for a smoother ride and to reduce the number of expansion joints.
Assured Plant Quality
Precast prestressed concrete products are inspected and quality controlled at the plant. Each operation in the
manufacturing process provides an opportunity for inspection and control. During fabrication, prestressed beams
are proof tested at release of prestress and subjected to some of the highest stresses they will ever encounter in
service. CPCI member plants manufacture certified products per the CPCI Certification for Structural, Architec-
tural and Specialty Precast Concrete in accordance with CSA Standard A23.4 “Precast Concrete—Materials and
Construction”.
Durable
Bridges are subjected to hostile environments as well as repeated impact loading. These structures must with-
stand not only freezing and thawing but artificial cycles of weathering and chemical attack through the use of
deicer chemicals. High strength air-entrained precast prestressed concrete has excellent resistance to freeze-thaw
and chloride attack. Prestressing enhances durability by placing the concrete in compression and eliminating
most cracking at service loading conditions. Also, precast prestressed concrete bridges are non-combustible and
resistant to damage by fire.

Aesthetics
Precast prestressed concrete bridges can be de-
signed to elegantly blend harmoniously with their
surroundings and offer an attractive view from above,
beside and below. Strong, tough, durable yet grace-
ful bridges can be constructed using the low depth/
span ratios possible using high strength precast
prestressed concrete and the simple clean shapes of
locally available sections.
Minimum Maintenance
The overall economy of a structure is measured in
terms of its life-cycle cost. This includes the initial
cost of the structure plus the total operating cost. For
bridges, the operating cost is the maintenance cost.
Precast prestressed concrete bridges designed and
built in accordance with CAN/CSA-S6-06 Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code specifications should require very
little, if any, maintenance. Precast prestressed members are particularly durable because of the high quality of mate-
rials and construction used in their manufacturing.
Fatigue problems are minimal because of the minor stresses induced by traffic loads.
Of course, no painting is needed. Some bridge engineers estimate the life-cycle cost of re-painting steel bridges to
be 10 to 20% of the initial cost. Painting bridges over busy highways, over streams, or in rugged terrain is very expen-
sive and an environmental concern.
Shallow depth/span ratio
A common requirement of many bridges is that the superstructure be as shallow as possible to provide maximum
clearance and minimum approach grades. Through the technique of pre-stressing, the designer can use the min-
imum possible depth-span ratio. Depth-span ratios as low as 1:32 can be achieved with solid slabs, voided slabs,
box beams, channel slabs or bulb-tee sections. Even though deeper I-girder and bulb-tee sections will require less
prestressing steel, the overall economy of a project may dictate the lowest possible depth-span ratio.
Contact your local CPCI members to discuss your next project.
Planning
1. Use locally available precast concrete members if possible. Precasting plants are equipped to furnish certain
types of members. For short span bridges, designs using standard bridge sections will result in lower bid prices
than unique designs.
2. Make precast members identical. Economy in precast manufacturing results from the production of identical
sections. As an example, if a bridge consists of different span lengths, it is usually better to design all of the pre-
cast units with the same cross section rather than to design each span for an optimum depth-span ratio.
3. Work closely with local CPCI members throughout the planning stages. Ask for cost estimates as soon as suffi-
cient data or plans are available so that cost savings can be incorporated well before bids are taken.
4. Set up bridge replacement programs to group several bridges into single contracts for optimum savings in fabri-
cation, hauling, erection, and supervision.
5. For prestressed concrete bridges with cast-in-place deck slabs, use diaphragms only if required for erection pur-
poses. Studies have shown that diaphragms contribute very little to the distribution of static or dynamic loads.
Diaphragms at piers and abutments, i.e. those over supports, are useful in stiffening the slab edge.

6. Minimize skews wherever possible. If a skew is necessary, try to limit the skew to 30° or less. It may be less costly to
lengthen the bridge slightly than to use an extreme skew angle to fit the bridge site exactly.
7. Use precast prestressed piles to double as foundations and piers where soil conditions are favourable. If pile foun-
dations are warranted, prestressed concrete piles can serve as piers and abutments, thereby reducing the amount of
on-site forming and concreting.
8. Use integral deck girders to eliminate the need for cast-in-place concrete deck slabs and to speed-up construction.
Detailing
1. Eliminate projections from the sides of the girders. Most precast prestressed concrete members are cast in preci-
sion-made steel forms. Form projections can be accommodated only by expensive modifications to the forms. It is
better practice to use details that permit attachment by use of threaded inserts, weld plates, or through bolts to bolt
or cast on projections after the girder is cast.
2. Use standard details recommended by local CPCI member manufacturers. Those are the details that can be made
most economically.
3. Minimize the amount of reinforcing steel in prestressed concrete members. There is a tendency to add more
reinforcing bars and welded wire fabric than is needed “just to be safe.” Often the added reinforcement merely
creates congestion making consolidation of the concrete difficult without contributing to the structural strength or
behaviour.
4. Use elastomeric pads instead of metal bearing assemblies. Elastomeric pads, properly designed and installed,
require no maintenance and will permit movements (due to temperature, shrinkage, and loads) to occur without
distress.

Spliced Girder Bridges

Up until the mid 1960s, transportation equipment and
available cranes limited the length of precast preten-
sioned girders to around 34 m. Practical girder weights
and lengths can vary by province and by project—De-
signers should check with local producers as to the op-
timal solution for their project—girders up to 65 metres
and 125 tonnes have been transported on the highway
network in Alberta. Normally, precast girders can be
fabricated and transported in lengths of 40 to 50 m and
weights of up to 75 to 90 tonnes.
Some innovative designers began to look for ways to
use the economy and high quality of plant produced
precast girders for longer span bridges. Canadian
engineers led the way in constructing long span pre-
stressed precast girder bridges using spliced beams. Precast girder segments of manageable weight and length are
transported to the site. Girder segments are either spliced and post- tensioned on the ground and launched or the
girder segments are erected on temporary supports in their final position and post-tensioned together. The spliced
girder method of construction has extended the practical use of precast beams to span lengths of 75 m or more by
joining and post-tensioning girder segments at the site.
The benefits of a precast spliced girder system are:
Economy
Fewer piers result in lower overall cost, especially where soil conditions are problematic.
Safety
For overpasses, fewer piers result in longer sight distances and more spacious horizontal clearances. There is less
likelihood of vehicle collisions with supporting columns.
Navigation
Across waterways, fewer piers allow improved navigation, better movement of ice and debris and minimal disrup-
tion to the natural environment.
Deck Joints
Fewer joints result in a smoother driving surface and less maintenance.
Types of Splices
Reinforced splice
Precast girders are cast with splicing reinforcement projecting from the ends. The beams are positioned end-to-end
on a temporary support, usually near the dead load inflection point, and concrete is cast-in-place at the splice. The
girder segments are usually pretensioned to resist shipping and handling forces.
Cast-in-place post-tensioned splice
Precast girders are placed on falsework or temporary end supports, usually locate near the dead load inflection
points. The joint is poured and continuous post-tensioning is applied. Mechanical keys are often used. Sinusoidal
keys work well because they transfer shear more uniformly.

Stitched splice
This splice is a compromise between reinforced and
post-tensioned splices. The ends of pretensioned seg-
ments are clamped together by short cables or threaded
bars.
Drop-in splice
This splice is used when the erection of a temporary sup-
port is not feasible (e.g. over river crossings or traffic lanes).
The splice may be designed as a hinge or post-tensioning
may be applied locally to induce continuity.
Structural steel splice
Steel plates are cast in the ends of girder segments to
overlap at the matching ends of precast units. The plates
are bolted together temporarily while free standing without support. The joints are later welded together and en-
cased in concrete.
Epoxy-filled post-tensioned splice
Girders are aligned end to end, either in their final position or on the ground. The gap is filled with epoxy gel or
grout and later the post-tensioning force is applied. A compressible gasket often protects the post-tensioning duct
splice area. Match casting, while not essential, allows precision placement and expedites the work.
Spliced girder bridges have been constructed all across Canada with very good results. They allow the use of quality
factory-made components for spans much longer than those spans where girders can be transported as single
spans.
Traffic Barriers
Bridge Decks
Bridge decks often wear out well before the supporting beams. Some provinces have evidence that concrete
bridges are more rigid than steel bridges and this results in superior deck performance (less cracking and longer
life). Precast deck slabs can be used both on precast girder and steel girder substructures.
Precast concrete composite bridge deck panels are 75 –100 mm thick slabs that span between the top flanges of
concrete or steel beams. The panels provide a working platform for deck reinforcement placement and a stay-
in-place form for the cast-in-place concrete overlay. Prestressing strands in the panels are perpendicular to the

longitudinal axis of the beams and provide all of the

positive reinforcement required for the span of the
deck between beams. The panels are shimmed to
the correct height and become composite with the
cast in place overlay to resist superimposed dead
and live loads.
Full depth precast concrete bridge deck panels are
used both to replace worn or corroded decks on
bridges where traffic must be maintained during the
construction and for new bridge construction. Pre-
stressing strands in the panels are perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beams and can be in two layers
to provide all of the positive reinforcement required
for the span of the deck between beams. The panels
are shimmed to the correct height. Shear studs on the
beams are grouted in place through pockets in the
deck slabs. Edge grouting (and occasionally longitudinal post-tensioning) are used to tie the deck panels together.
Consult your local CPCI structural precast concrete manufacturer for their standard panel sizes and reinforcing
layouts.
Pedestrian Bridges
Precast prestressed concrete is an ideal solution for pedestrian bridges. Bridges can range from simple double tees,
bridge I or box girders to elegant custom- made cable stayed for road and river spans that enhance the user’s enjoy-
ment of the crossing. Precast full-depth deck panels are also widely used on steel support systems.

1.1.6 Storage And Treatment Tanks

Precast construction offers fast, economical and efficient storage solutions for materials from potable water to hazardous
waste. Sizes can range from 400,000 to 120 million litres. Seismic design features can be easily and economically accom-
modated. Precast concrete tank systems are adaptable to a wide range of site and environmental conditions.
High performance precast concrete is superior for corrosion, impact and fire resistance, lowering maintenance costs and
increasing longevity.
Precast concrete accelerates construction schedules. Fabrication in precast plants under quality controlled conditions
will result in reduced on-site construction and labour.
Problems with remote sites and access are easily overcome with precast prestressed concrete tank construction.
Tanks are prestressed both vertically and horizontally allowing the design to be crack-free. Joint closures can be accom-
plished on-site with field-placed concrete after the panels are installed. This method of sealing the tank joints allows a
tank to perform in a monolithic manner (acting as a single unit). Horizontal in-field post-tensioning introduces compres-
sion forces that resist a stored material’s pressure.
1.1.12 – Storage and Tanks
Precast tank wall with built-in launder trough

1.1.7 Architectural Wall Panels

Architectural precast
cladding combines the
maximum freedom of
architectural expres-
sion with the econ-
omies of mass pro-
duction of repetitive
precast elements.
Understanding how
architectural precast
concrete can be used
as an integral part of
a building envelope
will enable designers Vancouver Library, Vancouver, BC Place de l’Escarpement, Québec City, QC
to make appropriate
design choices. It is im-
portant to consider the
overall requirements of
the building envelope
during design and
construction.
Architectural precast
concrete systems can
vary from conventional
cladding systems to
composite double Champagne Quarry Park in Calgary, AB Simons Department Store in Anjou, QC
wythe insulated
assemblies that function as the entire environmental separator.
Architectural precast concrete can be cast in almost any colour, form,
or texture to meet aesthetic and practical requirements. Sculptured
effects can provide such visual expressions as strength and massive-
ness or grace and openness.
Aesthetic appearance can be achieved by varying aggregates and
matrix colour. Combining colour with texture accents the natural
beauty of aggregates.
Panel geometry (shape details) has a major influence on fabrication
economy and engineering requirements, with overall size and con-
figuration being the most important elements.
Insulated architectural wall panels contribute substantially to the
overall thermal efficiency of a building. Precast cladding may simply
enclose a structure, or be designed to support gravity loads and
St. Gabriel Tower, Toronto, ON
contribute to the resistance to lateral loads.

1.1.8 Veneer Faced Wall Panels and Formliners

An almost unlimited
variety of attractive
patterns, shapes, and
surface textures can
be achieved by casting
against wood, steel, plas-
ter, elastomeric, plastic,
or polystyrene-foam form
liners. Concrete’s plasticity
offers the opportunity for
innovation and individual
character in the surface
textures, patterns, and
shapes, which can be
achieved by casting
against the various types Bankers Hall, Calgary, AB
Formliner used to replicate Toronto City Hall, Toronto, ON
of form liners. Formliner marble finish
textured surfaces also
mask minor imperfections that would otherwise be obvious in a smooth as-cast surface, yielding a more uniform ap-
pearance. Light and shade created by modeling or sculpturing with liners may be used for visual effect to enliven large
concrete surfaces with low relief patterns at a reasonable cost or can economically simulate another material in concrete.
Form liners can be used to replicate stone textures matching natural rock formations; fractured fins or flutes; wood
board markings; trapezoidal, wave, and rib textures; sandblasted or bush hammered looks; and stucco or masonry
textures. The options with combination finishes, involving one or more basic finishing methods together with form liners,
are almost infinite.
To supplement the variety of colours and textures available with conventional precast finishes, additional aesthetic
expression can be achieved by casting other materials, such as veneers on the face of precast concrete panels. Natural
stone, such as polished and thermal-finished granite, limestone, marble, and clay products such as brick, tile and terra-
cotta are frequently used as veneer materials.
Complex brick faced panels have been precast in plants to produce results virtually impossible to achieve using field-set
masonry.
Worker installs brick inserts in a plastic form liner. Dovetail Sparrow Hospital Parking Garage, Lansing, MI
slots on the back help to anchor the brick tiles into the
precast panels.

1.1.9 Double Wythe Insulated Wall Panels

Precast concrete double wythe insulated wall panels are available across Canada in varying
lengths, thicknesses and exterior finishes. Panels are mass- produced in standard widths on
long line casting beds.
With attractive sculp-
tured exterior surfaces
and smooth interior fac-
es, these panels provide
strong, durable, energy
efficient, economical
and fire resistant wall
systems.
Insulated wall panels
consist of two concrete
wythes with a continu-
Manchester Storage Facility, Calgary, AB ous layer of rigid insu-
lation between them.
The type and thickness
of insulation can vary to
meet the specified RSI
requirements. Insulation
Installation of a multi-storey
is installed under con- structurally composite
trolled factory conditions prestressed insulated wall
and is well protected by panel
the concrete.
Panels can be erected at rates of up to 120 lineal
meters per day on concrete or steel frame buildings.
Panels can be used for both load bearing and non-
load bearing applications.
Leon’s Retail Store, Edmonton, AB

1.1.10 Ultra High Performance Concrete
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a cementitious composite concrete with compressive strengths from 120
MPa to 200 MPa, tensile strengths of up to 15 MPa and enhanced durability and ductility compared to HPC.
The enhanced properties enable designers to create thin sections and long spans that are light, graceful and
innovative in geometry, form and surface aspect. UHPC provides improved durability; improved fatigue; resistance to
abrasion and impact; and impermeability against corrosive attack..
UHPC materials with their high ultimate compressive and tensile strengths offer additional opportunities when pre-
stressed. UHPC can be designed to carry shear loads without auxiliary shear reinforcement. Very thin, curved or perforat-
ed sections are possible for a wide variety of innovative and efficient cross-sections. Current structural precast shapes
used for prestressed beams in buildings and bridges were developed for concretes with much lower strength proper-
ties. UHPC provides the opportunity to optimize and create new prestressed beam shapes and to reduce beam structur-
al depth/span and dead loads.

UHPC suits applications requiring:

• High compressive and tensile strength
• Long / slender elements
• Durability - long service life
• Complex structural and architectural shapes
UHPC has also been extensively used for field cast
connections of precast elements, particularly in bridge
structures.
Ultra High Performance Concrete Pier Cap—Hodder

Bridge, Thunder Bay, ON
Gold Bar UHPC Waste Water Troughs, Edmonton, AB
Shawnessy LRT Transit Station Canopies, Calgary, AB, 2003

Twenty-four unique, thin-shelled canopies, 5.1 m x 6 m and
just 20 mm thick, are supported on singlecolumns to protect
commuters from the elements.
Gold Bar clarifier troughs in operation

1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS

This section of the manual provides a brief review of the materials used in precast and prestressed concrete. Refer to
Chapter 8 for design information on concrete and concrete reinforcing materials.
1.2.1 Concrete Materials and Design Standards

The following national standards are necessary reference materials for the design of precast prestressed concrete:
CSA Standard A23.1 Concrete materials and methods of concrete construction and CSA Standard A23.2 Methods of
test for concrete. These standards are referenced in the National Building Code and give the technical requirements for
cast–in–place concrete. Test methods for predicting performance and evaluating minimum levels of quality are given in
CSA A23.2.
CSA Standard A23.3 Design of concrete structures. This standard covers the design requirements for most concrete
structures (except bridges). Clause 16 Precast Concrete covers the design requirements for precast concrete. An im-
proved concrete material resistance factor is allowed for certified precast concrete structural members. Clause 18 Pre-
stressed Concrete covers the design requirements for pretensioned and post–tensioned concrete.
CSA Standard A23.4 Precast concrete – materials and construction. This standard covers the technical requirements for
precast concrete. In most cases, the requirements are higher than cast–in–place concrete because of the closer control
possible in a precast plant.
CSA Standard A3001 Cementitious materials for use in concrete – This standard covers the chemical, phsical and unifor-
mity requirements for cementitious materials used in concrete. The materials covered include Portland cement, blended
hydraulic cement, Portland-limestone cement, supplementary cementing materials and blended supplementary ce-
menting materials.
CSA Standard S6 Canadian highway bridge design code. This Code applies to the design, evaluation, and structural
rehabilitation design of fixed and movable highway bridges in Canada. This Code also covers the design of pedestrian
bridges, retaining walls, barriers, and highway accessory supports of a structural nature, e.g., lighting poles and sign
support structures.
CSA Standard S6.1 Commentary on the canadian highway bridge design code. This standard covers the design of
highway bridges. Clause 8 covers Concrete Structures and Clause 8.7 covers Prestressing Requirements. Other specific
requirements for precast concrete bridge construction are outlined in Clause 8.
CSA Standard S413 Parking structures – structures design. Many parking structures are unheated and subject to short
and long–term temperature variations that can be large. Most parking garages are also exposed to the corrosive effects
of deicing (road) salt. The quality of precast construction and the beneficial effects of prestressing are recognized in this
standard.
CSA Standard S806 Design and construction of building components with fibre reinforced polymers. Canada was the
first country with a building code for FRP. FRP are also recognized in CSA Standard S6 – CHBDC.
The latest editions of these CSA publications are available for online ordering from the Canadian Standards Association
website at: http://shop.csa.ca/
Guide Specifications are available for downloading at the CPCI website www.cpci.ca and include as follows:
SPECIFICATION – Section 03 45 00 – Architectural Precast Concrete
SPECIFICATION – Section 03 41 00 – Structural Precast/Prestressed Concrete
SPECIFICATION – Section 03 41 13 – Precast Concrete Hollow Core Planks

1.2.2 Concrete
Cements and Supplementary Cementing Materials: Cements for structural and architectural precast products must
conform to the requirements of CSA A23.1 Clause 4.2.1 which specifies conformance to CSA A3001. In addition to these
requirements CSA A23.4 Clause 5.1 has additional provisions for a project where colour uniformity is of high importance.
In this case the additional provision is that the cementing material must come from the same manufacturing mill.
Aggregates: Aggregates for structural precast products are usually the same as those used for other high-quality
concrete in the local area, in accordance with CSA A23.1. Where lightweight aggregates are available, semi-low density
structural concrete can also be used for precast products. Appropriate mix designs should be obtained from local CPCI
members. Aggregates commonly selected for exposed concrete facings are limestone, quartz, granite or marble. These
offer a wide variety of colour and texture. CSA A23.4 Clause 7 contains requirements for fine and coarse aggregates for
architectural precast concrete. Special attention should be paid to sand and gravel aggregates to ensure they do not
rust or stain when exposed to the environment.
Concrete strength: The 28-day design strength of concrete used in precast and prestressed products is usually in the 35
MPa to 50 MPa range. The transfer strength (when the prestress force is transferred to the concrete) is usually about 25
MPa and can be more or less as required by the design. However, a practical limit is the strength that can be attained in
about 16 hours to allow for the removal of a product from the forms on a daily basis.
Curing: Precast concrete is either cured through an accelerated process or non-accelerated. CSA A23.4 distinguishes
between the curing requirements for each and defines the requirements based on the class of exposure as defined by
Table 1 of CSA A23.1. Although CSA A23.1 prescribes extended curing times for certain classes of exposure (up to 3 and
7 days), Clause 23 of CSA A23.4 allows precast concrete to be exposed to ambient conditions as early as 16 hours after
casting. This is because the curing requirements in CSA A23.1 are meant for cast-in-place (site-cast) concretes. Extensive
research on this topic has been conducted by the University of Toronto [13, 15], and the National Research Council of
Canada [14].
During production, architectural precast concrete panels generally do not receive accelerated heat curing as do precast
prestressed concrete structural members. Architectural precast panels are removed from forms at an age of about 16
hours after the concrete has reached a strength adequate to withstand stripping and handling.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC): Self-consolidating concrete is an advanced approach to the production of highly
flowable, self-leveling concrete that can be placed with minimal or no vibration and without segregation. SCC requires
a high performance superplasticizer to achieve and maintain the desired workability. SCC can be made with standard
available raw materials. However, to achieve the unique rheological properties of SCC, special attention must be paid to
the mix design process. [22]
High Performance Concrete (HPC): High Performance Concrete offers more than just high strength. HPC is predomi-
nately specified for its durability. CSA A23.1 requires high performance structural concretes – exposure class A-1, C-1, or
exposure class C-XL for higher protection.
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC): Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) covers concretes with compres-
sive strengths from 120 MPa to 240 MPa with flexural strengths of up to 40 MPa and sustained tensile capacities from 6
MPa to 10 MPa. Rapid chloride permeability for UHPC can be as low as only 20 coulombs.
Note: Practices that apply to the manufacturing and testing of regular concrete may not be applicable to UHPC.
Compressive strength
The compressive strength of concrete made with aggregate of adequate strength is governed by either the strength of
the cement paste or the bond between the paste and the aggregate particles. At early ages, the bond strength is lower
than the paste strength. At later ages, the reverse can be the case.
For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that can be developed by a workable, properly placed
mixture of cement, aggregate, and water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing conditions) is influenced by:

1. The ratio of water to cementing materials

2. The ratio of cementing materials to aggregate
3. Grading, surface texture, shape, strength, and stiffness of aggregate particles
4. Maximum size of the aggregate
Mix factors, partially or totally independent of water-to-cementing materials ratio, that affect the strength are:
1. Type and brand of cement
2. Amount and type of admixture, supplementary cementing materials, or pozzolans
3. Mineral composition of the aggregate
Compressive strength is measured by testing 100mm diameter x 200 mm high cylinders in accordance with CSA A23.2
procedures. Grout materials are tested using 50 or 100 mm cubes.
Testing of no-slump concrete used for products such as hollow core slabs is covered in CSA A23.4.
Because of the need for early strength gain, High Early cement is often used by precasters so that molds can be reused
daily. Structural precast concrete and much architectural concrete is made with grey cement that meets CSA A3001. HE
and GU white hydraulic cements are frequently used in architectural products and are usually assumed to have the same
characteristics (other than colour) as grey cement. Pigments are also available to colour concrete, and, at the recom-
mended dosages, have little or no effect on strength. Cement type and colour should be chosen with the help of local
precast manufacturers who may have experience with the proposed mix.
Concrete mixes with strengths up to 50 MPa or more are available in most areas. CPCI member precast manufacturers
may be contacted for concrete design information.
Initial curing of precast concrete takes place in the form, usually by covering to prevent loss of moisture and, in many
instances (particularly for structural products), with the application of radiant heat or live steam. Additional curing is rarely
necessary to attain the specified strength, rapid chloride permeability or durability. [16] [24]
Concrete subjected to freezing and thawing should be air-entrained. Admixtures are added to the concrete during the
mixing cycle to entrain the air. All other constituents being equal, a slight reduction of strength should be anticipated
when concrete is air entrained.
Tensile strength
A critical measure of the performance of architectural precast concrete is its resistance to cracking that is a function of
the tensile strength. Reinforcement does not prevent cracking, but controls crack widths after cracking has occurred.
Tensile stresses that would theoretically result in cracking are permitted by CSA A23.3 for prestressed concrete.
The flexural tensile strength is called the modulus of rupture. It can be determined by test, but for structural design the
modulus of rupture is generally assumed to be a function of compressive strength as given by:
fr = 0.6 fc
fr = modulus of rupture (MPa)
fc = compressive strength (MPa)
= 1.0 for normal density concrete
= 0.85 for structural semi-low density concrete
= 0.75 for structural low density concrete

Shear strength
The shear (or diagonal tension) strength of concrete is also a function of compressive strength. The equations for shear
strength specified in CSA A23.3 are given in Chapter 3 of this design manual. The shear strength of semi-low density and
low-density concrete is determined using the factor, l, as described earlier.
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, E, is the ratio of normal stress to corresponding strain. It is the material property that deter-
mines the immediate deformation under load. E is used to calculate deflections, axial shortening and elongation, buck-
ling and relative distribution of applied forces in composite and non-homogeneous structural elements.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete and other masonry materials is not as well defined as for materials such as steel. E
is therefore defined by an approximate slope, such as the “secant modulus.” Calculations that involve E have an inher-
ent imprecision, but this seldom affects practical performance. While it can be desirable in rare instances to determine
the modulus of elasticity by test, particularly with some low density concretes, the equation given in CSA A23.3 is usually
adequate for design:
1.5
Ec = (3300 fc + 6900) c
2300
Ec = modulus of elasticity (MPa)
3
c = density of concrete (kg/m )
Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain. Values generally range between 0.11 and 0.27, and are usual-
ly assumed to be 0.20 for both normal and low density concrete.
Imposed deformations
Imposed deformations in precast concrete members are caused by changes in temperature, shrinkage and by creep. If
precast concrete members are free to deform, volume changes are of little consequence. If elements are restrained by
foundations, connections, steel reinforcement, or connecting elements, significant stresses can develop over time.
Strains due to temperature variations and creep can be positive (expansion) or negative (contraction). Strains due to
shrinkage are only negative.
Much of the creep and shrinkage in precast members takes place during yard storage, prior to erection. Connection de-
tails and joints must be designed to accommodate the volume changes that occur after the precast elements have been
erected and connected to the structure.
Typical creep, shrinkage, and temperature strains and design examples are given in Chapter 2 of this design manual.
Temperature effects:
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete varies with the aggregate used as shown in Figure 1.2.1. Ranges
for normal density concrete are 9 to 13 x 10-6/ °C when made with siliceous aggregates and 6 to 9 x 10-6/ °C when
made with calcareous aggregates. The approximate values for structural low density concretes are 6.5 to 11 x 10-6/ °C,
depending on the type of aggregate and amount of natural sand. Coefficients of 11 x 10-6/ °C for normal density and
9 x 10-6/ °C for semi-low density concrete are frequently used. If greater accuracy is needed, tests should be conducted
on the specific concrete.
Since the thermal coefficient for steel is also about 11 x 10-6/ °C, the steel reinforcement does not produce significant
stresses in the concrete due to temperature changes.

Average Coefficient Of Thermal Expansion (10-6 / °C)

Type of Rock (Aggregate)
Aggregate Concrete*
Quartzite, Cherts 11.0 - 12.6 11.9 - 12.8
Sandstones 10.0 - 12.0 10.0 - 11.7
Quartz Sands & Gravels 9.9 - 12.8 11.0 - 15.7
Granites & Gneisses 5.8 - 9.5 6.8 - 9.5
Syenites, Diorites, Andesite, Gabbros,
5.4 - 8.1 8.0 - 9.5
Diabas, Basalt
Limestones 3.6 - 6.5 6.1 - 9.2
Marbles 4.0 - 7.0 4.1
Dolomites 7.0 - 9.9 –
Expanded Shale, Clay & Slate – 6.5 - 7.7
Expanded Slag – 7.0 - 11.2
Blast-Furnace Slag – 9.2 - 10.6
Pumice – 9.4 - 11.0
Perlite – 7.6 - 11.7
Vermiculite – 8.3 - 14.2
Barite – 18.0
Limonite, Magnetite – 8.3 - 11.0
None (Neat Cement) – 18.5
Cellular Concrete – 9.0 - 12.6
1 : 1 (Cement : Sand) 13.5
1:3† 11.2
1:6 10.0
* Coefficients for concretes made with aggregates from different sources vary from these values, especially those for gravels,
granites, and limestones. Fine aggregates are generally the same material as coarse aggregates.
† Tests made on 2-year old samples.
Fig. 1.2.1 Average coefficients of linear thermal expansion of rock (aggregate) and concrete
Shrinkage and creep:

Precast concrete elements are subject to air-drying as soon as they are removed from the forms. As a result of this drying,
the concrete slowly loses some of its original water causing shrinkage to occur.
When concrete is subjected to a sustained load, the deformation can be divided into two parts:
1. elastic deformation that occurs immediately, and
2. time-dependent deformation, called creep, beginning immediately and continuing over time.
Creep and shrinkage strains vary with relative humidity, volume-surface ratio (see Figure1.2.2), level of sustained load in-
cluding prestress, concrete age and strength at the time of load application, amount and location of steel reinforcement,
and other characteristics of the material and design. Different values of shrinkage and creep may be needed when high
strength concretes are used. Typically, the joints between precast members are detailed to relieve such strains.
Freeze-thaw and chemical resistance

Cycles of freezing and thawing can cause damage to concrete ranging from minor surface scaling to severe disintegra-
tion. Corrosion of reinforcement, prestressing strand or connection hardware can also result, affecting the integrity of the
structure.
The effects of freezing and thawing can be resisted by high quality concrete and air entrainment. Adequate concrete
cover over reinforcement and surface drainage is essential in structures exposed to weather.

Freeze-thaw damage is accelerated by deicing chemicals. Deicers can be applied indirectly in various ways such as salt
water dripping from the undersides of vehicles and splash water. Some proprietary treatments such as sealers, mem-
branes and corrosion inhibiters have been found to provide additional protection to freeze-thaw, deicing and other
chemical damage. (See CSA S413 Parking structures.)
Other foreign materials, such as sulphates in soils or ground water and industrial acids, can damage concrete. The
former can be resisted by specifying cements with a low C3A content. The presence of acids generally requires a mem-
brane or a topping of concrete or other material. When aggregates or cement with high alkali content are used in a
moist environment, the danger of alkali-aggregate reactivity (AAR) should be considered. [5]
1.2.2 Grout, Mortar and Drypack

When water, sand and cementing materials are mixed together without coarse aggregate, the result is called mortar,
grout, or drypack, depending on the consistency. These materials have numerous applications in precast concrete con-
struction: sometimes for fire or corrosion protection, for cosmetic treatment, or to transfer loads in horizontal and vertical
joints.
Different materials are used:
1. Cement
2. Shrinkage-compensating cement
3. Expansive cement made with special additives
4. Gypsum or gypsum cements
5. Epoxy resins
6. Proprietary grouts and repair mortars
Sand-cement mixtures
Most grout is a simple mixture of cement, sand, and water. Proportions are usually one part cement to 2.25 to 3 parts
sand. The amount of water depends on the method of placement.
Flowable grouts are high-slump mixes used to fill voids
that are either formed in the field or cast into the precast
element such as the shear keys between hollow core slabs. 150
400 wide
Grouts are used at joints that may be heavily congested but rectangular beams
not confined, requiring some formwork. These grouts usually
have a high water-cement ratio, resulting in low strength and 120
Inverted tee and
Volume/surface (mm)
high shrinkage. There is a tendency for the solids to settle, L-shaped beams
leaving a layer of water on the top. Admixtures can improve I and
90 Bulb-Tee
the characteristics of flowable grouts. 300 wide girders
Hollow core rectangular
For very small spaces in confined areas, grouts can be and solid slabs beams
pumped or pressure injected. Confinement must be suffi-
60
ciently strong to resist the hydraulic pressure. Less water can
be used than for flowable grouts, hence less shrinkage and Single tees
higher strengths can be obtained.
30
A stiffer grout, or mortar, is used when the joint is not totally Double tees
confined, for example in vertical joints between wall panels.
This material will usually develop strengths of 20 MPa to 45
0 300 600 900 1200 1500
MPa, and have much less shrinkage than flowable grout.
Section depth (mm)
Drypack is the name used for very stiff sand-cement mix-
es. Drypack is used if a relatively high strength is desired, Figure 1.2.2 Volume-surface ratios for precast
for example, under bearing walls and column base plates. structural concrete elements

Compaction is by hand tamping, using a rod or stick.

When freeze-thaw durability is a factor, grout should be air-entrained. An air content of 9 or 10% may be required for
adequate protection.
Typical cement mortars have very slow early strength gain when placed in cold weather. Heating is usually not effective
because the heat is rapidly dissipated into the surrounding concrete. Special proprietary mixes may be required unless a
heated enclosure can be provided.
Non-shrink grout
Shrinkage of sand-cement grout can be reduced by using proprietary non-shrink mixes, or by adding aluminum powder
to the mix. Non-shrink grouts can be classified by the method of expansion:
1. Gas-liberating
2. Metal-oxidizing
3. Gypsum-forming
4. Expansive cement
Grout manufacturer recommendations should be followed as some expansive ingredients may cause undesirable effects
in some applications.
Aluminum powder added to ordinary sand-cement grout forms a gas-liberating mixture. Extremely small amounts of
powder are required (about a teaspoonful per bag of cement) making these mixes very sensitive to variations in the
ingredients. Trial mixes should be tested.
Non-shrink grouts are not required for field grouting of hollowcore floors.
Epoxy grouts
Epoxy grouts are used when very high strength is desired, or when positive bonding to the concrete is necessary. They
are mixtures of epoxy resins and a filler material, usually sand.
The physical properties of epoxy compounds vary widely. The compound to be used should be determined either
through experience or by test. [42] The thermal expansion of epoxy grouts can be up to 7 times that of concrete, and the
modulus of elasticity of epoxy grouts are considerably different than concrete.
Low viscosity epoxy resins without fillers can be pressure-injected or gravity fed into cracked concrete as a repair
measure.
Post-tensioning grout
Post-tensioning grouts are a mixture of cement and water with or without admixtures. [49]
1.2.3 Reinforcement
Reinforcement used in structural and architectural precast concrete includes prestressing tendons, deformed steel bars,
and welded wire reinforcement.
Metallic and non-metallic fibre reinforcing can also be used. Specifications for non-metallic reinforcing materials are
covered in CSA S806.
Prestressing tendons
Tendons for prestressing concrete can be wires, strands, or bars. In precast, prestressed structural concrete, nearly all
tendons are 7-wire strands conforming to ASTM A416/A416M. The strands are usually pretensioned (tensioned prior to
concrete placement). After the concrete has reached a predetermined strength, the strands are cut and the prestress
force is transferred to the concrete through bond.

Until the late 1970s, most prestressing strand was stress-relieved. Today, low-relaxation strand is almost universally used.
Low-relaxation strand as specified in ASTM A416/A416M differs from stress-relieved strand in two respects: first, it meets
more restrictive relaxation loss requirements, and second, the minimum yield strength at an extension of 1% is 90% of
the specified minimum tensile strength, compared to 85% for stress-relieved strand. The load tables in Chapter 7 of this
design manual are based on low-relaxation strand.
Architectural precast concrete is sometimes prestressed. Prestressing tendons can be either pretensioned or post-ten-
sioned depending on the facilities available at the plant.
Prestressing wire or bars are occasionally used as primary reinforcement in precast elements. The properties of prestress-
ing strand, wire and bars are given in Chapter 8 of this design manual.
Deformed reinforcing bars and wires

Hot-rolled deformed reinforcing bars are required to meet one or more of the following standards: CSA G30.18 or ASTM
A82, A184, A185, A496, A497, A704 or A775. These specifications cover both weldable steel and regular steel. Bars are
usually specified to have a minimum yield strength of 400 MPa (Grade 400R and 400W). Grade 300R bars may be avail-
able only in sizes 10M and 15M. Grade 500R and 500W steel are also available. The maximum yield strength of 400W
and 500W bars is limited to 525 MPa and 625 MPa, respectively, to ensure ductile behaviour. The W in the grade desig-
nation indicates a weldable bar with controlled chemistry and a maximum carbon equivalent of 0.55%.
Some precast plants use weldable steel (400W) for all reinforcement. Advantages are a reduction in inventory and the
possibility of errors. Another advantage is that bar ends can be used for welded connections instead of being scrapped.
See CSA W186 for the welding of reinforcing bars.
For a reinforcing bar to develop its full strength in concrete, a minimum length of embedment or a hook is required.
Information on bar sizes, bend and hook dimensions and development lengths are given in reference [13] and Figs. 8.2.6
to 8.2.10.
Deformed wire can be used in small, thin members when reinforcement smaller than 10 M bars is used to meet concrete
cover and/or small bend radii requirements. Deformed wires should conform to ASTM A497 – see Figures 8.2.11 and 8.2.14.
Welded wire reinforcement

Welded wire reinforcement is prefabricated reinforcement consisting of parallel cold-drawn wires welded together in
square or rectangular grids. Each wire intersection is electrically resistance-welded by a continuous automatic welder.
Pressure and heat fuse the intersecting wires together and fix all wires in their proper position.
Smooth wires, deformed wires or a combination of both can be used in welded wire reinforcement. Wire sizes are denot-
ed by their area in mm2 prefixed with the letters MW for smooth wire or MD for deformed wire. Welded wire reinforce-
ment styles are designated by the spacing and wire sizes as shown in Figures 8.2.11 to 8.2.14. For one way welded wire
reinforcement, the area of the smaller wires shall not be less than 40% of the area of the larger wires.
Smooth wire reinforcement bonds to concrete by the mechanical anchorage at each welded wire intersection. De-
formed wire reinforcement utilizes wire indentations plus welded intersections for bond and anchorage. Many plants
have equipment for bending welded wire reinforcement into various shapes such as U-shaped stirrups, four-sided cages,
etc. Designers are cautioned to ensure that welded wire reinforcement meets the ductility requirements of CSA A23.1
when used as shear reinforcement.
Protection of reinforcement
Reinforcement is protected from corrosion by embedment in concrete. A protective iron oxide film forms on the surface
of bars, wires and tendons as a result of the high alkalinity of the cement paste. As long as the alkalinity is maintained,
this film is effective in preventing corrosion.

The protective high alkalinity of the cement paste can be lost by leaching, carbonation or the presence of chlorides.
Sufficient cover over the reinforcement using concrete of low permeability will usually provide adequate protection. Low
permeability is obtained by well-consolidated concrete having a low water-to-cementing material ratio, a characteristic
of precast concrete. Permeability can be further decreased by replacing some of the cement with fly ash or slag or with
the addition of small amounts of silica fume to the concrete mix (See Section 6.5).
Cracks in concrete can allow oxygen and moisture to reach the embedded steel, providing conditions where rusting of
the steel and staining of the surface may occur. A sufficient amount of closely spaced reinforcement limits the width of
cracks and the intrusion of water, maintaining the protection of the steel. Prestressing is particularly useful to prevent or
limit cracking.
Concrete cover is the minimum clear distance from the reinforcement to the surface of the concrete. For exposed
aggregate surfaces, the concrete cover is measured from the deformations of the reinforcement to the deepest point of
the exposed aggregate surface. Allowance must also be given to scoring, false joints, and drips, as these can reduce the
cover.
In determining cover, consideration should be given to the following:
1. Structural or nonstructural use of precast element,
2. Maximum aggregate size – cover should be greater than 1.5 times the nominal maximum aggregate size,
particularly if a face mix is used,
3. The means of securing the reinforcement in a controlled position and maintaining this control during placement
of concrete,
4. Accessibility for the placement of concrete, and the proportioning of the concrete mix relative to the structural
environment,
5. The type of finish treatment of the concrete surface,
6. The environment at the concrete surface: interior or exposed to weather, ocean atmosphere, soils or corrosive
industrial fumes,
7. Fire resistance requirements,
8. Type of reinforcement (plain steel, galvanized, epoxy coated, stainless, etc.), and
9. Concrete additives (corrosion inhibitors, etc.)
The minimum cover requirements for precast concrete can be found in Table 1 of CSA A23.4. Cover requirements range
from 20 mm to 50 mm depending on the type of structural element, exposure class, and protection system used (if any).
The permitted reinforcement cover requirements for precast concrete are generally reduced from the cover required for
cast-in-place concrete because of the greater dimensional control of precast concrete, the tighter tolerances on place-
ment of reinforcing, and the improved quality of the concrete in plant-controlled conditions.
Galvanized reinforcement
Galvanized reinforcing bars or welded wire reinforcement are sometimes used when minimum cover requirements can-
not be achieved, or when the concrete is exposed to a particularly severe environment. Galvanizing may not be effective
under certain conditions such as marine environments. Galvanized welded wire reinforcement is usually available as a
stock item in some sizes (See Chapter 8 of this design manual). Individual wires are galvanized before they are welded
together to form the fabric. Zinc at each wire intersection is burned off during welding, but the resulting black spots have
not caused appreciable corrosion problems. After welding, the reinforcement is normally shipped to the plant without
further treatment. Galvanized welded wire reinforcement shall be made from zinc coated carbon steel wire conforming
to ASTM A641. The use of galvanized reinforcement close to steel forms or to adjacent non-galvanized reinforcement in
fresh concrete may cause “shadowing” or reflection of the steel on to the final concrete surface. See reference [32] for
ways to avoid this occurrence by passivating the galvanized steel or the concrete mix.

Dissimilar metals in concrete

The American Galvanizers Association (AGA) [72] states that when using galvanized reinforcement in concrete there is
the possibility of establishing a bimetallic couple between zinc and bare steel (i.e., at a break in the zinc coating or direct
contact between galvanized steel and black steel bars) or other dissimilar metals. A bimetallic couple of this type in
concrete should not be expected to exhibit corrosive reactions as long as the two metals remain passivated. To ensure
this is the case, the concrete depth to the zinc/steel contact should not be less than the cover required to protect black
steel alone under the same conditions.
Epoxy coated reinforcement

Reinforcing bars and welded wire reinforcement are available for use in products where epoxy coatings are specified.
Epoxy coated reinforcing bars should conform to ASTM A775M. Epoxy coated welded wire reinforcement should con-
form to ASTM A884. These standards describe steel surface protection, coating application, thickness, continuity and
adhesion of coating and quality control requirements.
Epoxy coating reduces bond strength (See CSA A23.3). Similarly, the requirements for bond strength may need to be
modified. CSA S413 has eliminated epoxy coating as suitable protection for reinforcement.
Bars are generally factory epoxy coated when straight. Subsequent shearing, bending and handling should conform to
ASTM D3963M. Damaged or removed epoxy coating should be patched using the manufacturer’s approved patch com-
pound. All tie wire, chairs and bar supports used for the installation of coated rebar should be non-metallic materials or
be supplied with an acceptable protective coating. Epoxy coated reinforcing bars should be handled with nylon slings.
Epoxy coated strand

Epoxy coated strand material is described in the standard ASTM A882 “Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Sev-
en-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand.” For bonded construction, the epoxy coating is impregnated with a grit to develop a
bond with the concrete.
The behavior of epoxy coated strand at elevated temperatures is a major concern due to the softening of the epoxy.
Pull-out tests show there is a progressive reduction in bond strength initiated at about 50°C with a virtual complete loss
of bond occurring at about 90°C. This behavior necessitates a careful monitoring of concrete temperature at transfer of
prestress. [21]
It is not recommended that epoxy coated strands be used for pretensioned precast concrete products because of the
uncertainties in the properties noted above, particularly the behavior under elevated temperatures. The Note to CSA
A23.3 Clause 4.1.1 states that epoxy coated strands should not be used in building structures.
1.2.4 Protection of Connections

Painted steel
In most building environments, the painting of exposed steel in connections is sufficient to prevent corrosion damage.
Choices of paint systems range from one coat of primer to multi-coat systems using zinc rich paint or epoxy systems.
Long oil alkyds have the advantage of low cost surface preparation and the ease of application and touch up. Their
disadvantage is their relatively short life span in corrosive conditions.
Epoxy polyamidoamines have an extended life span and are good in corrosive environments. However, they have a
higher material cost and surface preparation cost. Epoxy polyamidoamines are more difficult to field touch up since they
are a two-part mixture requiring controlled temperatures during application. Any epoxy based topcoat has the disad-
vantage of chalking due to weathering and environmental effects, especially with direct or indirect UV exposure.
For both long oil alkyd and epoxy polyamidoamine systems, the protection is lost once the surface is broken since cor-
rosion can start undercutting adjacent areas.

Zinc-rich urethanes minimize this problem by providing galvanic protection. Zinc-rich urethane has the best corrosion
resistance and life expectancy and is relatively easy to apply. The disadvantage of the zinc-rich urethane is that it only
comes in a brown colour. If other colors are required, epoxy or urethane paints may be used as a top coat.
Consult the CPCI members in your area for paint systems commonly used.
Galvanized steel
In corrosive environments, hot dip galvanizing of connection hardware is sometimes used. Connections should be
designed to minimize or eliminate field welding if galvanized connections are used. The fumes from welding galvanized
material are very toxic and present a health hazard to the welder, even with the use of protective equipment. The pro-
cess of welding destroys the protective coating, requiring a touch up with a cold applied zinc-rich paint.
Several precautions are recommended to ensure that the strength of the various elements of a connection is not re-
duced by embrittlement during the hot dip galvanizing process.
When items of a connection assembly require welding, such as anchor bars to plates, the following recommendations
have been found to produce satisfactory results and are recommended by the American Galvanizers Association [72]:
1. An uncoated electrode should be used whenever possible to prevent flux deposits.
2. If a coated electrode is used, all welding flux residues must be removed by wire brushing, flame cleaning, chipping,
grinding, needle gun or abrasive blast cleaning. This is necessary because welding flux residues are chemically inert
in the normal pickling solutions used by galvanizers; their existence will produce rough and incomplete zinc cover-
age.
3. Welding processes such as metal-inert gas (MIG), tungsten-inert gas (TIG), or CO2 shielded arc are recommended
when possible since they produce essentially no slag.
4. If special process welding is not available, select a coated rod specifically designed for self-slagging as recom-
mended by welding equipment suppliers. Refer to item 2 above.
It is recognized that any form of cold working reduces the ductility of steel. Operations such as punching holes, notch-
ing, producing fillets of small radii, shearing and sharp bending may lead to strain embrittlement of susceptible steels.
The following precautions are recommended by the American Galvanizers Association if cold-worked steel is to be
galvanized:
1. Select steel with a carbon content below 0.25%.
2. Choose steel with low transition temperatures since cold working raises the ductile-brittle transition temperature
and galvanizing (heating) may raise it even further.
3. For steels having carbon contents between 0.10% and 0.25%, a bending radius of at least three times the section
thickness (3t) should be maintained. In some cases, 6t yields even better results. If less than 3t bending is unavoid-
able, the material should be stress-relieved at 600°C for one hour per 25 mm of section thickness.
4. Drill, rather than punch, holes in material thicker than 20 mm. If holes are punched, they should be punched under-
size, then reamed an additional 3 mm overall or drilled to size.
5. Edges of steel sections greater than 15 mm thick subject to tensile loads should be machined or machine cut.
6. In critical applications, the steel should be hot worked above 650°C in accordance with steel-makers recommenda-
tion. Where cold working cannot be avoided, stress-relieve as recommended in item 3 above.
ASTM A143 “Recommended Practice for Safe-guarding against Embrittlement of Hot Dip Galvanized Structural Steel
Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement” and CSA Specification G164 Galvanizing of irregularly shaped ar-
ticles, provide guidance on cold working and stress relieving procedures. However if at all possible, severe cold working
of susceptible steels is best avoided.

Another area of concern is hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is a ductile-to-brittle change that occurs
in certain high strength steels. Hydrogen embrittlement is not common, but precautions should be taken if the steel
involved has an ultimate tensile strength exceeding approximately 1000 MPa, or if the pickling process is poorly con-
trolled, resulting in long exposure to hydrochloric acid. In these cases, grit blasting is recommended instead of acid
pickling. These precautions are also outlined in reference. [25]
Alternatives to hot dip galvanizing include:
• electrogalvanizing (threaded items)
• “J” finish
• metalizing
• cold galvanizing using zinc rich paint
Stainless steel
In highly corrosive environments, stainless steel may be used for connections and embedments. AISI (American Iron and
Steel Institute) Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are the most commonly used in structural applications. These types are
a low carbon modification of Type 302 for limiting of carbide precipitation during welding. Type 316 has a higher corro-
sion resistance than Type 304 and is only used for chemical handling equipment. Types 304L and 316L are extra low car-
bon modifications of Types 304 and 316 and are used where carbide precipitation is a problem. Type 304 and 304L are
commonly used in precast construction. There are a limited number of structural shapes and sizes available in stainless
steel. Consult with CPCI members for the availability of different shapes, sizes and material properties.
Austenitic stainless steel can be welded by all common methods and the equipment used and the testing required is
basically the same as for carbon steel. Inspection of welds should include verification of the proper electrode, proper
storage of the electrodes and operator certification, in addition to the non-destructive testing required. The method and
frequency of testing should be as directed by the design engineer.
The welding of stainless steel produces more heat than conventional welding and stainless steel has a coefficient of ther-
mal expansion greater than that of structural steel. This can create adverse expansion of embedments during welding
requiring special detailing to avoid cracking the adjacent concrete. Stainless steel embedment edges should be kept
free from adjacent concrete to allow expansion during welding without spalling the concrete.
1.2.5 Ultra High Performance Concrete

Introduction
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a cementitious composite concrete with compressive strengths from 120
MPa to 200 MPa [49, 55] with tensile strengths of up to 15 MPa and enhanced durability and ductility compared to HPC.
CSA A23.3 is based on concretes in the range of 20 MPa to 80 MPa (See Clause 8.6.1.1.). Clause 8.6.1.2 allows the use of
UHPC provided the properties, detailing and performance requirements are established prior to use.
Principles of the technology

There are two different concepts used in the design of a UHPC material:
1. Optimize multi-scale components and fibres to produce a material with ductility, and
2. Use of a modified multi-scale particle packing of inorganic materials to produce an ultra-high performance matrix.
The resulting ultra high performance and improved resistance to aggressive agents is due to a significant reduction in
the porosity of the matrix and a discontinuous pore structure [56]. The use of low water/cementitious material ratios (w/c
< 0.25) is made possible using a specific gradation of materials and superplasticizers that deflocculate the fine particles.
Maximum density is obtained using a modified compact grading with multiple classes of particles: mineral fillers and
cementitious materials such as; quartz sand, ground quartz, cement and silica fume. Other mineral fillers such as ground
limestone, bauxite, silicon carbides may also be used.

In the high-end of the range of properties of UHPC the ultra fines are typically silica fume of very high purity that form
sub-micro spheres that fill the interspatial voids between the cement particles and react with the cement hydrates. The
resulting matrix is extremely impermeable due to a sealing of the pores. This provides superior resistance to aggressive
agents and further advancement of the strength.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate is significantly reduced (typically < 800 µm), thereby producing a granularity with
improved flow characteristics and reduced micro defects in the matrix. Formulations are available with slump flow rates
to suit the precaster’s casting techniques.
UHPC normally contains short (<25mm) high strength steel (>2,000 MPa) or organic fibres (typically 1% to 4% by volume)
and a high aspect ratio (typically around 60).
Typical UHPC Mixture

Cement 710 kg
Sand 1020 kg
Ground Quartz 215 kg
Silica Fume 203 kg
Fibres
160 kg
(metallic)
Admixture 10 kg
Water 140 litres
The fibre quantity, type and size relative to the maximum coarse aggregate is important to ensure a proper dispersion
and bond to the matrix. Mechanical properties and analysis
Figures 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 for the same UHPC mix show the compressive and bending behaviour, respectively. The high
strength may allow the design of structures without conventional reinforcement (for tension, shear, temperature and
shrinkage). [54, 55, 57, 58]
Numerous full-scale tests of beams, columns and shells have been performed. These tests have validated the calculation
methods chosen, as referenced by the AFGC, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, and the Federal Highway Administration
[51, 52, 53, 54]. See Figure 1.2.6.
Creep and shrinkage behaviour

Creep and shrinkage behaviour is significantly different from normal concrete. Initial shrinkage may be higher and must
be accommodated in the manufacturing process, see Figures 1.2.7 and 1.2.8. UHPC does not exhibit long term drying
shrinkage. UHPC creep coefficients are less than 0.8 – much lower than conventional concrete. When a thermal treat-
ment is applied, the creep coefficient can be as low as 0.2. [59, 63] Prestress losses are therefore substantially reduced
when UHPC is used.

240
UHPC
Compressive stress in MPa
200
160
120
80
40
Ordinary Concrete
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Strain in %
Fig 1.2.4 UHPC behaviour in compression
60
Bending strength in MPa MPA
UHPC
50
40
30
20
10
Ordinary Concrete
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Displacement in Microns
Fig 1.2.5 UHPC behaviour in bending
Fire resistance
Ultra High Performance Concretes are non-combustible. However, the very low porosity of UHPCs induce large inter-
nal stresses at elevated temperatures, preventing water vapour from escaping resulting in spalling. This spalling can
be significantly reduced by incorporating adequate polypropylene fibres. When UHPC is used with steel fibres, a small
quantity of sacrificial polypropylene fibres should be added. At 150°C, the polypropylene fibres begin to soften and
melt, thereby providing escape routes for trapped vapour. [61]

Durability and chemical stability

The microstructure of UHPC is virtually impermeable preventing the intrusion of aggressive agents. Tests of UHPC have
been performed in different laboratories in which the porosity distribution, gas permeability, carbonation, chlorine diffu-
sion and leaching have been determined. [62, 63, 64]
Freeze-thaw tests on UHPC were performed to 300 cycles without any degradation.
Rapid chloride ion permeability tests on UHPC give results of approximately 20 coulombs. [66, 64]
Chemical attacks and aging

UHPC resists chemical conditions that can rapidly and severely damage ordinary reinforced concretes. Laboratory tests
have been performed with different aggressive chemical compounds such as calcium sulphate, sodium sulphate, acetic
acid, ammonium sulphide and nitrate and also sea water and distilled water. The results show UHPC has a very good
resistance to chemical attacks. [63] UHPC exhibited high resistance when subjected to CO2, CH4, H2S gases at 120°C
and 7 MPa pressure. Autogenous or self healing was demonstrated during aging tests. [63]
Cover to strand
The minimum cover for UHPC to prestressing tendons may be as low as 10 mm. [59, 62, 63] The fire code requirements
for concrete cover are recommended in fire rated structures using UHPC. [61]
700
600
500
Moment in kN-m
400
300 5
4
3
200 2
1
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Deflection in mm
Fig 1.2.6 Full scale test on a prestressed beam, ENS Cachan
Field Cast Connections for Prefabricated Elements

While it is recognized that precast bridge components can provide high durability, conventional joints are often the
weakest link in the system. The use of an ultra-high performance concrete joint provides superior technical character-
istics including ductility, strength and durability while providing highly moldable products with a high quality surface
aspect and a short bond development length. UHPC used as a jointing material in conjunction with reinforced high
performance concrete (HPC) panels provides a synergistic approach for reconstruction of bridge superstructures [72]

A Family of Materials
UHPC’s, like conventional concrete or HPC is a classification of materials with a large range of properties. Users and
specifiers of UHPC need to ensure that the specific UHPC material being used in the manufacture of precast products
will provide the required fresh and hardened properties required. The supplier of the UHPC material should provide the
specifier and precaster with a Material Identity Card that clearly states the fresh and hardened properties of the UHPC
being supplied.
50
Microstrain / MPa
4 days
7 days
40
14 days
28 days
30
After Heat Treatment 48H / 90°C Kfl #0.15
20 Instantaneous Strain
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Age (days)
Fig 1.2.7 UHPC basic creep
600
Shrinkage of UHPC after heat treatment
500
Microstrain (ì m/m)
400
300
heat treatment : 90 °C at 95%RH
200 during 48 hours
100 2 days
0
0 10 100 1000 10000
Time (in days)
Fig 1.2.8 UHPC shrinkage: after thermal treatment, no shrinkage is observed. [58, 59]

1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

Post-tensioned construction differs from pretensioned construction in the timing of the application of stress to the pre-
stressed reinforcement. With pretensioned elements, stress is applied to the steel before concrete is placed. In post-ten-
sioned elements, the stress is applied to the steel after the concrete has been cured to an acceptable compressive
strength.
Post-tensioned construction offers many of the benefits of pretensioned construction:
1. Effective use of high strength materials
2. Shallow, more attractive structures
3. Control of deflections
4. Virtual elimination of cracks
5. Long, economical spans
6. Low cost fire resistant construction
Other benefits:
1. Prestressing at the jobsite
2. Moment connections for precast elements
3. Staged prestressing
4. Watertight construction
5. Reduced prestress losses
6. Structural continuity
Post-tensioning methods and materials can be applied to both precast and cast-in-place concrete construction, as well
as for the rehabilitation of concrete structures and elements.
1.3.1 Post-Tensioning Materials

Post-tensioning hardware consists of sheathing, tendons and anchors. Although there are several different types of
post-tensioning available, three basic components are common to all systems.
Sheathing
Sheathing can be fabricated from either steel or plastic. In bonded post-tensioned construction where a bond between
the concrete outside the sheath and the grout inside the sheath is required, both steel and plastic sheathing can be
employed. Steel sheathing can be made from strip steel formed into a corrugated, helical tube or from thin walled steel
tube.
Sheathing splices must be properly aligned and sealed to prevent concrete ingress.
Unbonded post-tensioned construction often uses monostrand tendons: a plastic sheath is extruded over strands that
have been lubricated with a non-corrosive grease for additional corrosion protection.
Tendons
Post-tensioning tendons can be of three different types: strand, bar or wire. These designations determine the post-ten-
sioning system. Although popular in the 1960’s and 1970’s, wire post-tensioning is no longer common as strand systems
have become more economical. Bar and strand properties are given in Figures 8.2.1 and 8.2.2.
Of the several grades and sizes of seven wire strand available, the most commonly used is Grade 1860 15 mm diameter
strand.

Anchorages
The anchorages for post-tensioning tendons are specially designed for the type of tendon being anchored. Several
types of anchorages are shown in Figures 8.2.4 and 8.2.5. Generic information is presented. While dimensions can vary
from actual sizes by 10%, the data provided will allow for the adequate detailing of structural elements. Post-tensioning
suppliers should be consulted for actual sizes.
Anchorage systems can be used for live ends (the end of the tendon where the jacking occurs) or dead ends (the end of
the tendon that is fixed within the concrete, also called the ‘‘fixed” end). Live end anchorages can be used as dead end
anchorages or anchorages can be used for stressing both ends of a tendon when friction losses are high.
Multistrand live end anchors consist of an anchor head that grips individual strands by means of tapered wedges,
inserted in conical holes in the anchor head encircling the strand (Figure 8.2.4). Dead end or fixed anchors can be made
of individual strands with the ends crimped to form a bulb. The strand bond and crimped ends anchor each strand in
the concrete (Type 1). Fixed anchors can also be looped either around a split pipe or around a reinforcing bar and steel
angle cage.
The monostrand system consists of a steel casting that can be used as a live, intermediate or dead end anchor. Used
mostly for unbonded suspended slabs, monostrand tendons can be bonded by providing non-greased strands in a steel
or plastic tube sheath and grout vents.
Protection of tendons
The minimum clear cover requirements in Table 17 of CSA A23.1 for post-tensioning tendons are superseded in Table 1
of CSA A23.4 when post-tensioning tendon ducts are cast into precast elements (See also Figure 1.2.3).
Bonded post-tensioning tendons require the injection of a special purpose grout material in the ducts to completely fill
all spaces around the strands. Grout tubes are usually located at all high and low points on tendon profiles. See the PTI
grouting specification for detailed information. [49]
Tendon anchors at the ends of concrete members must be protected from corrosion. Special grease filled fittings have
been developed for unbonded tendon anchors. Bonded tendon anchors are protected by concrete backup, bituminous
material or other approved methods.
1.3.2 Segmental Construction

Segmental construction is used when larger and heavier precast units are too large or too heavy to transport and/or
erect at the jobsite. Smaller individual segments are joined together at the job site to form the desired member and
span. Post-tensioning systems are used extensively for this purpose. Here, the primary load carrying elements consist
of precast (sometimes pretensioned) or cast-in-place concrete segments post-tensioned together for structural integ-
rity. Examples are precast concrete circular tanks, chimneys, towers, stadium framing, shear walls, moment frames and
segmental bridges.
Various post-tensioning components are used as follows:
Anchorages
Post-tensioning tendon anchors are located in an end block or anchorage area to safely transfer anchorage forces into
the structure during initial post-tensioning and all loading stages.
The end blocks are located in the end segments of a segmental structure when all tendons extend the full length of the
structure. Anchorage areas can be located in intermediate segments (continuous beam or cantilever structures) with
segmental tendons distributed according to the moment or shear diagram.
Special attention should be given to the proper reinforcement of bearings and anchorages. Anchorage zones should
contain sufficient horizontal and vertical stirrups or grillage reinforcement placed in the plane parallel to the end surface.
The post-tensioning anchor plate transmits the concentrated prestress force from the tendon anchoring device over a
larger bearing area into the concrete.

The anchor plate can be placed in any of the following ways:

1. Cast into a precast segment.
2. Placed against a precast surface.
3. Placed against cushioning materials.
Joints
Joints between segments can be concreted, grouted, epoxied together or left dry. Certain applications lend themselves
to match casting that involves casting adjacent units against each other for an exact fit. A temporary clamping stress of
approximately 0.35 MPa is applied when match cast units are joined together using an epoxy mortar.
Sheathing
Requirements for internal tendons are given in Section 1.3.1. The requirements for external tendons given in CSA S6 are
also suitable for building construction applications.
Sheathing in segments is used to form the holes or enclose the space where prestressing tendons are to be located.
Prestressing tendons are installed after the segments are placed. The cross section of the sheathing must be adequate
to allow proper installation of the prestressing steel and to provide enough passage area for filling the duct with grout
after stressing the tendons.
Grouting
Grouting provides corrosion protection for the prestressing tendons, and develops bond between the prestressing ten-
don and the surrounding concrete. To accomplish this, the grout must fill all the voids in and around the post-tensioning
tendon for the entire length of the tendon.
Unbonded tendons
In unbonded post-tensioning, a corrosion protection system must be provided to ensure at least the same degree of
corrosion protection as grout. This can be achieved by using a protective coating on the prestressing steel and encasing
the coated tendon to protect the coating during the handling, installation and stressing of the tendon.
Placement and stressing of tendons

When tendons are installed in the segments before casting, they are subsequently coupled together at each joint. This
construction method permits stressing of part of a tendon, after installing one or more segments, before the full length
is completely installed.
Tendons can be installed after casting and erection and can be coupled together at joints between segments. This pro-
cedure permits intermediate stressing of portions of a structure by using tendons of variable lengths; stressing the short
ones first and the long ones later.
Special attention must be given to the corrosion protection of the post-tensioning steel that must remain unbonded at
any stage of the construction. If a tendon containing couplers is to be stressed over its full length, the couplers must be
able to accommodate the movement anticipated at that location.

1.4 REFERENCES
1. Fintel, M., Editor, Handbook of Concrete Engineering, RSIC
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 17. Wong, A.Y.C., and Gamble, W.L., “Effects of
Second Edition, 1984 Diaphragms in Continuous Slab and Girder Highway
2. Guyon, Y., Construction en Béton Précontraint, Vol. 2, Bridges,” Civil Engineering Studies, Structural
Editions Eyrolles, (Paris), 1968 Research Series No. 391, University of Illinois, Urbana,
Illinois, May, 1973
3. Leonhardt, F., Prestressed Concrete, Wilhelm Ernst &
Son, (Berlin), 1964 18. Sengupta, S., and Breen, J.E., “The Effect of
Diaphragms in Prestressed Concrete Girder and Slab
4. Lin, T.Y., Burns, N.H., Design of Prestressed Concrete
Bridges,” Research Report 158-1F, Center for Highway
Structures, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Son, 1981
Research, The University of Texas at Austin, Oct. 1973
5. Aïtcin, P.-C., High Performance Concrete, E & FN
19. Reinforcing Steel – Manual of Standard Practice,
SPON, 1998
Fourth Edition, Reinforcing Steel Institute of Canada,
6. MacGregor, James G., Bartlett, F. Michael, Reinforced 2004.
Concrete: Mechanism and Design (Canadian Edition)
20. Study of Insurance Costs for Mid-Rise Wood Frame
2000, Prentice Hall
and Concrete Residential Buildings, Globe Advisors,
7. Chrest, A. P., Smith, M. S, Bhuyan, S., Labal, M. and Vancouver, BC, January 2016, http://www.cpci.ca/en/
Monahan, D. R., Parking Structures – Planning, Design, resources/technical_publications/
Construction, Maintenance and Repair, Third Edition,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA, 2001 WRI
8. Concrete Manual – A Manual for the Control of 21. Manual of Standard Practice — Structural Welded Wire
Concrete Construction, Eighth Edition, Revised, U.S. Reinforcement, Seventh Edition, Wire Reinforcement
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Institute, McLean, VA, 2006.
CO, 1981 CAC
9. Concrete Manual –, A Water Resources Technical 22. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Engineering
Publication, Eighth Edition, U.S. Department of Bulletin 101, 7th Canadian Edition, Cement
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Association of Canada, Ottawa, ON, 2011.
Research Center, Denver, CO, 1975.
CMHC
10. Specification for Non-shrink Grout, CRD-C588-78A, 23. Best Practice Guide – Architectural Precast Concrete
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1978 Walls, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation,
11. Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge Structures, 2002 (revised 2005)
Report No. 244, National Cooperative Highway
Research Program, Washington, DC, 1981 PCI
24. Reflections on the Beginnings of Prestressed Concrete
12. A Guide to the Design of Anchor Blocks for Post- in America, JR-H-81, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
tensioned Prestressed Concrete, Construction Industry Institute, Chicago, IL, 1981
Research & Information Assoc., Ciria (London), 1976
25. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and Production of
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26. Martin, L.D. and Pellow, D.L. Low-Relaxation Strand –
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32. Pfeifer, Donald W., Landgren, J. R., and Perenchio, Committee 503, ACI Journal, V. 70, No. 9, Sept., 1973
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26-28, Avignon, France, 2004


CHAPTER 2
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
2.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................................................2-3
2.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................2-7
2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................................2-7

2.2.1 Framing Dimensions.................................................................................................................................2-7
2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios................................................................................................................................2-8
2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting Systems............................................................................................2-8
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change Deformations and Restraint Forces...........................................................2-8
2.2.5 Connection Concepts...............................................................................................................................2-9
2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS....................................................................................................................................2-9

2.3.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................2-9
2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints...................................................................................................................2-10
2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints......................................................................................................................2-10
2.4 IMPOSED DEFORMATIONS.......................................................................................................................2-10

2.4.1 Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Change Data...............................................................................2-10
2.4.2 Imposed Deformation Considerations..................................................................................................2-16
2.4.3 Thermal Bowing.......................................................................................................................................2-18
2.4.3.1 Bowing of horizontal members................................................................................................2-19
2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN................................................................................................................................2-21

2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design – The Horizontal Beam Analogy...............................................................2-21
2.5.1.1 Shear transfer between elements............................................................................................2-22
2.5.1.2 Chord forces..............................................................................................................................2-23
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm Design.............................................................................................2-23
2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING FRAMES ...................................................................................2-23

2.6.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................2-23
2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases...................................................................................................2-24
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases............................................................................................................................2-28
2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis...................................................................................................2-29
2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-resisting Frames..........................................................................2-29
2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns...............................................................................................................2-37
2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression Elements.....................................................................................2-39
2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction..................................................................................................................2-48
2.7 SHEAR WALLS............................................................................................................................................2-48

2.7.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................2-48
2.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls...................................................................................................................2-49
2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear Walls...............................................................................................2-50
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls.....................................................................................................................2-50
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls...............................................................................................................................2-53
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings..........................................................................................................2-54
2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls........................................................................................................2-66

2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS....................................................................................................2-67
2.8.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................2-67
2.8.2 Building Code Requirements.................................................................................................................2-69
2.8.3 2015 NBCC Requirements......................................................................................................................2-69
2.8.3.1 General requirements...............................................................................................................2-69
2.8.3.2 Methods of analysis..................................................................................................................2-70
2.8.3.3 Dynamic analysis procedures...................................................................................................2-70
2.8.3.4 Equivalent static force procedure ...........................................................................................2-71
2.8.3.5 Direction of loading..................................................................................................................2-74
2.8.3.6 System restrictions....................................................................................................................2-74
2.8.3.7 Deflections and drift limits ......................................................................................................2-75
2.8.3.8 Structural separation.................................................................................................................2-75
2.8.3.9 Design provisions......................................................................................................................2-75
2.8.3.10 Foundation provisions..............................................................................................................2-76
2.8.3.11 Site stability...............................................................................................................................2-77
2.8.3.12 Elements of structures, nonstructural components and equipment....................................2-77
2.8.3.13 Seismic isolation........................................................................................................................2-79
2.8.3.14 Supplemental energy dissipation............................................................................................2-79
2.8.4 Structural Layout and Connections........................................................................................................2-87
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structural Wall Panels........................................................................................2-87
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cladding Panel Connections............................................................................2-88
2.8.7 Analysis of Cladding Panels....................................................................................................................2-89
2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION...............................................................................................................2-106

2.9.1 General...................................................................................................................................................2-106
2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction..............................................................................................................2-106
2.9.3 Design Considerations..........................................................................................................................2-109
2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations...........................................................................................................2-111
2.10 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................2-111

2.0 NOTATION
A = area (with subscripts) d = dimension of building; distance from extreme
compression fibre to centroid of tension
Ab = total area of anchor bolts which are in tension
reinforcement
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear
E = modulus of elasticity of a beam (with
transfer
subscripts)
A l = cross-sectional area in linear measure
Ec = modulus of elasticity of column concrete
Ar = response amplification factor to account for
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
type of attachment of mechanical/electrical
equipment e = eccentricity of axial load
As = area of reinforcement ex = distance measured perpendicular to the
direction of earthquake loading between
Avf = area of shear friction reinforcement
centre of mass and centre of rigidity at the
Aw = area of shear wall level being considered
Ax = amplification factor at level x to account for Fa = site coefficient
variation of response of mechanical/electrical
Fb = degree of base fixity (decimal)
equipment with elevation within the building
Ffh = factored horizontal force
B = maximum value of Bx
Ffv = factored vertical force
Bx = ratio at level x used to determine torsional
sensitivity Fi = lateral force at bay i or level i or shear wall i
or restraining force at level i
b = width of panel or width of a section or
structure Fx = lateral force applied to level x
bv = width of cross section at contact surface Fs = site coefficient
being investigated for longitudinal shear
F(PGA) = site coefficient for PGA
C = compressive force or coefficient of thermal
F(PGV) = site coefficient for PGV
expansion
F(T) = site coefficient for spectral acceleration
Cf = factored compressive force
Ft = portion of V to be concentrated at the top of
Cm = a factor relating actual moment to equivalent
the structure
uniform moment
Fv = site coefficient
Cp = seismic coefficient for mechanical/electrical
equipment f = fibre stress
C s = shrinkage coefficient f ’c = specified concrete compressive strength
= 35 if concrete moist cured for 7 days fft = factored tensile stress
= 55 if steam cured for 1-3 days f ’m = specified compressive strength of masonry
C u = ultimate creep coefficient that varies ft = unfactored tensile stress

between 1.30 and 4.15 fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement
= 2.35 in the absence of specific creep data for G = shear modulus of elasticity (modulus of
local aggregates and conditions rigidity)
D = dead load or dimension of building in g = assumed length over which elongation of the
direction parallel to applied lateral force anchor bolt takes place = ½ of development
Dnx = plan dimension of the building at level x length + projection for deformed anchor
perpendicular to the direction of seismic bolts or the length to the hook + projection
loading being considered for smooth anchor bolts (Figure 2.6.1)

H = horizontal force needed to overcome friction Level n = level that is uppermost in the main portion of
the structure
Hf = total factored lateral force within a storey
Level x = level that is under design consideration
HfP = factored sliding force acting on a wall anel
L = live load
h = height of element or column or element
thickness or width in direction of bending l = length of building or element or length
of span or structure or distance between
hi, hn, = the height above the base (i = 0) to level i,
supports
hx n, or x respectively, where the base of the
structure is the level at which horizontal l c = height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors or
earthquake motions are considered to be roof
l
imparted to the structure
n = clear span
l
hs = interstorey height (hi - hi-1) or storey height
s = distance from column to centre of stiffness
l
I = moment of inertia
u = unsupported length of a compression
Ib = moment of inertia of a beam element
Ibp = moment of inertia of base plate (vertical l w = length of weld
cross-section dimensions)
M = unfactored moment or applied moment = Pe
Ic = moment of inertia of a column
Mt = volume change moment
IE = earthquake importance factor of the structure
Mtx = torsional moment at level x
If = moment of inertia of the footing (plan
Mv = factor to account for higher mode effect on
dimensions)
base shear
Ig = uncracked moment of inertia
Mx = overturning moment at level x
J = numerical reduction coefficient for base
mj = moment at point j
overturning moment
N = total number of storeys above exterior grade
Jx = numerical reduction coefficient for
to level n or unfactored horizontal force
overturning moment at level x
Nf = factored horizontal force
K = stiffness (with subscripts) or stiffness
coefficient = 1/c or constant used for the N60 = Average Standard Penetration Resistance
calculation of equivalent creep and shrinkage for the top 30 m, corrected to a rod energy
shortening efficiency of 60% of the theoretical maximum
K l
= a constant for design purposes which varies P = shrinkage modification factor (with
from 3 to 5 subscripts) or unfactored axial load
Kr = relative stiffness Pc = critical load
Kt = constant used for the calculation of PGA = Peak Ground Acceleration expressed as a
equivalent temperature shortening = 1.5 ratio to gravitational acceleration
k = effective length factor PGAref = reference PGA for determining F(T)
kf = coefficient from Figure 2.6.14 PGV = Peak Ground Velocity in mls
km = coefficient from Figure 2.6.14 Pf = factored axial load
ks = coefficient of subgrade reaction from Figure PI = plasticity index for clays

2.6.2. Po = prestressing force after assumed initial loss
Level i = any level in the building, i = 1 for first level Psh = shrinkage modification factor for non-
above the base standard conditions (Figure 2.4.1)

PT = plasticity index for clays Ta = fundamental lateral period of vibration of
the building or structure, in s, in the direction
Q = creep modification factor (with subscripts) or
under consideration
stability index for a storey or statical moment
Tf = factored tensile force
Qcr = modification factor for non-standard
conditions (Figure 2.4.1) Tr = factored tensile resistance
QG = gravity-induced lateral demand on the SFRS Tx = floor torque at level x
at the critical level of the yielding system
T2, T1 = inside and outside temperature
Qy = resistance of the yielding mechanism
t = thickness or time in days
required to resist the minimum earthquake
loads, which need not be taken as less V = lateral earthquake design force at the base
than Ro multiplied by the minimum lateral of the structure, as determined by Equivalent
earthquake force Static Force Procedure or shear at support
(with subscripts)
RB,T = reaction at bottom, top
Vd = lateral earthquake design force at the base
Rd = ductility-related force modification factor
of the structure as determined by Dynamic
reflecting the capability of a structure to
Analysis Procedure
dissipate energy through reversed cyclic
inelastic behaviour V e = lateral earthquake elastic force at the base
of the structure as determined by Dynamic
Ro = overstrength-related force modification
Analysis Procedure
factor accounting for the dependable portion
of reserve strength in a structure designed Ved = lateral earthquake design elastic force at
according to the NBCC provisions the base of the structure, as determine by
Dynamic Analysis Procedure
Rp = element or component response
modification factor Vf = factored shear force or total factored lateral
force within the storey
r = radius of gyration
Vp = lateral force on a part of the structure
ri = the rigidity of wall i
Vr = factored shear resistance
S l
= section modulus in linear measure
VrC = factored shear resistance of a connection
Sp = horizontal force factor for part or portion of a
building and its anchorage VrP = factored shear resistance of a wall panel
S(T) = design spectral response acceleration, VrW = factored shear resistance of a wall
expressed as a ratio to gravitational Vs30 = average shear wave velocity in the top 30 m
acceleration, for a period of T of soil or rock
Sa(T) = 5% damped spectral response acceleration, Vw = total wind shear or specified shear force on a
expressed as a ratio to gravitational wall
acceleration, for a period of T
V’p = lateral force due to non-structural wythe and
SFRS = Seismic Force Resisting System(s) is that insulation
part of the structural system that has been
considered in the design to provide the V’pP = probable shear resistance of a wall panel –
required resistance to the earthquake forces seismic force due to panel weight
and effects vc = factored shear resistance per unit length due
s = spacing of weld clips to concrete alone
su = average undrained shear strength in the top vf = factored shear force per unit length
30 m of soil vr = factored shear resistance per unit length or
T = unfactored tensile force, period in seconds or unit shear on panel edge
total tensile capacity or force

W = dead load except that the minimum partition dmax = maximum displacement of the structure at
load need not exceed 0.5 kPa, plus 25% level x,
of the design snow load, plus 60% of the
ds = calculated shrinkage shortening
storage load for areas used for storage,
except that storage garages need not i = total equivalent shortening or column
be considered storage areas, and the full deflection or magnitude of bow
contents of any tanks
iB = average storey drift of the adjoining vertical
Wi, Wx = portion of W that is located at or is assigned elements of the SFRS
to level i or x respectively
iD = maximum relative deflection of the
Wp = weight of a part or portion of a structure, diaphragm under lateral loads
e.g., cladding, partitions and appendages
if = deflection due to factored loads
x1 = distance from face of column to the centre of
io = elasticity-computed first order lateral
the anchor bolts, positive when anchor bolts
deflection due to Hf (neglecting Pi effects)
are outside the column, and negative when
at the top of the storey relative to the bottom
anchor bolts are inside the column
of the storey
x2 = distance from the face of the column to base c = flexibility coefficient (with subscripts)
plate anchorage
l = factor to account for low density concrete
a = load factor (with subscripts)
µ = shear-friction coefficient
a1 = ratio of average stress in rectangular
compression block to the specified concrete µe = effective shear friction coefficient
strength µs = static coefficient of friction
b1 = stress block depth factor ∑ = sum of values
bd = for sway frames is the ratio of maximum e = unit strain (with subscripts)
factored sustained shear within a storey to
the maximum factored shear in that storey ee = equivalent unit strain
d = moment magnifier or volume-change eshu = ultimate shrinkage strain

shortening (with subscripts) = 780 x 10-6 mm/mm in the absence of specific
dave = average displacement of the structure at shrinkage data for local conditions
level x, θ = rotation (with subscripts)
dc = calculated creep shortening f = resistance factor (with subscripts)
dec = equivalent creep shortening y = ratio of column to beam stiffnesses
des = equivalent shrinkage shortenings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for the analysis and design of structures built using precast components. The
primary advantages of precast concrete products and systems include:
1. Construction speed,
2. Plant-controlled quality control,
3. Fire resistance and durability,
4. Prestressing that allows greater span-to-depth ratios, more controllable performance and less material usage,
5. Architectural precast concrete’s wide variety of highly attractive surfaces, shapes, finishes and colours,
6. Thermal and acoustical control, and
7. All weather construction.
The following general principles are offered to realize precast’s benefits through economical and effective use:
1. Precast concrete is basically a simple-span material. Continuity can be achieved with properly designed
connections.
2. The sizes and shapes of elements are often a function of production, shipping and erection considerations.
3. Precast concrete’s mass allows for stability under wind loads, acoustic and vibration control, reduction in
heating and cooling loads, and fire resistance. The high dead to live load ratio provides greater safety factors
against gravity overloads.
4. Maximum economy is achieved with repetition. Standard sections should be used whenever possible.
5. Successful use is largely dependent on an effective structural layout, details, and carefully designed
connections.
6. The effects of creep, shrinkage and temperature change must be considered.
7. While architectural panels are often used only as cladding, the inherent load-carrying capacity of these
panels can be utilized to support both vertical and lateral loads.
8. Prestressing improves the economy and performance of precast members.
2.2 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

Maximum economy occurs when the building is laid out to take advantage of the above principles. The primary
considerations in preliminary analysis of a structure are:
1. Framing dimensions,
2. Span to depth ratios,
3. Gravity and lateral load resisting systems,
4. Control of volume change deformations, and
5. Connection concepts.
2.2.1 Framing Dimensions

It is economical to minimize a building’s wall-to-floor ratio. Bays should be laid out to fit the module of the
components selected. Double tee and hollowcore slabs should be used at spans close to their maximum capacity
to reduce the number of slabs to be installed. Typical precast sections are shown in Chapter 7, but may vary
regionally. Consult with local CPCI members for available sizes. The height, width and weight of precast members,
including wall panels and floor and roof slabs, may be limited by shipping restrictions.
Optimum framing dimensions will usually result when the total number of precast components is minimized with
fewer pieces to manufacture, transport and erect. Where feasible, wall panels and columns can be cast in multi-
storey units to achieve economy.

2.2.2 Span to Depth Ratios
Selection of floor to floor dimensions should consider the practical span-to-depth ratio of the horizontal framing
elements, allowing adequate space for mechanical ductwork.
Typical span to depth ratios of flexural precast, prestressed concrete elements are:
Hollowcore floor slabs 30 to 40
Hollowcore roof slabs 40 to 50
Double tee floor slabs 25 to 35
Double tee roof slabs 35 to 40
Beams 10 to 20
These values are general guidelines, not limits. The required depth of a beam or slab is influenced by the ratio of
live load to total load. Deeper sections may be required where this ratio is high.
Span to depth ratios are given in Table 9.2 of CSA A23.3 for non-prestressed flexural elements.
2.2.3 Gravity and Lateral Load Resisting Systems

A building system should be selected during the preliminary analysis. The gravity and lateral load resisting systems
may function separately or be combined.
Bearing wall construction and beam-column framing have been successfully used for low, medium and high rise
buildings. Lateral forces can be resisted by shear walls, moment frames, or a combination of both. Diaphragm
action will dictate the location of the lateral force resisting elements.
Methods used to resist lateral loads include:
1. Shear walls: Shear walls can be precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, or masonry and are discussed in
more detail in Section 2.7. When architectural or structural precast elements are used for exterior cladding,
they can often be designed and used as shear walls.
2. Cantilevered columns or wall panels: Cantilever action is usually only feasible in low-rise buildings. Base fixity
can be attained by connecting columns or panels to the foundation. A detailed analysis of footing rotation is
described in Section 2.6.2.
3. Steel or concrete X-bracing: Bracing has been used effectively in mid-rise buildings. A related resistance
system occurs naturally in parking structures with sloped decks in the direction of traffic flow.
4. Moment resisting frames: A minimum number of frames should be used to avoid building up substantial
volume change forces. It is sometimes feasible to provide a moment connection at only one end of an
element, or a connection that will resist moments with lateral forces in only one direction to reduce built up
restraint forces. Moment resisting frames are discussed in more detail in Section 2.6.
5. Combined systems: Combinations of shear walls, moment frames and X-bracing systems may also be used.
These systems depend on the distribution of lateral loads through diaphragm action of the roof and floor systems
as discussed in Section 2.5.
2.2.4 Control of Volume Change Deformations and Restraint Forces

Deformations of concrete result from creep, shrinkage and temperature change. Creep and shrinkage cause a
shortening of an element. The critical temperature load case is nearly always the result of a temperature drop.
Connections should be designed so that volume change shortening is accommodated. Section 2.4 provides data
and guidelines for estimating the amount of shortening that may take place.
Pretensioned elements should not be welded to their supports at the bottom. Volume changes are usually
adequately accommodated when elements are connected only at the top. Connections made using cast-in-place
concrete may exhibit fewer volume change effects because micro-cracking and creep in the cast-in-place portion
can relieve the restraint.
Long buildings may require expansion joints (See Section 2.3.)

2.2.5 Connection Concepts
During preliminary analysis, the types of connections used should be determined, as they can effect component
dimensions, the overall structural behaviour, erection procedures, fire ratings and building envelope construction.
Chapter 4 is devoted to connections.
2.3 EXPANSION JOINTS

2.3.1 General
Joints are placed in structures to limit the forces resulting from deformations due to temperature changes,
shrinkage and creep, and to permit the movement of structural elements. An expansion joint is needed if the
movements generated by temperature rise are significantly greater than shrinkage and creep movements.
Expansion joints are seldom required in concrete structures. Instead, joints that permit contraction of the structure
are needed to relieve the strains caused by temperature drop and restrained creep and shrinkage, that are
additive. Such joints are contraction or control joints but are commonly referred to as expansion joints.
Joints subject to earthquake movements must work in all directions.
It is desirable to have as few expansion joints as possible. Expansion joints are often located by rules of thumb
without considering the structural framing system. This section presents general guidelines for determining the
spacing and width of expansion joints.
These curves are directly applicable to buildings of beam-and-column construction, hinged at the base, with heated
interiors.
The following rules are applicable for other conditions:
(a) If a building will be heated and will have hinged column bases, use the allowable length as specified;
(b) If a building will be air conditioned as well as heated, increase the allowable length by 15% provided the
environmental control system will run continuously;
(c) If a building will be unheated, decrease the allowable length by 33%;
(d) If a building has fixed-column bases, decrease the allowable length by 15%;
(e) If the building has substantially greater stiffness against lateral displacement at one end of the plan dimension,
decrease the allowable length by 25%.
When more than one of these design conditions prevail, the factor to be applied should be the algebraic sum of the
adjustment factors of all the various applicable conditions.
Note: A detailed volume change frame analysis will provide more accurate expansion joint requirements.
Source: Expansion Joints in Buildings, Technical Report No. 65, National Research Council, National Academy of
Sciences, 1974.
Figure 2.3.1 General guidelines for determination of building length without the use of expansion joints

2.3.2 Spacing of Expansion Joints
There are different opinions concerning the spacing of expansion joints. Typical practice in prestressed or
reinforced concrete structures is to locate expansion joints at distances between 45 m and 90 m apart. Reinforced
concrete buildings exceeding these limits have performed well without expansion joints. Recommended joint
spacing for precast concrete buildings are often based on experience. Additional factors that can affect joint
spacing include types of connections used, column stiffness in simple span structures, relative stiffness between
beams and columns in framed structures, and weather exposure conditions. Unheated structures, such as parking
garages, are subjected to greater temperature changes than heated buildings, so shorter distances between
expansion joints are required.
Sections 2.4 and 2.6 present methods for analyzing the potential movement of framed structures and the effect of
restraint of movement on the connections and structural frame. This information along with the connection design
methods in Chapter 4 can aid in determining spacing of expansion joints.
Figure 2.3.1 shows recommended expansion joint spacing that can be modified for the various conditions shown in
the notes. Values for design temperature changes can be obtained from Section 2.4.
When expansion joints are required in non-rectangular structures, they should be located at or near plan or
elevation changes.
2.3.3 Width of Expansion Joints

The width of a joint can be calculated using a coefficient of expansion of 10 x 10-6 mm/(mm × oC) for normal
density concrete and 9 x 10-6 mm/(mm × oC) for low density concrete. The report referenced in Figure 2.3.1
recommends a minimum width of 25 mm. Since the primary problem in concrete buildings is contraction rather
than expansion, joints that are too wide may result in problems with reduced bearing or loss of filler material.
Seismic and wind movements must also be considered.
2.4 Imposed Deformations

The strains resulting from creep, shrinkage, and temperature change, and the potential restraint forces caused by
these strains have important effects on connections, service load behaviour and the ultimate capacity of precast
prestressed structures. These strains and forces must be considered in a design.
Vertical elements, such as load bearing wall panels, are also subject to volume change strains that can be
calculated using Figures 2.4.1 to 2.4.5. These effects will be significant in high rise buildings. Only differential
movements between elements will significantly affect performance of a structure. For example, volume change effects
can be critical at the corner of a building where load bearing panels are adjacent to non-load bearing panels.
2.4.1 Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Change Data

Creep
Creep of concrete is defined as the time dependent increase in strain under sustained loading. Other time
dependent deformations are shrinkage and temperature changes in concrete.
Creep is usually expressed in terms of the creep coefficient, Cu, defined as the ratio of creep strain ecr to initial
immediate strain ei. Creep strain increases with time at a decreasing rate. Creep strain ecr is determined using:
t0.6
cr = i CuQcr
10 + t0.6
Pi
i =
AEci
t = time in days

Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened concrete with time. Unlike creep, shrinkage is independent
of externally applied loads. The decrease in volume is mainly attributed to moisture loss caused by drying and
hydration as well as chemical changes that result in the carbonation of cement hydration products.
Shrinkage strains start immediately after concrete is exposed to a drying environment.
The shrinkage strain esh is determined using the expression:
t
sh = shu Psh
Cs + t
Qcr = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qs Qv Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Ps Pv
Qa
Relative
Age at Accel-
Moist Humidity
loading erated Qh Ph
cured (4)
(days) cured
(%)
1 1.25 1.00 40 1.00 1.00
7 1.00 0.94 60 0.87 0.80
20 0.87 0.85 80 0.73 0.60
60 0.77 0.76 100 0.60 0.00
Ratio of Volume/
fine to surface
Qf Pf Qr Pr
total ratio
aggr.(3) (mm)(2)
0.30 0.95 0.72 38 1.00 1.00
0.40 0.98 0.86 75 0.82 0.84
0.50 1.00 1.00 150 0.70 0.59
0.70 1.05 1.04 250 0.67 0.37
Slump
Qs Ps Air (%) Qv Pv
(mm)
50 0.95 0.97 <6 1.00 1.00
70 1.00 1.00 8 1.18 1.01
125 1.15 1.09 10 1.36 1.03
*
Cementitous content (kg/m ) 3
225 300 410

Pc 0.89 0.93 1.00
(1) Standard conditions produce modification factors of 1.0.

(2) Volume/surface ratio of a rectangular member having
a x b cross-section is ab/(2a + 2b).
(3) Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate is expressed as the ratio of the masses.
(4) For average ambient relative humidity, see Figure 2.4.2.
*
Above table is based on the CAC Concrete Design Handbook, Fourth Edition. When
used in low to moderate amounts (<25%), the effect of fly ash, ground granulated
blast-furnace slag and silica fume on the drying shrinkage and creep of concrete is
generally small and of little practical significance.
Figure 2.4.1 Creep and shrinkage modification factors for non-standard

conditions*

Figure 2.4.2 Annual average ambient relative humidity (%)
1 2
Creep x10-6 Shrinkage x10-6
Time t t 0.6
t
(days) cr = i CuQcr sh = shuPsh
10 + t 0.6 Cs + t
Normal density Low density Moist cure Accelerated cure
1 59 88 23 16
3 106 158 62 39
5 137 204 101 62
7 60 238 133 86
10 188 280 172 117
20 246 367 281 210
30 286 426 359 273
40 314 468 413 328
50 336 501 460 374
60 356 516 491 406
90 395 589 562 483
120 420 626 600 538
180 456 679 655 601
1 yr. 510 760 710 679
2 yr. 552 822 741 725
5 yr. 594 885 764 757
10 yr 613 913 772 764
Final 630 940 780 780
1. Based on Pi /A = 7.0 MPa, f ci = 25 MPa, Eci = 25 300 MPa, Cu = 2.35, Qcr = 1.0. For other values of Pi /A and Eci, multiply creep strains by
3615 Pi
.
AEci
6
2. Based on Cs = 35 for moist cure, Cs = 55 for accelerated cure, shu = 780 10 mm/mm, Psh = 1.0.
Figure 2.4.3 Approximate creep and shrinkage strains (x10-6)

Figure 2.4.4 Maximum seasonal structural temperature change relative to the temperature at construction (°C)
Temperature zone Normal density Low density

(from Figure 2.4.4) Heated Unheated Heated Unheated
5 27 41 23 34
10 54 81 45 68
15 81 122 68 101
20 108 162 90 135
25 135 203 113 169
30 162 243 135 203
35 189 284 158 236
40 216 324 180 270
45 243 365 203 304
50 270 405 225 338
* Based on accepted coefficients of thermal expansion, reduced to account for thermal lag (See referenced committee report, PCI JOURNAL,
Sept-Oct, 1977).
Figure 2.4.5 Design temperature strains* (10-6)
Effect of time on creep and shrinkage

The influence of time in the previous equations for creep and shrinkage is demonstrated in Figure 2.4.3, where values
of creep and shrinkage strains for a prestressed element under standard conditions are presented.
Temperature strains
Design values for maximum seasonal climatic temperature for various geographic locations are shown in Figure 2.4.4.
Design values for temperature strains associated with these temperature zones are given in Figure 2.4.5.
Approximate values of creep and shrinkage

The behaviour of actual structures indicates that reasonable estimates of volume change characteristics are
satisfactory for the design of most structures even though test data relating volume changes to the variables shown
in Figure 2.4.1 exhibit a considerable scatter. The approximate values shown in Figures 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 can be used.

Heated structures
Temp. Normal density concrete Low density concrete
zone Avg. relative humidity (Figure 2.4.2) Avg. relative humidity (Figure 2.4.2)
(Figure 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 350 320 290 250 220 340 310 280 240 210
10 370 340 310 270 240 360 330 300 260 230
15 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
20 430 400 370 330 300 410 380 350 310 280
25 460 430 400 360 330 430 400 370 330 300
30 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
35 510 480 450 410 380 480 450 420 380 350
40 540 510 480 440 410 500 470 440 400 370
45 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
50 590 560 530 490 460 550 520 490 450 420
Unheated structures
0 320 290 260 220 190 320 290 260 220 190
5 360 330 300 260 230 350 320 290 250 220
10 400 370 340 300 270 390 360 330 290 260
15 440 410 380 340 310 420 390 360 320 290
20 480 450 420 380 350 460 430 400 360 330
25 520 490 460 420 390 490 460 430 390 360
30 560 530 500 460 430 520 490 460 420 390
35 600 570 540 500 470 560 530 500 460 430
40 640 610 580 540 510 590 560 530 490 460
45 690 660 630 590 560 620 590 560 520 490
50 720 690 660 620 590 660 630 600 560 530
Table is based on:
1. Moist cured 5. Air % 6
2. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50 6. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3
3. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm 7. Age at erection = 50 days

4. Slump = 70 mm
Figure 2.4.6 Volume change strains for typical non-prestressed building elements (10-6)
Example 2.1 Calculation of volume change shortening by the detailed method

Given:
(a) Casting to erection at 50 days
300 x 700 rectangular concrete beam.
(b) Erection to the end of service life
Heated structure in Calgary, AB.
(c) Temperature variations
Initial accelerated cure.
Prestress transfer at one day. Solution:
12 -13 mm diameter, 1860 MPa strands. (a) At 50 days:
Initial Prestress = 70% fpu Calculate initial creep:
Assume initial prestress loss = 10%
Length = 7.5 m Ap = (12)(99) = 1188 mm2
Concrete properties: Pi = (1188)(1860)(0.70)(0.90) /103
f ’ci: 30 MPa
= 1392 kN
Air content: 5%
Slump: 100 mm Pi 1392 103
i = =
Fine aggregate: 670 kg/m3 AEci (300)(700)(27700)
Coarse aggregate: 1000 kg/m3 = 239 10 6 mm/ mm
Type GU cement: 410 kg/m3
Problem:
Determine the actual shortening that can be
Continued next page
anticipated from:

Heated structures

(Figure 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 730 670 610 550 490 860 800 730 650 580
10 750 690 630 570 510 890 830 760 680 610
15 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
20 810 750 690 630 570 930 870 800 720 650
25 840 780 720 660 600 950 890 820 740 670
30 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
35 890 830 770 710 650 1000 940 870 790 720
40 920 860 800 740 680 1020 960 890 810 740
45 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
50 990 910 850 790 730 1070 1010 940 860 790
Unheated structures
0 700 640 580 520 460 840 780 710 630 560
5 740 680 620 560 500 870 810 740 660 590
10 780 720 660 600 540 910 850 780 700 630
15 820 760 700 640 580 940 880 810 730 660
20 860 800 740 680 620 980 920 850 770 700
25 900 840 780 720 660 1010 950 880 800 730
30 940 880 820 760 700 1040 980 910 830 760
35 980 920 860 800 740 1080 1020 950 870 800
40 1020 960 900 840 780 1110 1050 980 900 830
45 1060 1000 940 880 820 1140 1080 1010 930 860
50 1100 1040 980 920 860 1180 1120 1050 970 900
Table is based on: 6. Slump = 70 mm
1. P/A = 7.0 MPa 7. Air % 6
3
2. fci = 25 MPa 8. Cement content = 410 kg/m
3. Accelerated cured one day 9. Age at erection = 50 days
4. Ratio of fine to total aggregates = 0.50 10. K ! =5
5. Volume to surface ratio = 38 mm 11. K t = 1.5
Figure 2.4.7 Volume change strains for typical prestressed building elements (10-6)
Example 2.1 Calculation of volume change shortening by the detailed method (continued from previous page)
Calculate creep and shrinkage modification Qf = 0.98, Pf = 0.86

factors—Figure 2.4.1:
Volume to surface ratio
Accelerated cure for 1 day: (300)(700)
Qa = 1.00 = (2)(300 + 700) = 105 mm
Cement content = 410 kg/m3
Qr = 0.77, Pr = 0.74
Pc = 1.00
Slump = 100 mm
Relative humidity = 70% (Figure 2.4.2):
Qs = 1.08, Ps = 1.05
Qh = 0.80, Ph = 0.70
Air = 5%
Ratio of fine to total aggregates Qv = 1.00, Pv = 1.00
670
= = 0.40
670 + 1000 Continued next page

Example 2.1 Calculation of volume change shortening by the detailed method (continued from previous page)
Creep modification factor: (b) From 50 days to final:

Qcr = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qs Qv l Calculate total final strains and displacements:
= (1.00)(0.80)(0.98)(0.77)(1.08)(1.00) er = (239 x 10-6)(1.0)(2.35)(0.65)
= 0.65 = 365 x 10-6 mm/mm
Shrinkage modification factor: esh = (780 x 10-6)(1.0)(0.47)
= 367 x 10-6 mm/mm
Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Ps Pv l
itot = (365 x 10-6 + 367 x 10-6)(7500)
= (1.00)(0.70)(0.86)(0.74)(1.05)(1.00) = 5.5 mm
= 0.47 Difference from 50 days to final:
Calculate total strains and displacement at 50 days: idiff = 5.5 - 2.7 = 2.8 mm
t0.6 (c) Temperature effects:

cr = i CuQcr
10 + t0.6 From Figure 2.4.4:
500.6
itemp = 39°C for Calgary:
= (239 10 6
) (2.35)(0.65)
10 + 500.6 From Figure 2.4.5:
= 187 10 6 mm/ mm et = 211 x 10-6 mm/mm

... it = (211 x 10-6 )(7500)
t = 1.6 mm
sh = shu P sh
Cs + t
6 50
= (780 10 ) (0.47)
55 + 50
= 174 10 6 mm/ mm
2.4.2 Imposed Deformation Considerations

Load bearing exterior precast concrete wall panels are subject to concrete deformations due to concrete creep,
shrinkage and temperature changes. Creep and shrinkage result in shortening. Thermal movements can cause
shortening or expansion. The amount of movement anticipated must be determined to design joints and
connections.
Typical volume change movements
(a) Creep strains of load bearing exterior wall panels can be estimated as 120 x 10-6 mm/mm for design,
assuming usual magnitudes of loadings for panels supporting floors. Stacked exterior panels, supporting
only the weight of exterior wall panels can be assumed to have a design creep strain of 30 x 10-6 mm/mm.
(b) Shrinkage strains for structural wall panels, considering usual panel volume to surface ratios and erection at
90 days, can be estimated to be 200 x 10-6 mm/mm for normal density concrete and 250 x 10-6 mm/mm for
low density concrete.
(c) Thermal movements can be determined using the map shown in Figure 2.4.4. In heavy concrete elements,
such as beams, there is thermal lag that reduces the temperature shortening effect. Elements in heated
buildings will not undergo as large a temperature differential as those in unheated ones. The calculated

temperature strains can be reduced by a factor of 0.5 and 0.75 for heated and unheated buildings,
respectively. The value for the unheated building should be used if the elements are likely to be exposed
through a full annual temperature cycle.
Volume change movement values are approximate and suitable for most designs. An in-depth determination
should be made to establish more exact values compatible with the specific design parameters where volume
change movements may be a significant design factor.
Example 2.2 – Shortening of exterior load bearing panels
Estimate the total shortening of the exterior load Design considerations for panels meeting at
bearing insulated wall panels in a 10 storey structure. corners should also consider the influence of sun
Panels are normal density concrete 2750 mm high. exposure temperature differentials. Depending
Structure is located in Kingston, ON: upon exterior panel finishes and plan orientation,
5°C to 8°C temperature differentials may develop.
Creep strain = 120 x 10-6 mm/mm
Corner panel connections should be analyzed
Shrinkage strain = 200 x 10-6 mm/mm
when temperature differentials at building corners
Design temperature = 35°C (from Figure 2.4.4) can develop.
Coefficient of expansion = 10 x 10-6 mm/(mm × °C)
Influence upon non-structural components
Temperature strain = (0.5)(10 x 10-6)(35)
It is important to consider the influence of volume
= 175 x 10-6
change movement on non-structural members.
Total strain = (120 x 200 + 175)(10-6)
Exterior sealants should be able to accommodate
= 495 x 10-6
movements caused by volume changes. Sealants
Total shortening = (495 x 10-6)(2750)(10)
can be subject to differential volume change
= 14 mm movements either horizontally or vertically.
Estimates of building movement must be analyzed Joint widths should be sized to accommodate
using engineering judgement. Floors and interior sealant movement capability and construction
walls attached to exterior load bearing panels will tolerances. Differential movements can occur
restrain vertical movement. Heavily loaded elements at building corners and at interfaces with other
will distribute load to less heavily loaded members. building systems or construction materials, such as
Calculated values can be larger than actual values. windows.
Movements of building corners The cumulative movements at the top or ends of

It is possible that differential volume change a structure can increase as the height and length
movements may occur when load bearing panels are of a building increases. The movements of exterior
adjacent to non-load bearing panels, such as at the walls can affect interior partitions resulting in
corners of a building. The connections will attempt distress or cracking. Non-structural components at
to transfer significant vertical forces if connections the interior of a building must be detailed to allow
restrain these movements. Structural behaviour of for the volume change movements of exterior
building corners where panels meet requires design structural precast walls.
for volume change movement forces as well as for
other design forces.

2.4.3 Thermal Bowing
A temperature difference between the inside and outside of a wall panel, especially composite double wythe
insulated panels, and between the top and underside of an uninsulated roof deck can cause elements to bow, see
Figure 2.4.8a. The magnitude of bowing can be determined by:
C(T1 T2 ) l 2
=
8h
where C is the coefficient and thermal expansion.
Temperature measurements indicate that in open structures, such as the roofs of parking decks, the temperature
differential (T1 – T2) seldom exceeds 16 to 22°C. In a double wythe insulated wall panel, the difference can be
higher, but is tempered by thermal lag due to the mass of the concrete.
Moisture differences between the inside and outside of an enclosed building can also cause bowing. Calculation of
this effect is much less precise and involves more variables. The exterior layer of a concrete panel absorbs moisture
from the atmosphere and periodic precipitation, while the interior layer is relatively dry causing the inside layer to
shrink more than the outside, creating an outward bow. This can overcome the possible inward thermal bowing in
cold weather, and may explain the general observation that wall panels always bow outward.
Example 2.3 Thermal bow in an uninsulated wall panel
Given: 48EtI (48)(22400)(281 106 )(6.5)

A 6 m high, 150 mm thick wall panel as shown in P =
3
=
l (6000)3
Figure 2.4.8b
= 9.09 kN/ m width
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Pl (9.09)(6)
M = = = 13.6 kN - m/ m width
C = 10.8 x 10-6 mm/(mm × °C) 4 4
Temperature differential T1 – T2 = 20°C My (13.6)(106 )(75)
Panel Stress = = = 3.6 MPa
I (281 106 )
Ec = 29900 MPa
The residual bow can be calculated by adjusting the

Problem: equation in Figure 2.4.10, case (e) to read:
Determine the potential thermal bow i1, the
force, P, required at midheight to restrain the Ml 2
=
bowing, the stress in the panel caused by the 16EtI
restraint, and the residual bow, i2.
Substituting l / 2 for l :
Solution:
(13.6 106 )(3000)2
(10.8 10 6 )(20)(6000)2 2 = = 1.2 mm
1 = = 6.5 mm (16)(22400)(281 106 )
(8)(150)
The effective modulus of elasticity, Et ,is
determined from the notes in Figure 2.4.10:
Et = (0.75)(29,900) = 22,400 MPa
bh3 (1000)(1503 )
I = = = 281 106 mm4 / m
12 12
assuming uncracked section.
From Figure 2.4.10, Case (a):
Continued next page

Example 2.3 Thermal bow in an uninsulated wall panel (continued from previous page)
i2 = Residual Bow
Figure 2.4.8a Thermal bow of Figure 2.4.8b Force required at mid-

uninsulated wall panel height to restrain bowing
Bowing in non insulated wall panels is usually not

structurally significant but may cause separation
at the corners and damage to joint sealants, see
Figure 2.4.9. Bowing can be restrained with one
or more connections between panels. Figure
2.4.10 gives equations for calculating the required
restraint and the moments this will cause in the
panel. The bowing of double wythe insulated wall
panels increases with the degree of composite
action.
2.4.3.1 Bowing of horizontal members

Differential temperature can cause upward bowing
in roof elements, especially in open structures
such as parking decks. For rare cases when precast
elements are restrained against rotation at the
Figure 2.4.9 Corner separation due to thermal bow
ends, positive moments (bottom tension) can
develop at the support as shown in Cases (d) and
(e) in Figure 2.4.10. Bottom tension can cause Note, from Figure 2.4.10, the restraint moment is
cracking, but once cracks occur, the tension is doubled if only one end is restrained. The cyclical
relieved. Thermal induced positive moments are effects can magnify the potential damage as thermal
independent of span length. bow occurs with daily temperature changes.

Intermediate Restraint (Ends Free to Rotate) End Restraint
(a) Single Restraint at Midspan (d) Both Ends Restrained
48Et l
P= 3
P
Moment in panel =
4
8Et l
M= 2
(b) Two Restraint Points (e) One End Restrained
24Et l
P= 2
3a 4a3
Moment in panel = Pa 16Et l

M= 2
(c) Three or More Restraint Points (Approximate Uniform

Continuous Restraint)
For Daily Temperature Change,
77E t l
P=w = Use Et = 0.75 Ec
3
For Season Changes,

Moment in panel = Use Et = 0.50 Ec
w 2
= P
8 8
Figure 2.4.10 Force required to restrain bowing
Example 2.4 – Thermal bow in a roof element effects of prestressing. End rotations are included in
Given: the design of bearing pads.
700 mm deep double tee spanning 18.3 m on
the upper level of a parking deck supported on
elastomeric bearing pads under each leg.
C = 10.8 x 10-6 mm/(mm . °C)
T1 – T2 = 20°C
Problem:
Find the upward bow at mid span and end rotation
of the double tee roof slab.
Solution:
(10.8 10 6 )(20)(18300)2
= = 12.9 mm
(8)(700)
End rotation 4 /L as shown in Figure 2.4.11.
= 4(12.9)/18300 = 0.0028 radians
Figure 2.4.11 Second degree parabola
The upward temperature bow must be added to
deflections due to dead and live loads and the

2.5 DIAPHRAGM DESIGN
Horizontal loads from wind or earthquake are usually transmitted to shear walls or moment-resisting frames
through the roof and floors acting as horizontal diaphragms. Traditionally, precast structures have been designed
with the assumption that floor systems act as rigid diaphragms. As a result, horizontal loads are distributed to
lateral load resisting elements in proportion to their relative stiffness. Recent and ongoing research into diaphragm
behaviour, particularly with long span construction, suggests that more refined methods may be appropriate.
Designers are encouraged to consult PCI resources and local precast producers for the latest developments from
ongoing research programs.
Notes:
1. Grouted joints cannot be considered effective unless prevented from separating. Chord forces for
diaphragms involving grouted joints must be based on shear forces in addition to bending.
Mf Vf
2. Tf = + , where µe can be considered as the effective shear friction coefficient.
b μe
Figure 2.5.1 Analogous beam design of a diaphragm
2.5.1 Simple Diaphragm Design – The Horizontal Beam Analogy

A diaphragm is analyzed by considering a roof or floor as a deep horizontal beam, analogous to a plate girder or
I-beam. The shear walls or structural frames are the supports for this analogous beam. Lateral loads are transmitted
to these supports as reactions.
As in a beam, tension and compression forces are induced in the chords or flanges of the analogous beam as
shown in Figure 2.5.1.

Shear in the analogous beam must be transferred between adjacent elements and to supporting elements when
precast concrete elements that span parallel to the supporting shear walls or frames are used for the diaphragm.
Web shear must also be transferred to the chord elements. Diaphragm design is essentially a connection design
solution.
2.5.1.1 Shear transfer between elements

Shear transfer between elements is usually accomplished using grout keys or flange weld plates in floors or roofs
without composite topping.
Weld plates may be analyzed as illustrated in Figure 2.5.2. In addition to the hardware details shown, many other
connections are used by precast concrete manufacturers.
For elements connected by grout keys not intentionally roughened, a conservative value of 0.3 MPa can be used
for the average shear resistance of a grouted key and 0.6 MPa may be used for grouted joints with intentionally
roughened surfaces. Reinforcement placed as shown in Figure 2.5.3 can be used to transfer the shear. This steel is
designed using the shear-friction method that is covered in Chapter 4.
In floors or roofs with composite topping, the topping itself can act as the diaphragm if it is adequately reinforced.
Reinforcement requirements can be determined by shear-friction analysis. The connections between elements
often serve functions in addition to the transfer of shear for lateral loads. For example, weld plates in flanged
elements can restrain differential camber. Grout keys may be used to distribute concentrated loads.
Connections that transfer shear from diaphragms to shear walls or moment-resisting frames are analyzed in the
same manner as connections between elements. Designs must ensure the diaphragm remains connected to the
shear walls or moment frames during an earthquake.
In bearing wall buildings, perimeter reinforcement is required for structural integrity in accordance with CSA A23.3,
Clause 16.5, particularly for seismic loads.
Notes:
1. See Chapter 4 for design of welds and connections.
2. Not suitable for diaphragms in high seismic areas, pending further research.
3. Recommendations for welding reinforcing bars must be closely followed.
4. Courtesy JVI, Inc.
Figure 2.5.2 Typical flange weld plate details

2.5.1.2 Chord forces
Chord forces can be calculated as shown in Figure 2.5.1. For roofs
with intermediate supports, the shear force is carried across the
beam using weld plates or bars in the grout keys as shown in
Section A. Bars are designed by shear-friction and the forces are
usually low.
In flanged deck elements, the chord tension at the perimeter of
a building is usually transferred between elements by the same
type of connection used for shear transfer, see Figure 2.5.2. When
forces are high, such as in seismic designs, transverse reinforcing
bars may be placed in the flange and attached to the connection
device by welding or lapping with the connection bars. Examples
of each of these applications are given in Section 2.7 and 2.8.
2.5.2 Alternate Methods of Diaphragm Design

While the horizontal beam analogy may be suitable for some
applications, some structures may require more detailed and
complex diaphragm analyses to consider the effects of openings,
discontinuities, and geometry changes. In some situations, strut-
and–tie modeling of the diaphragm may be appropriate where
the diaphragm is analysed as an idealized truss with compression
Figure 2.5.3 Use of perimeter
struts and tensions ties.
reinforcement as shear-friction reinforcement
Finite element analysis of precast elements, joints and
connections can be used to examine in-plane behaviour of a
system. These analyses can provide insight into areas with high
load concentrations, joint separations or diaphragm deformations
and demonstrate a more realistic behaviour of a diaphragm.
Chord forces and connection forces obtained from the analysis
may be used for design.
2.6 BUILDINGS WITH MOMENT-RESISTING

FRAMES
2.6.1 General
Precast, prestressed concrete beam and slab elements are usually
designed and connected into a structure as simple-span elements
because:
1. Positive moment capacity is much easier and less expensive
to attain with pretensioned elements than negative moment
capacity at supports.
2. Connections which achieve continuity at the supports are
sometimes complicated and costly.
3. The restraint to volume changes that occurs in rigid
connections may cause serious cracking and unsatisfactory
performance.
When designing precast, prestressed concrete structures, it is
simpler to have connections that allow lateral movement and Figure 2.6.1 Assumptions used in derivation
rotation, i.e., pinned ends, and achieve lateral stability through of rotational coefficients for column bases
the use of floor and roof diaphragms and shear walls.

However, in some structures, adequate shear walls interfere with the function of the building, or are more
expensive than alternate solutions. In these cases, the lateral stability of the structure can be designed to depend
on the moment-resisting capacity of either the column bases, a beam-column frame, or both.
When moment connections between beams and columns are required to resist lateral loads, it is very important
that the amount of beam-column moment framing be kept to a minimum and that it be located near the centre of
the building to reduce volume change effects. For example, in a line with ten bays, if moment connections in the
four interior bays are adequate, do not use moment connections in the remaining bays for the sake of convenience.
Whenever possible, to reduce the magnitude of the forces at the connections, make the moment connection after
most of the dead loads have been applied. This requires careful specification of the construction process, and
field inspection. The moment connections need only resist the negative moments from live load, lateral loads and
volume changes, and will then be less costly.
2.6.2 Moment Resistance of Column Bases

Single-storey and low-rise buildings without shear walls may be designed to depend on the fixity of the column
base to resist lateral loads. The ability of a spread footing to resist moments caused by lateral loads is dependent
on the rotational characteristics of the base. The total rotation of the column base is a function of rotation between
the footing and soil, bending in the base plate, and elongation of the anchor bolts, as shown in Figure 2.6.1.
The total rotation of the base is: θb = θf + θbp +θab
If the axial load is large enough that there is no tension in the anchor bolts, θbp and θab are zero, and: θb = θf
Rotational characteristics can be expressed in terms of flexibility or stiffness coefficients:
θ = cM = M/K
M = applied moment = Pe
e = eccentricity of the applied load, P
c = flexibility coefficient
K = stiffness coefficient = 1/c
If bending of the base plate and strain in the anchor
bolts are assumed as shown in Figure 2.6.1, the
flexibility coefficients for the base can be derived, [2]
and the total rotation of the base becomes:
b = M( f + bp + ab) = Pe( f + bp + ab)
f = 1/(ks If)
(x1 x2 )3 [2e /(h + 2x1) 1]
bp = 0
6eEs Ibp (h + x1)
g[2e /(h + 2x1) 1]
ab = 0
2eAbEs (h + x1)
Rotation of the base may cause an additional eccentricity of

the loads on the columns, resulting in moments which must
be added to the moments induced by the lateral loads.
Note that if the eccentricity, e, is less than h/2 + x1
(inside the centre of compression), cbp and cab are less
than zero, meaning that there is no rotation between
the column and the footing, and only the rotation from
soil deformation need be considered. Figure 2.6.2 Approximate relationship between
Values are tabulated for typical cases in Figures 2.6.3 allowable soil bearing value and coefficient of subgrade
and 2.6.4. reaction, ks

Flexibility of base = b = f + ab + bp
Rotation of base = bPe
Stiffness of base = Kb = 1/ b
Fixity of base = Kb /(Kc + Kb )
Kc = column stiffness = 4EcIc /hs
Ec = modulus of elasticity of column concrete
Ic = moment of inertia of column
hs = storey height
6
f [10 /(kN-m)] for square footings
3
Footing size ks (kN/m )
(mm) 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000
600 600 4630 2315 1543 1157 926
750 750 1896 948 632 474 380
900 900 915 457 305 229 183
1050 1050 494 247 165 123 99
1200 1200 289 145 97 72 58
1350 1350 181 90 60 45 36
1500 1500 119 59 40 30 24
1650 1650 81 41 27 20 16
1800 1800 57 29 19 14 11
1950 1950 42 21 14 10 8
2100 2100 31 15 10 8 6
2250 2250 23 12 8 6 5
2400 2400 18 9 6 5 4
2700 2700 11 6 4 3 2
3000 3000 7 4 3 2 2
3300 3300 5 3 2 1 1
3600 3600 4 2 1 1 1
Note: Approximate values of ks can be determined from Figure 2.6.2.
Figure 2.6.3 Flexibility coefficients for footing soil interaction

6
ab + bp [10 /(kN-m)] for typical details
Column e Case 1: Exterior anchor bolts Case 2: Interior anchor bolts
size, h Base plate thickness & anchor bolt diam. Base plate thickness & anchor bolt diam.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
20 25 30 35 20 25 30 35
100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
150 0 0 0 0 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8
200 0 0 0 0 35.8 22.9 15.9 11.7
300 300 250 13.1 7.3 4.6 3.2 43.0 27.5 19.1 14.0
300 21.8 12.2 7.7 5.3 47.8 30.6 21.2 15.6
350 28.0 15.7 9.9 6.8 51.2 32.7 22.7 16.7
400 32.6 18.3 11.6 7.9 53.7 34.4 23.8 17.5
450 36.3 20.4 12.9 8.8 55.7 35.7 24.8 18.2
150 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
200 0 0 0 0 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
250 0 0 0 0 13.6 8.7 6.1 4.5
400 400 300 6.0 3.4 2.2 1.5 17.1 10.9 7.6 5.6
350 10.3 5.9 3.7 2.6 19.5 12.5 8.7 6.4
400 13.5 7.7 4.9 3.4 21.3 13.6 9.5 7.0
450 16.1 9.1 5.8 5.8 22.7 14.6 10.1 7.4
500 18.1 10.3 6.5 6.5 23.9 15.3 10.6 7.8
200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
250 0 0 0 0 4.0 2.6 1.8 1.3
300 0 0 0 0 6.6 4.2 3.0 2.2
500 500 350 3.2 1.8 1.2 1.2 8.5 5.5 3.8 2.8
400 5.6 3.2 2.1 2.1 10.0 6.4 4.4 3.3
450 7.5 4.3 2.8 2.8 11.1 7.1 4.9 3.6
500 9.0 5.2 3.3 3.3 11.9 7.6 5.3 3.9
550 10.2 5.9 3.8 3.8 12.7 8.1 5.6 4.1
250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
300 0 0 0 0 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.7
350 0 0 0 0 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.2
600 600 400 1.9 1.1 0.7 0.5 4.9 3.1 2.2 1.6
450 3.4 2.0 1.3 0.9 5.8 3.7 2.6 1.9
500 4.6 2.6 1.7 1.2 6.5 4.2 2.9 2.1
550 5.5 3.2 2.1 1.4 7.1 4.6 3.2 2.3
600 6.3 3.7 2.4 1.6 7.6 4.9 3.4 2.5
Figure 2.6.4 Flexibility coefficients for anchor bolts and base plates

Figure 2.6.5 Column stability and base fixity for Examples 2.5 and 2.6
Example 2.5 Stability analysis of an unbraced frame

Given: The maximum eccentricity will occur when Eqn (4.)
The column shown in Figure 2.6.5 is applied with 0.9D and 0.5L.
Soil bearing capacity = 240 kN/m2
Moment at base of column:
Non-seismic zone
M = (9)(5) = 45 kN-m
P = 355 kN dead load, 135 kN live load
Pf = (0.9)(355) = 320 kN
W = 9 kN wind load
Mf = (1.4)(45) = 63.0 kN-m
Problem:
Eccentricity due to wind load:
Determine the column design loads and moments
Mf 63.0
for stability as an unbraced frame. = = = 0.197 m = 197 mm
Pf 320
Solution:
To determine the moments caused by base
The column is designed for the following load
rotation, an iterative procedure is required.
combinations:
Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 7 mm:
1. 1.4D
2. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5L + (0.5S or 0.4W) e = 197 + 7 = 204 mm
3. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.5S + (0.5L or 0.4W) Check rotation between column and footing:
4. (1.25D or 0.9D) + 1.4W + (0.5L or 0.5S)
h/2 + x1 = 500/2 + (-50) = 200 mm < 204
5. 1.0D + 1.0E + (0.5L + 0.25S)
Continued next page

Example 2.5 Stability analysis of an unbraced frame (continued from previous page)
Thus there is tension in the anchor bolts and rotation Check for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
between the column and footing:
Pf = 1.25(355) + 1.5(135) + 0.4(0) = 646 kN
If = (1800)4/12 = 875000 x 10-6 mm4 Mf = 0.4W = 0.4(9)(5) = 18 kN-m
From Figure 2.6.2: e = 18/646 = 0.0279 m = 28 mm
3 Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 2 mm:
ks 55000 kN/m
f = 1/(kS If) = 1/[(55000)(875)] Mf = 646(28 + 2)/103 = 19.4 kN-m
= 20.8
6
10 /(kN-m) θb = cfMf = (20.8 x 10-6 )(19.4) = 0.000403 rad
θbhs = (0.000403)(5000) = 2.02 mm P 2 mm
2e
g 1 assumed OK
h + 2x1
ab =
2eEs A b (h + x1 ) Design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
(2)(204) Pf = 646 kN
(465) 1
(500) + (2)( 50) Mf = 19.4 kN-m
=
(2)(204)(200000)(349)(500 50) It is required by CSA A23.3, Clause 10.15.3.1, that the
6
= 0.726 10 /(kN - m) moment caused by a minimum eccentricity of 15 +
3 0.03h be considered:
(x1 x2 ) [2e /(h + 2x1) 1]
bp =
6eEs Ibp (h + x1) Pf = (1.25)(355) + (1.5)(135) = 646 kN
= 0 (since x1 + x2 = 50 + 50 = 0) e = 15 + 0.03h = 15 + (0.03)(500) = 30 mm
Mf = (320)(0.204) = 65.3 kN-m Estimate eccentricity due to rotation = 3 mm:
b = ( f+ ab) Mf Mf = Pfe = (646)(30 + 3)/103 = 21.3 kN-m

= (20.8 + 0.726)(10 )(65.3)
6 θb = (20.8 x 10-6)(21.3) = 0.00044 rad
= 0.0014
θbhs = (0.00044)(5000) = 2.2 mm P 3 mm
assumed OK
Eccentricity caused by rotation: Thus design requirements for 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.4W:
=θ
b hs = (0.0014)(5000) = 6.8 mm P 7 mm Pf = 646 kN
assumed OK
Mf = 21.3 kN-m
No further trial is required.
Thus design requirements for 0.9D + 1.4W:
Pf = 320 kN
Mf = 65.3 kN-m
2.6.3 Fixity of Column Bases

The degree of fixity of a column base is the ratio of the rotational stiffness of the base to the sum of the rotational
stiffnesses of the column plus the base:
Kb
Fb =
Kb + K c
Fb = degree of base fixity, expressed as a decimal
Kb = 1/ b
4Ec I c
Kc =
hs
hs = column height

2.6.4 Computer Models for Frame Analysis
When precast frames are modeled as “sticks”, as is usually done with steel frames, the results are often very
misleading. For example, the structure as modeled in Figure 2.6.6 (a) will indicate more flexibility than exists. A
lateral drift will be overestimated and the moments caused by axial shortening will be underestimated. Figure 2.6.6
(b) shows a model that will better estimate the true condition.
2.6.5 Volume Change Effects in Moment-resisting Frames 6

= ftension
The restraint of volume changes in moment-resisting frames causes
b + ab + in = (20.8
bp the + 0.726
girders + 0) x 10 and
and deflections
6
moments in the columns. The magnitude of these tensions, moments and
= 21.5 deflections
x 10 is dependent on the distance
rad/kN-m
from the centre of stiffness of the frame. K = 1/ = 1/(21.5 10 )
6
b b
-3
= 46.5 10 kN-m/rad
Example 2.6 Calculation of degree of fixity 3 4 6 4
Ic = bd /12 = 500 /12 = 5208 10 mm
Given: 4EcIc (4)(29900)(5208 10 6 )
Kc = =
The column base shown in Example 2.5. hs 5000 106
Ec = 29900 MPa = 124.6 103 kN - m / rad
Problem: Kb 46.5
Fb = = = 0.271
Determine the degree of fixity. Kb + Kc 46.5 + 124.6
Solution:
In a computer model for structural analysis, the
6
b = f + ab + bp = (20.8 + 0.726 + 0) x 10 degree of base fixity is modeled by using Kb as the
= 21.5 x 10
6
rad/kN-m rotational spring stiffness of the support node.
6
Kb = 1/ b = 1/(21.5 10 )
-3
= 46.5 10 kN-m/rad
3 4 6 4
Ic = bd /12 = 500 /12 = 5208 10 mm
4EcIc (4)(29900)(5208 10 6 )
Kc = =
hs 5000 106
= 124.6 103 kN - m / rad
Kb 46.5
Fb = = = 0.271
Kb + Kc 46.5 + 124.6
Figure 2.6.6 Computer models

The centre of stiffness is that point of a building where no lateral movement will occur when the horizontal
members are subject to uniform shortening. For frames that are symmetrical with respect to bay sizes, storey
heights and element stiffnesses, the centre of stiffness is located at the midpoint of the building frame, as shown in
Figure 2.6.7.
Tension in girders is largest in the bay nearest the centre of stiffness. Deflections and moments in columns are
larger furthest from the centre of stiffness. In Figure 2.6.7:
F1 < F2 < F3
i1 > i2 > i3
M1 > M2 > M3
The degree of fixity of the column base, as described in Section 2.6.3, has a great effect on the magnitude of the
forces and moments caused by volume change restraint. An assumption of a fully fixed base can overestimate
the restraint forces and assuming a pinned base may have the opposite effect. The degree of fixity used in the
volume change analysis should be consistent with that used in the analysis of the column for other loadings and the
determination of slenderness effects.
Calculation of volume change restraint forces In moment-resisting frames

Computer analysis allows the input of the shortening strains due to volume changes. The equivalent strains
described below can be input directly. The designer should use the rotational spring stiffness method. As a design
check to examine the extreme conditions, it may be useful to make two computer runs, one with the base pinned
and one with the base fixed.
The coefficients from Figures 2.6.8 and 2.6.10 may be used for frames that are approximately symmetrical. The use
of these tables is described in Figure 2.6.9.
Equivalent volume change

If a horizontal framing element is connected at the ends, a tensile force is built up in the element and transmitted
to the supporting elements such that the volume change shortening is restrained. The effect of the shortening on
the shears and moments of the support is lessened because of creep and micro-cracking of the element and its
support, since the shortening takes place gradually.
Figure 2.6.7 Effect of volume change restraints in building frames

Total number Number of bays from end (i)
of bays (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 1.00
3 1.00 4.00
4 1.00 3.00
5 1.00 2.67 9.00
6 1.00 2.50 6.00
7 1.00 2.40 5.00 16.00
8 1.00 2.33 4.50 10.00
9 1.00 2.29 4.20 8.00 25.00
10 1.00 2.25 4.00 7.00 15.00
11 1.00 2.22 3.86 6.40 11.67 36.00
12 1.00 2.20 3.75 6.00 10.00 21.00
13 1.00 2.18 3.67 5.71 9.00 16.00 49.00
14 1.00 2.17 3.60 5.50 8.33 13.50 28.00
15 1.00 2.15 3.55 5.33 7.86 12.00 21.00 64.00
16 1.00 2.14 3.50 5.20 7.50 11.00 17.50 36.00
Figure 2.6.8 Build-up of restraint forces in beams (kb)
The volume change shortenings can be treated in the same manner as short term elastic deformations by using a
concept of equivalent shortening.
The following relations can be assumed:
dec = dc / K l
des = ds / K l
dec, des = equivalent creep and shrinkage shortenings, respectively

dc, ds = calculated creep and shrinkage shortenings, respectively
K
l
= a constant for design purposes which varies from 3 to 5
The value of K will be near the lower end of the range when the elements are heavily reinforced, and near the
l
upper end when they are lightly reinforced. For most common structures, a value of K = 4 is conservative.
l
Shortening due to temperature change will be similarly modified. However, the maximum temperature change will
usually occur over a much shorter time, probably within 60 to 90 days:
det = dt / Kt
det and dt = the equivalent and calculated temperature shortening, respectively
Kt = a constant; recommended value = 1.5
The total equivalent shortening to be used for design is:
= ec + es + et
+ s
= c + t
K l
Kt
The actual modulus of elasticity of the elements is used when the equivalent shortening is used in the frame
analysis for determining shears and moments in the supporting elements, rather than a reduced modulus.
Figures 2.6.11 and 2.6.12 provide equivalent volume change strains for typical building frames.

i = e ls kf, km = coefficients from Figure 2.6.10
3 n +1 i
Fi = k f kb iEc I c / hs kb =i (or from Figure 2.6.8)
n + 2 2i
2
Mi = km iEcIc / hs n = number of bays
Fi = F1, F2, etc., as shown above i = as shown in Figure 2.6.7
Figure 2.6.9 Notation for the use of Figure 2.6.10

No. of EbIb / l Base Values of kf Values of km
Kr =
stories Ec Ic / hs fixity Base 2nd floor 3rd floor 4th
F1 F2 F3 F4 M1 M2L M2U M3L M3U M4

Fixed 3.0 3.0 3.0 0
0
Pinned 0 0 0 0
Fixed 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0
0.5
Pinned 1.2 1.2 0 1.2
1 Fixed 7.5 7.5 4.5 3.0
1.0
Pinned 1.7 1.7 0 1.7
Fixed 9.0 9.0 5.0 4.0
2.0
Pinned 2.2 2.2 0 2.2
4.0 Fixed 10.1 10.1 5.4 4.7
or more Pinned 2.5 2.5 0 2.5
Fixed 6.8 9.4 2.6 4.3 2.6 2.6 0
0
Pinned 1.5 3.0 1.5 0 1.5 1.5 0
Fixed 8.1 10.7 2.6 4.7 3.4 2.1 0.4
0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.4 1.4 0 1.9 1.2 0.2
2 Fixed 8.9 11.2 2.3 4.9 3.9 1.8 0.5
1.0
Pinned 2.1 3.4 1.3 0 2.1 1.0 0.3
Fixed 9.7 11.6 1.9 5.2 4.5 1.4 0.5
2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.4 1.0 0 2.4 0.8 0.3
4.0 Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.4 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.4
or more Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0 2.6 0.5 0.2
Fixed 7.1 10.6 4.1 0.7 4.4 2.8 2.8 0.7 0.7 0
0
Pinned 1.6 3.6 2.4 0.4 0 1.6 1.6 0.4 0.4 0
Fixed 8.2 11.1 3.5 0.5 4.7 3.5 2.2 0.7 0.4 0.09
0.5
Pinned 1.9 3.6 1.9 0.3 0 1.9 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.05
3 Fixed 8.9 11.4 2.9 0.4 5.0 3.9 1.9 0.7 0.3 0.09
1.0
or more Pinned 2.2 3.5 1.6 0.2 0 2.2 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.05
Fixed 9.7 11.7 2.2 0.2 5.2 4.7 1.4 0.6 0.2 0.06
2.0
Pinned 2.4 3.5 1.2 0.1 0 2.4 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.03
4.0 Fixed 10.4 11.9 1.5 0.04 5.5 5.0 1.0 0.5 0.04 0.01
or more Pinned 2.6 3.4 0.8 0.02 0 2.6 0.5 0.2 0.02 0.00
Figure 2.6.10 Coefficients kf and km for forces and moments caused by volume change restraint
(see Figure 2.6.9 for notation)

Heated structures
(Figure 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 160 150 130 120 110 180 170 160 140 130
10 180 160 150 140 130 200 190 170 160 140
15 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
20 210 200 190 180 160 230 220 200 190 170
25 230 220 210 190 180 240 230 220 200 190
30 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
35 270 250 240 230 220 270 260 250 230 220
40 280 270 260 250 240 290 280 260 250 230
45 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
50 320 310 300 280 270 320 310 290 280 260
Unheated structures
0 140 130 120 100 90 170 160 140 130 110
5 170 160 140 130 120 190 180 170 150 140
10 190 180 170 160 150 210 200 190 170 160
15 220 210 200 190 170 240 220 210 190 180
20 250 240 220 210 200 260 250 230 220 200
25 280 260 250 240 230 280 270 260 240 230
30 300 290 280 270 250 300 290 280 260 250
35 330 320 310 290 280 330 310 300 280 270
40 360 340 330 320 310 350 340 320 310 290
45 380 370 360 350 340 370 360 350 330 320
50 410 400 390 370 360 390 380 370 350 340
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Figure 2.4.7 with the addition that K l
= 5 and K t = 1.5.
Figure 2.6.11 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with prestressed
elements (10-6)
Example 2.7 Calculation of column moment caused by volume change shortening of a beam
Given:
The beam in Example 2.1 is supported and attached
to two 400 x 400 columns as shown in the sketch.
f'c(col) = 35 MPa
Ec = 29900 MPa
Problem:
Determine the horizontal force at the top of the column
caused by volume change shortening of the beam.
Solution:
Ic = bh3/12 = 4004/12 = 2130 x 106 mm4
From Example 2.1:
Calculate the equivalent shortening from strain
values computed in Example 2.1:
c + s
= + t L
Kl Kt
(365 187 + 367 174) 211
= + (10 6 )(7500)
5 1.5
= 1.6 mm

Heated structures
(Figure 2.4.4) 40 50 60 70 80 40 50 60 70 80
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 80 80 70 60 60 80 70 70 60 50
10 100 90 90 80 70 90 90 80 70 70
15 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
20 140 130 120 120 110 120 120 110 100 100
25 160 150 140 130 130 140 130 130 120 110
30 180 170 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
35 190 180 180 170 160 170 160 160 150 140
40 210 200 200 190 180 180 180 170 160 160
45 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
50 250 240 230 220 220 210 210 200 190 190
Unheated structures
0 70 60 50 40 40 70 60 50 40 40
5 90 80 80 70 60 90 80 80 70 60
10 120 110 110 100 90 110 100 100 90 80
15 150 140 130 130 120 130 120 120 110 110
20 170 160 160 150 150 150 150 140 130 130
25 200 190 190 180 170 180 170 170 160 150
30 230 220 210 210 200 200 190 190 180 170
35 250 250 240 230 230 220 210 210 200 200
40 280 270 270 260 250 240 240 230 220 220
45 310 300 300 290 280 270 260 250 250 240
50 330 330 320 310 310 290 280 280 270 260
Note: Above table based on the same parameters as Figure 2.4.6 with the addition that Kl = 5 and K t = 1.5.
/2 = 1.6 / 2 = 0.8 mm each end

3
N = 3Ec Ic ( / 2) / hs
6 3
= (3)(29900)(2130 10 )(0.8) / 3750
= 2800 N = 2.8 kN
M = Nhs
3
= (2.8)(3750) / 10
= 10.5 kN-m
Figure 2.6.12 Equivalent volume change strains for typical continuous building frames with reinforced elements
(10-6)

Example 2.8 Volume change restraint forces
Given:
From Figure 2.6.8:
A 4-bay, 2-storey heated frame as shown
Beams are prestressed For n = 4 and i = 2, kb = 3.00
Beam modulus of elasticity = Eb = 29900 MPa From Figure 2.6.10:
Column modulus of elasticity = Ec= 32000 MPa
Column bases 20% fixed (see Section 2.6.3) For Kr = 1.0, fixed base, kf = 11.2
Design R.H. = 70% For Kr = 2.0, fixed base, kf = 11.6
Design temperature change = 39°C For Kr = 1.5, kf = 11.4
Problem: For pinned base, kf = 3.4 (for Kr = 1.0 and 2.0)

Determine the maximum tension in the beams and For 20% fixed:
the maximum moment in the columns caused by
volume change restraint. kf = 3.4 + 0.20 (11.4 - 3.4) = 5.0
F2 = kf kb ii Ec Ic / hs3
Solution: = (5.0)(3.0)(2.0)(32.0)(2130 x 106) / 50003
1. Determine relative stiffness between the columns = 16.4 kN
and beams:
Ib
3
= (300)(600) / 12 = 5400 10 mm
6 4 4. Determine maximum column moments:
3
EbIb/ l = (29.9)(5400) / 8000 = 20.2 10 kN-m For base moment, M1:
4 6 4
Ic = 400 /12 = 2130 10 mm From Figure 2.6.10 by interpolation:
3
EcIc/hs = (32.0)(2130) / 5000 = 13.6 10 kN-m
km (fixed) = (4.9 + 5.2)/2 = 5.05
EbIb / l
Kr = = 1.5 km (pinned) = 0
EcIc / hs km (20% fixed) = 0 + 0.20 (5.05) = 1.0
2. Determine the deflections: M1 = km ii Ec Ic /hs2
= (1.0)(4.0 x 10-3)(32.0)(2130 x 106) / 50002
From Figure 2.6.11:
= 10.9 kN-m
6
e = 246 10 mm/mm
6 For second floor moment, M2L:
B = e l = (246 10 )(8000) = 2.0 mm
= ) = 4.0 mm km (fixed) = (3.9 + 4.5) / 2 = 4.2
A e(2 l
km (pinned) = (2.1 + 2.4) / 2 = 2.25
3. Determine the maximum beam tension that km (20% fixed) = 2.25 + 0.20 (4.20-2.25)=2.64
occurs nearest the centre of stiffness, i.e., beams M2L = (2.64)(4.0 x 10-3)(32.0)(2130 x 106)/ 50002
BC and CD, 2nd floor: = 28.8 kN-m

2.6.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns
Many precast concrete structures utilize multi-storey columns with simple-span beams resting on haunches. Figures
2.6.13 and 2.6.14 are aids for determining the various combinations of load and moment that can occur with these
columns.
The following conditions and limitations apply to Figures 2.6.13 and 2.6.14:
1. The coefficients are only valid for braced columns. Lateral stability must be achieved by shear walls or moment
resisting frames.
2. A straight line interpolation between the coefficients for pinned and fixed bases can be used for partially fixed
column bases, see Section 2.6.3.
3. The coefficients for the 4-storey columns may be used for higher columns.
4. The coefficients in the ∑ Max line will give the maximum required restraining force, Fi. Column moments can be
caused by patterned live loads, assumed equal at each level, that occur on either side of a column, such as live
loads on interior columns. The maximum axial column force will not necessarily occur with the loading pattern
that causes the maximum moment.
5. The coefficients in ∑ One Side line will give the maximum moments that occur when a column is loaded on one
side, such as the end column in a bay.
Example 2.9 Use of Figures 2.6.13 and 2.6.14
Given: For a pinned base, km = 0.67

A 3-storey frame with beam reactions on column For a fixed base, km = 0.77
haunches at each level:
For 65% fixed, km = 0.67+ (0.65)(0.77 – 0.67)
Dead load = 220 kN = 0.74
Live load = 90 kN Mf = km Pf e = (0.74)(47.3) = 35.0 kN-m
Eccentricity, e = 350 mm
Maximum restraining force at level 2:
Storey height, hs = 5000 mm
Column base is 65% fixed kf = 1.40 + (0.65)(1.62 – 1.40) = 1.54
Ff = kf Pf e / hs = (1.54)(47.3) / 5
Problem:
= 14.6 kN (tension or compression)
Use Figure 2.6.14 to determine the maximum
restraining force and moment in the lowest storey (b) For the exterior column:
for: The total load is eccentric on the same side of the
(a) An interior column in a multi-bay frame column. Use the coefficients in the ∑ One Side line:
(b) An exterior column Pf e = (410)(350 x 10-3) = 143.5 kN-m
Solution: To determine the maximum moment at point B:
Factored load = (1.25)(220) + (1.5)(90)
= 275 + 135 = 410 kN For a pinned base, km = 0.40
For a fixed base, km = 0.46
(a) For the interior column: For a 65% fixed, km = 0.40 + 0.65(0.46 – 0.40)
The dead load reaction will be the same on either = 0.44
side, thus no moment results. The live load could Mf = km Pf e = (0.44)(143.5) = 63.1 kN-m
occur on any one side at any floor, hence use the
Maximum restraining force at level 2:
coefficients in the ∑ Max line:
kf = –0.60 + (0.65)(0.60 – 0.22) = –0.35
Pf e = (135)(350 x 10-3) = 47.3 kN-m Ff = kf Pf e/hs = (–0.35)(143.5) / 5
To determine the maximum moment at point B: = –10.0 kN (tension)

Fi = kf P e / h s
Mj = km P e
Fi = restraining force at level i
mj = moment at point j
kf, km = coefficients from Figure 2.6.14
P = vertical load acting at eccentricity e
Columns braced against sidesway
e = eccentricity of the applied load
measured from the column
centerline to the point of application
of the load P
Figure 2.6.13 Notation for the use of Figure 2.6.14
+ indicates clockwise moments on the columns and compression in the restraining beam
No. P kf at level km at point
of Base acting
1 2 3 4 5 A B C D E F G H
storeys fixity at level
3 + 0.25 1.50 + 1.25 0 0.25 + 0.25 + 1.00
2 0.50 0 + 0.50 0 + 0.50 + 0.50 0
Pinned Max ± 0.75 ± 1.50 ± 1.75 0 ± 0.75 ± 0.75 ± 1.00
2 One side 0.25 1.50 + 1.75 0 + 0.25 + 0.75 + 1.00
3 + 0.43 1.72 + 1.29 0.14 0.29 + 0.29 + 1.00
Fixed 2 0.86 + 0.43 + 0.43 + 0.29 + 0.57 + 0.43 0
Max ± 1.29 ± 2.15 ± 1.72 ± 0.43 ± 0.86 ± 0.72 ± 1.00
One side 0.43 1.29 + 1.72 + 0.15 + 0.28 + 0.72 + 1.00
4 0.07 + 0.40 1.60 + 1.27 0 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
3 + 0.13 0.80 + 0.20 + 0.47 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.53 + 0.47 0
Pinned 2 0.47 0.20 + 0.80 0.13 0 + 0.47 + 0.53 + 0.13 0.13 0
Max ± 0.67 ± 1.40 ± 2.60 ± 1.87 0 ± 0.67 ± 0.73 ± 0.93 ± 0.87 ± 1.00
3 One side 0.41 0.60 0.60 + 1.61 0 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 0.40 + 0.60 + 1.00
4 0.12 + 0.47 1.62 + 1.27 + 0.04 + 0.08 0.08 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
3 + 0.23 0.92 + 0.23 + 0.46 0.08 0.15 + 0.15 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed 2 0.81 + 0.23 + 0.70 0.12 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0
Max ± 1.16 ± 1.62 ± 2.55 ± 1.85 ± 0.38 ± 0.77 ± 0.69 ± 0.92 ± 0.85 ± 1.00
One side 0.70 0.22 0.69 + 1.61 + 0.23 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.38 + 0.62 + 1.00
5 + 0.02 0.11 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
4 0.04 + 0.22 0.86 + 0.22 + 0.46 0 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Pinned 3 + 0.13 0.75 0 + 0.75 0.12 0 0.13 + 0.13 + 0.50 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0
2 0.46 0.22 + 0.86 0.22 + 0.04 0 + 0.46 + 0.54 + 0.14 0.14 0.04 + 0.04 0
Max ± 0.65 ± 1.30 ± 2.15 ± 2.80 ± 1.89 0 ± 0.64 ± 0.72 ± 0.86 ± 0.86 ± 0.97 ± 0.89 ± 1.00
4 One side 0.35 0.86 + 0.43 0.86 + 1.65 0 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 0.57 + 0.43 + 0.35 + 0.65 + 1.00
5 + 0.03 0.12 + 0.43 1.61 + 1.27 0.01 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.07 0.07 0.27 + 0.27 + 1.00
4 0.06 + 0.25 0.87 + 0.22 + 0.46 + 0.02 + 0.04 0.04 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.54 + 0.46 0
Fixed 3 + 0.22 0.87 + 0.03 + 0.74 0.12 0.07 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.51 + 0.50 + 0.12 0.12 0
2 0.80 + 0.21 + 0.74 0.18 + 0.03 + 0.27 + 0.54 + 0.46 + 0.12 0.12 0.03 + 0.03 0
Max ± 1.11 ± 1.45 ± 2.07 ± 2.75 ± 1.88 ± 0.37 ± 0.74 ± 0.67 ± 0.84 ± 0.83 ± 0.96 ± 0.88 ± 1.00
One side 0.61 0.53 + 0.33 0.83 + 1.64 + 0.21 + 0.41 + 0.59 + 0.56 + 0.44 + 0.36 + 0.64 + 1.00
Figure 2.6.14 Coefficients kf and km for determining moments and restraining forces on eccentrically loaded
columns braced against sidesway

2.6.7 Slenderness Effects in Compression Elements
Approximate evaluation of slenderness effects
Application of the Code provisions for slenderness of elements braced against sidesway is shown in Chapter 3 and
for unbraced frames in Example 2.10. A more rigorous approach is discussed briefly later in this section.
The effective length factor, k, can be determined from the alignment charts, see Figure 2.6.15. For column bases,
the value of y for use in these charts can be calculated from the rotational stiffness coefficients described in Section
2.6.2 with y base = Kc /Kb. For most structures, y base should not be taken less than 1.0. For column bases which
are assumed pinned in the frame analysis, y base can be assumed equal to 10 when using Figure 2.6.15.
y = ratio of ∑ K of compression elements to ∑ K of flexural elements in a plane at one end of a
compression element
y base = Kc /Kb (Section 2.6.2) 10 ≥ y base ≥ 1.0
k = effective length factor
Note: The assumptions used in deriving these charts may underestimate k, which is unconservative. It is considered satisfactory to compute y
using the member stiffnesses given in CSA A23.3, Clause 10.14.1.2
Figure 2.6.15 Alignment charts for determining effective length factors

Slenderness effects by structural analysis
In lieu of the approximate evaluation of slenderness
effects, the requirements of the Code can be met by
using P i analysis. [4] [5]
P i analysis accounts for the frame drift by computing
moments and shears that are required for equilibrium of
the structure in the deformed shape.
An iterative procedure can be used:
1. Select an initial frame deflection to account for out-
of-plumbness such as 0.25%.
2. Calculate the approximate storey shears resulting
from this initial deflection and gravity loads. (See
Figure 2.6.16.)
3. Determine the frame deflection corresponding to the
Figure 2.6.16 P i effects in a frame
shears from Step 2. This deflection must be based
on a reduced EI to account for creep due to sustained
loads and cracking.
4. Calculate the shears resulting from the deflection determined in Step 3. Determine the corresponding
deflection.
5. The change in shear from step to step should reduce after successive iterations. If it does not reduce, the
structure has a stability problem and element dimensions should be revised. Generally an upper bound value for
the design storey shear can be selected following a few iterations.
6. The computed forces, corresponding to these storey shears, account for the effects of storey drift on frame
stability. Columns can be designed with an effective length factor > 1.0.
7. For load cases with short-term lateral loads such as wind and earthquake, deflections should be computed using
an effective EI for these members that recognizes possible cracking but not creep.
8. For load cases with volume change effects, there is generally no additional storey shear as these forces tend to
cancel.
Storeys in structures shall be designated as non-sway if Q ≤ 0.05 where:
Pf o
Q =
Vf l c
Pf = summation of factored loads in a given storey
o = elastically computed first order lateral deflection due to Hf (neglecting P
effects) at the top of the storey relative to the bottom of the storey
Vf = total factored lateral force within the storey
l c = height of storey, centre-to-centre of floors or roof

Example 2.10 Three-storey frame example (no seismic)
Given: From the computer analysis, deflection at the first

A three-storey office building with a floor to floor floor due to wind is 0.71 mm. The total drift per
height of 3 metres is illustrated by the schematic storey under service wind and gravity is limited by
drawings in Figure 2.6.17a. Deck elements are the NBCC to 1/500 of the storey height.
normal density double tees with field applied 0.71
= 0.00024 mm/mm 0.002
topping. Beams, double tees and columns are 3000
precast prestressed concrete. Unfactored loads are
Volume change analysis, east-west direction:
given as follows:
The structure will be designed for a temperature
Dead loads:
change of 45°C and an average ambient R.H. of
Double tees & topping = 4.5 kN/m2 70%, obtained from Figure 2.4.4 and 2.4.2.
Beams, columns, misc. = 2.6 kN/m2
Beams and columns are prestressed, normal density
Partitions (at floor levels) = 1.0 kN/m2
concrete, so use Figure 2.4.7 and Figure 2.6.11 to
or Roofing (at roof level) ________ find volume change strains. For a heated structure:
8.1 kN/m2
Actual strain = 760 x 10-6
Live loads: Equivalent strain = 270 x 10-6
Floor (Average of office In the east-west direction, the structure is symmetric
and corridor including and the centre of stiffness can be assumed to be at
reduction for Tributary Area) = 2.4 kN/m2 the centreline of the building.
Roof = 3.0 kN/m2
Wind = 1.0 kN/m2 From Figure 2.6.10 for a structure with 3 or more
floors, pinned column base and Kr ≅ 1 due to beam
(Gross projected area)
and column geometry:
Problem:
Analyze the structure for volume change effects and Ec = 29900 MPa
for wind loads in the east-west direction. Seismic km at second floor = 2.2
loads are not considered in this example. Column moment = km ii Ec Ic / hs2
Solution: For column at line 1, 35140 mm from stiffness
Wind load analysis, east-west direction: centre:
Lateral stability in the east-west direction is achieved i1 = (270 x 10-6)(35,140) = 9.49 mm
by providing moment connections between the M1 = 2.2(9.49)(29,900)(21,094) / 30002
inverted tee beams and columns on lines B and C. = 1463 kN-m
i3 = 6.17 mm M3 = 951 kN-m
Storey wind shears per frame:
i4 = 3.70 mm M4 = 570 kN-m
Roof: P = (1.0)(2.6)(45.4/2) i5 = 1.23 mm M5 = 190 kN-m
(Including 1.1 m tall parapet at roof level)
As shown in the results, moments caused by volume
= 59 kN change increase substantially for columns located
Floor: P = (1.0)(3.0)(45.4/2) far from the centre of the building. The amount
= 68.1 kN/floor of beam-column moment framing should be kept
to a minimum and be located near the centre of
The wind analysis can be done by computer. Output the building to reduce volume change effects.
moments are shown in Figure 2.6.19. Uncracked For example, in a line with seven bays, if moment
section properties are used in the analysis due to
connections in the four interior bays are adequate,
the size of the members and prestressing used to
do not use moment connections in the remaining
limit cracking.
bays for the sake of convenience.
Wind drift:
Continued next page

Example 2.10 Three-storey frame example (no seismic) (continued from previous page)
Figure 2.6.17a Three-storey office structure of Example 2.10 Continued next page

Column slenderness effects – east and west

bending:
Sway frames have stability concerns and the
design process is complex. Many structural analysis
programs have the capability to calculate a second
order analysis and directly incorporate the P-D
effects. Alternatively, the analysis can be carried
out using the approximate method of moment
magnification using the following steps:
1. Using the factored load combinations, compute
gravity dead and live load moments using linear
elastic analysis. Appreciable lateral deflection of
the frame under gravity load should be avoided
as creep will amplify these deflections over time
and could cause serviceability and strength
concerns.
2. Compute lateral load moments due to Wind (or
seismic if applicable).
3. Magnify the lateral load moments using the
moment magnification factor d to account for
lateral drift. This will account for second order
effects of vertical loads acting in the laterally
displaced configuration.
4. Add the moments from step 1 to the magnified
moments of step 3.
This analysis assumes the plane frame is subjected
to loads causing deflections in that plane. If
torsional displacements are significant, a three
dimensional second order analysis should be used.
If the frame is flexible and deflects substantially
under gravity loads, it may be necessary to
increase moments derived from the gravity load
analysis using the approximate method of moment
magnification. This would result in the calculation
of two moment magnifiers. One magnifier is
determined for moments caused by gravity loads
and the other magnifier is determined for moments
caused by wind. The calculation for each type of
magnifier follows.
Figure 2.6.17b Interior building section Continued next page

Sum of all columns loads: Gravity loads:

Pstorey (kN) EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21094)/(1 + 0.78)
Storey D L D+L 2
= 141700 kN-mm
3 26000 9500 35550 2 2 2 2
Pc = EI / (k l u) = (141700) / (2.6 2.1)
2 26000 7600 33600
from CSA A23.3 Eqn (10 -18)
1 26000 7600 33600
Total = 46920 kN
78000 24700 102750
Wind loads:
Pf = 1.25D + 1.5L + 0.5S EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21,094) / (1.0)
Pf = 1.25 (78000) + 1.5 (2)(7600) + 0.5 (9500) = 252280 kN-mm
2
= 97500 + 27550 2 2
Pc = (252280)/(2.6 2.1)
= 125050 kN
= 83520 kN
First level moment magnifier:
For columns at lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, assuming
l u = 2100 mm column 5 as typical:
6 4
For moments caused by gravity loads: Ic = 21094 10 mm
A = 10.0
bd = 97500 / 125050 = 0.78
(2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000
B = = 2.60
For moments caused by wind: 0.35(49500 / 9140 + 49500 / 9140)
bd = 0
k = 2.20 from Figure 2.6.15 for
unbraced way frame.
For columns at lines 1 and 10:
Gravity loads:
Ec = Eb = 29900 MPa EI = (0.4)(29.9)(21 094)/(1 + 0.78)
Ic = 21094 x 106 mm4 2
= 141733 kN-mm
Ib = 49500 x 106 mm 4 2 2
Pc = (141733) / (2.20 2.1)
From Figure 2.6.15.
= 65540 kN
yA (base) = 1 0.0 for a pinned base Wind loads:
(see Section 2.6.7)
El = (0.4)(29.9)(21 094) / (1.0)
In using Figure 2.6.15, Column I = 0.7 Ic and = 252280 kN-mm
2
Beam I = 0.35 Ib 2 2
Pc = (252280) / (2.20 2.1)
0.7EcIc / hs = 116650 kN
B =
0.35EbIb / l
Calculate the sum of Pc of all columns which resist
(2)(0.7)(21094) / 3000
= = 5.19 lateral loads. The first level moment magnifiers can
(0.35)(49500) / 9140 then be calculated as follows:
where Ic and Ib are the gross section properties in Gravity loads:

this example Pc = (4)(46920) + (12)(65540) = 974160 kN
k = 2.6 (unbraced frame) 1.0 1.0
= = = 1.21
El = (0.4EcIc) / (1 + d) CSA A23.3 Eqn (10 20) Pf 125050
1 1
m ( Pc ) (0.75)(974160)
from CSA A23.3 Eqn (10-24)
Continued next page

Wind loads:
Gravity loads and moments on columns:
Pc = (4)(83 520) + (12)(116 650) = 1,733,900 kN
1.0 A detailed analysis of the gravity loads and moments
= = 1.11 on the columns is not shown here, but is summarized
(125,050)
1 in Figure 2.6.18 for a typical exterior column. These
(0.75)(1733900)
moments are based on an elastic frame analysis and,
The magnifier for moments caused by wind loads since the members are relatively small, they were
can also be computed as follows: modeled at centreline for the beams and columns.
= first level wind drift from the For frames made with deep beams and discrete
computer analysis connections, adjustments would be required in the
= 0.71 mm computer model to account for member stiffnesses
f = (1.4)(0.71) = 0.99 mm and connection locations.
Pf = 125050 kN For columns on lines 1 and 10, the minimum
V = (2)(68.1) + 59 = 195 kN eccentricity to be considered:
Vf = (1.4)(195) = 273 kN emin (east-west) = 15 + (0.03)(750) = 37.5 mm
lc = storey height = 3000 mm Moment connections at lines 1 and 10:
Pf o (125050)(0.99) Negative beam moments can be determined by
1.2Q = = = 0.151 0.33
Vf l c (273)(3000) CSA A23.3, a computer analysis or by approximate methods
Clause 10.16.3.3 shown here.
1 1
= = = 1.22 Volume change moments (Mt):
1 Q 1 (1.2)(0.151)
From Figure 2.6.10, km for the column above, the
To complete the analysis for slenderness effects, second floor is 1.0. Thus the net moment to be
the moment magnifier for the columns assumed distributed to the beams is (2.2 + 1.0) / 2.2 times the
braced should also be calculated. In this case, it calculated column moment below the second floor.
was determined that the slenderness ratio was
This is distributed to the beam on each side of the
below the limit required for non-sway frames, so
column in proportion to the stiffness. For example at
slenderness can be neglected.
column line 3:
Lines 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 upper level effective length
M3 = 951 kN-m
factors:
2.2 + 1.0
M Beams = (951) = 1383 kN-m
yA = yB = 2.60 2.2
From Figure 2.6.15, k = 1.75: M31 = 12.29
(1383) = 793 kN-m
l u = 2100 mm
9.14 + 12.29
M34 = 590 kN-m
kl u /r = (1.75)(2100)/[(0.3)(750)] = 16.3
In this example, gravity loads do not cause
Values of Q at the 2nd floor and 3rd storey are appreciable sway, so moments due to gravity loads
lower than 0.05 and can be designated as non- are not magnified. Only moments due to lateral
sway (CSA A23.3, Clause 10.14.4). The slenderness loads are magnified to account for the lateral drift
ratio was compared to the limit for non-sway effect. If gravity loads cause appreciable sway, they
frames and slenderness effects may be neglected shall be increased by the gravity load magnification
at upper levels. factor (d = 1.21 for Storey 1).
Continued next page

Load Storey
effect 1 2 3
Axial dead load, P, (kN) 2195 1457 715
Unfactored Axial live load, P, (kN) without snow 439 221 0
Forces Axial snow load, P, (kN) 262 262 262
Wind moment, W, (kN-m) 66 20.1 7.6
Volume change moment, Mt, (kN-m) 1463 665 133
Calculated Mf, (kN-m) 927 1302 1582
1.25 D + Minimum Mf, (kN-m) – Does not govern 133 86 39
1.5 L + 0.5 S Design Mf, (kN-m) 927 1302 1582
Design Pf, (kN) 3534 2285 1028
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 766 1086 1907
1.5 S + 0.5 L Design Pf, (kN) 3361 2327 1285
1.25 D + Moment magnifier for Wind Moment, 1.11 1.0 1.0
1.4 W + 0.5 L Design Mf, (kN-m) 673 1086 1359
Design Pf, (kN) 3055 1960 904
1.4 W + 0.5 S Design Mf, (kN-m) 603 977 1521
Design Pf, (kN) 2966 1980 1035
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 2594 1907 1410
1.25 T + 0.5 L Design Pf, (kN) 2964 1932 895
1.25 D + Design Mf, (kN-m) 2513 1799 1573
1.25 T + 0.5 S Design Pf, (kN) 2877 1953 1023
1.25 T + 0.4W Design Mf, (kN-m) 2355 1798 1391
Design Pf, (kN) 2739 1820 893
Figure 2.6.18 Summary of column B-1 design forces — east-west bending
Figure 2.6.19 Wind moments in elements
Continued next page

Figure 2.6.20 Moment connection details for Example 2.10
Continued next page

Gravity load moments: shown in Figure 2.6.19. In some cases, other

moments, such as those caused by differential
In lieu of a more precise analysis, the moment
foundation settlement, could be significant and
coefficients given in the CSA A23.3 for approximate
should be considered.
frame analysis can be used to calculate gravity load
moments within the limitations noted in Clause 9.3. The moment connection used in this example is
shown conceptually in Figure 2.6.20.
Other moments:
In this example, the wind load moments in the
beams can be taken from the computer output
2.6.8 Shear Wall-frame Interaction

Rigid frames and shear walls respond differently to lateral
loads. This difference is illustrated in Figure 2.6.21.
A frame deflects predominantly in a shear mode as shown
in Figure 2.6.21(a).
A shear wall deflects predominantly in a cantilever
bending mode, see Figure 2.6.21(b). Elevator shafts,
stairwells, and concrete walls normally exhibit this
behavior.
It is not always easy to differentiate between modes of
deformation. For example, a shear wall penetrated by
significant openings may act like a frame in that region.
An infilled frame will tend to deflect in a bending mode.
Also, shear deformation of a shear wall can be more
important than bending deformation if the height to
length ratio is low, as discussed in Section 2.7.2. Figure 2.6.21 Deformation modes
The load can be distributed to the lateral load resisting
units in proportion to their stiffnesses if all vertical
elements of a structure exhibit the same deformations under load, i.e., they are all frames or all shear walls, see
Section 2.7.3. The load distribution in structures with both frames and shear walls is considerably more complex
because of differences in deformation modes. References [14] to [19] address these issues.
2.7 SHEAR WALLS

2.7.1 General
In most precast, prestressed concrete buildings, it is desirable to resist lateral loads with shear walls of precast, cast-
in-place concrete or masonry construction. Shear walls are usually the exterior wall system, interior walls, or walls of
elevator, stairway, mechanical shafts or cores.
Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams that transfer lateral forces from a superstructure to a foundation. Most
structures contain a number of walls that resist lateral load in two orthogonal directions. The portion of the total
lateral force that each wall resists depends on the bending and shear resistance of the wall, the participation of the

floor, and the characteristics of the foundation. It
is common practice to assume that floors act as
rigid elements for loads in the plane of the floor,
and that the deformations of the footings and soil
can be neglected. For most structures, lateral load
distribution is based only on the properties of the
walls.
If the floor is considered to be a rigid body, it will
translate in a direction parallel to the applied load
in proportion to the flexural and shear rigidity of
the participating shear walls, see Figure 2.7.1(a). If
the centre of rigidity is not coincident with the line
of action of the applied loads, the floor will rotate
about the centre of rigidity, introducing additional
forces, see Figure 2.7.1(b). The load on each
shear wall is determined by combining the effects
produced by rigid body translation and rotation.
A shear wall need not consist of a single element
and can be composed of independent units
such as double tees and double wythe insulated
or architectural precast wall panels. These
units can be designed to act individually or as
interconnected units. Interconnecting panels
can result in a buildup of volume change forces,
so it is desirable to connect only as many units
as necessary to resist the overturning moment.
Connecting units near the mid-length of a wall will
minimize the volume change restraint forces. Figure 2.7.1 Translation and rotation of rigid floors
Connection of rectangular wall units to form “T”
or “L” shaped walls increases their flexural rigidity,
but has little effect on shear rigidity. The effective flange width that can be assumed for such walls is illustrated in
Figure 2.7.2b.
In some structures it may be desirable to provide shear connections between non-load bearing and load bearing
shear walls in order to increase the dead load resistance to moments caused by lateral loads.
Erected load bearing walls may have both horizontal and vertical joints across which forces must be transferred.
Figure 2.7.2a indicates principal forces and the resulting joint force system for three separate cases. In buildings,
superposition of forces and various combinations of panel and joint assemblies must be considered.
2.7.2 Rigidity of Solid Shear Walls

To determine the distribution of lateral loads, the relative rigidity of all shear walls must be established.
Rigidity is defined as:
r = 1 / i
i = sum of flexure and shear deflections
For structures with rectangular shear walls of the same material, flexural deflections can be neglected when the
wall height to length ratio is less than about 0.3. The rigidity of the element is then directly proportional to its
web cross-sectional area. When the wall height to length ratio is greater than about 3.0, shear deflections can be
neglected, and the rigidity is proportional to the moment of inertia (plan dimensions). When the height to length

ratio is between 0.3 and 3.0, an equivalent moment of inertia, Ieq, can be derived for simplifying the calculation
of wall rigidity. Ieq is an approximation of the moment of inertia that will result in a flexural deflection equal to the
combined flexural and shear deflections of the wall. Figure 2.7.3 compares the deflections and Ieq for several load
and restraint conditions.
Connecting or coupling shear walls and large openings in walls will also affect stiffness, as discussed in Sects. 2.7.5
and 2.7.6.
2.7.3 Lateral Load Distribution to Shear Walls

Lateral loads are distributed to each shear wall in proportion to their rigidity. It is usually considered sufficient to
design for lateral loads in two orthogonal directions.
When the shear walls are symmetrical with respect to the centre of load application, the force resisted by any shear
wall is:
ri
Fi = F
r x
Fi = force resisted by an individual shear wall
Fx = total shear at the level under consideration
ri = the rigidity of wall i
r = sum of rigidities of all shear walls
2.7.4 Unsymmetrical Shear Walls

Structures that have shear walls placed unsymmetrically to the centre of a lateral load should be designed for
the torsional effect. Typical examples are shown in Figure 2.7.4. For wind loading on most structures, a simplified
method of determining torsional resistance may be used in lieu of more exact design. The method is similar to the
design of bolt groups in steel connections, and is illustrated in the following example.
Figure 2.7.2a Exterior forces and joint force systems

Note: The above flange width recommendations will normally be satisfactory for single storey
buildings or isolated walls but may underestimate the effective flange width and resulting shear
wall rigidity in multi-storey buildings. Shear lag must be considered in determining the effective
flange width to be used in these cases.
Figure 2.7.2b Effective width of walls perpendicular to shear walls
Case Deflection due to: Equivalent moment of inertia, I eq

Flexure Shear Single storey Multi-storey
2.78Ph I I
Ph3 8.34 I 13.4 I
A wE 1+ 1+
3EI
(A w = l t) A wh2 A wh2
Wh3 1.39Wh I
8EI A wE 23.6I
– 1+
A wh2
W = wh W = wh
Note: For uniform distributed load on Cantilever (Case 2) – W represents total load W = (w)(h).
Figure 2.7.3 Shear wall deflections

Example 2.11 Design of unsymmetrical shear walls
Given: Solution:
The single-storey structure shown in Figure 2.7.4. All Maximum height-to-length ratio of the north-south
walls are 2400 mm high and 200 mm thick. walls = 2.4 / 9 < 0.3. Neglect flexural stiffness for
distribution of the direct wind shear. Since walls
Problem:
are the same material and thickness, distribute in
Determine the shear in each wall, assuming the
proportion to their length.
roof is a rigid diaphragm. Walls D and E are not
connected to wall B.
Note: For tall structures, the shear centre should replace the centre of rigidity in determining the torsional effects.
Figure 2.7.4 Unsymmetrical shear walls

Continued next page

Example 2.11 Design of unsymmetrical shear walls (continued from previous page)
Total lateral load, W = (60)(3) = 180 kN Wl Txl

Shear in the north-south walls = +
Determine centre of rigidity: l Ip
(12000)(22000) + (9000)(42000) + (12000)(54000) (180)(12000)
x= Wall A =
12000 + 9000 + 12000 (33000)
= 39000 mm from left
(1620)(39000 22000)(12000 103 )
y = centre of building, since walls D and E are +
placed symmetrically about the centre of the (6431000 106 )
building in the north-south direction
= 65.5 + 51.4 = 116.9 kN
Torsional moment:
T = (180)(39000 – (60000/2))/103 (180)(9000) (1620)( 3000)(9000 103 )
Wall B = +
= 1620 kN-m (33000) (6431000 106 )
Determine the polar moment of inertia of the shear = 49 6.8 = 42.2 kN
wall group about the centre of rigidity: (180)(12000)
Wall C =
Ip = Ixx + Iyy (33000)
Ixx = ∑l y2 of the east-west walls (1620)( 15000)(12000 103 )
+
= (2)(4500)(4500)2 = 182250 x 106 mm3 (6431000 106 )
Iyy = ∑l x2 of the north-south walls = 65.5 45.3 = 20.2 kN
= (12,000)(39000 - 22000)2 Tyl
Shear in the east-west walls =
+ (9000)(42000 - 39000)2 Ip
+ (12000)(54000 - 39000)2
(1620)(4500)(4500 103 )
= 6249000 x 106 mm3 =
(6431000x106 )
Ip = 182250 + 6249000
= 5.1kN
= 6431000 x 106 mm3
2.7.5 Coupled Shear Walls

Figure 2.7.5 shows two examples of coupled shear
walls. Coupling two walls increases the stiffness by
transferring the shear through the coupling beam. The
wall curvatures are altered from that of a cantilever
because of the frame action developed. Figure 2.7.6
shows how the deflected shapes differ in response to
lateral loads.
Several approaches may be used to analyze the
response of coupled shear walls. A simple approach is
to ignore the coupling effect by considering the walls
as independent cantilevers. This method results in a
conservative wall design. However, if the coupling beam
Figure 2.7.5 Coupled shear walls
is rigidly connected, significant shears and moments will
occur in the beam that may cause unsightly and possibly

Figure 2.7.6 Response to lateral loads
dangerous cracking. To avoid the problem, the beam to

panel connection can be detailed for little or no rigidity, or
the beam can be designed to resist the actual shears and
moments.
Finite element analysis may be used to determine the
stiffness and the distribution of stresses within a coupled
shear wall. As the accuracy and cost of such an analysis is
a function of the element size used, this method is usually
reserved for complex structures.
A plane frame computer analysis will be sufficiently precise
for the majority of structures. The element dimensions
must be considered in modeling a coupled shear wall as a
frame, as a centreline analysis may yield inaccurate results.
A suggested model is shown in Figure 2.7.7(a).
Either finite element or frame analyses may be used to
determine the deflection of a coupled shear wall, and
its equivalent moment of inertia and the distribution of
shears in a building that contains both solid and coupled
shear walls. Some frame analysis programs do not
calculate shear deformations, so shear deformations may
have to be manually calculated.
2.7.6 Shear Walls with Large Openings

Window panels and other wall panels with large openings
may also be analyzed with plane frame computer
programs. Figure 2.7.7(b) shows suggested models. An
analysis similar to that described for coupled shear
walls may be used.
Figure 2.7.7 Computer models
As with coupled shear walls, deflections predicted
by the computer analysis may be used to determine
equivalent stiffness for determining lateral load
distribution. Shear deflections may have to be hand
calculated and added to the flexural stiffnesses from
the frame analysis.
In tall structures, a more rigorous analysis may be
required, as vertical shear and axial deformations
influence the rigidity of panels with large openings.

Example 2.12 One-storey building
Given:
Design the shear walls for a one-storey industrial
building, illustrated in Figure 2.7.8. 2400 mm wide
double tees are used for both the roof and walls.
Use a wind load of 1.2 kN/m2. Backfill density = 16
kN/m3.
Problem:
Analyze the structure for the effects of wind loads.
Solution:
1. Calculate forces, reactions, shears and
moments:
Total wind force to roof:
W = (1.2)(48)(5.4/2 + 0.75) = 200 kN
VL = VR = 100 kN
W l (200)(48)
Diaphragm moment, M = =
8 8
= 1200 kN-m
2. Check the sliding resistance of the shear wall:

Determine dead load on the footing:
DT wall: (7.05)(36)(1.9) = 482 kN
Footing: (0.3)(0.45)(36)(24) = 117 kN
Backfill: (0.9)(0.40)(36)(16) = 207 kN
Total = 806 kN
Assume a coefficient of friction against granular Figure 2.7.8 Example of one-storey building
soil:
µs = 0.5 3. Check overturning resistance:
Sliding resistance = µs N = (0.5)(806) Applied overturning moment = (100)(1.2 + 5.4)
= 403 kN = 660 kN-m
Factor of safety = 403 / 100 = 4.0 Resistance to overturning:
OK
Assume an axis of rotation at the leeward edge
Note: A factor of 2.0 is specified by many of the building.
building codes.
Continued next page

Example 2.12 One-storey building (continued from previous page)
Figure 2.7.10 Chord forces
Applied shear = [(24 - 2.4) / 24](100)

= 90 kN
Wind Load factor = 1.4
Vf = (90)(1.4) = 126 kN
Vf = 126 / 36 = 3.5 kN/m
Use ties as shown in Figure 2.5.2.
A preferred maximum connection spacing
is 2500 mm to 3000 mm.
(b) Shear ties at the shear walls:
Vf = (100)(1.4) = 140 kN
Vf = 140 / 36 = 3.9 kN/m
A connection as shown in Figure 2.7.9 is
Figure 2.7.9 Connection of roof tee to wall designed similar to the shear tie between
double tees.
Note: Sometimes a more conservative assumption At least two connections per panel are
of an axis at d/5, d/4 or d/3 from the leeward recommended to distribute the load to
edge may be used depending on the foundation the wall panels. From Figure 2.7.9(a), these
conditions. connections should occur at the tee stems. A
spacing of 1200 mm will be used in this case.
Resisting moment = (806)(36/2)
= 14508 kN-m Other types of connections using short welded
Factor of safety = 14508 / 660 headed studs are commonly used for this
application.
= 22.0 > 2.0 OK
4. Analyze connections: In some cases, it may be desirable to provide a
connection that permits vertical movement of the
(a) Shear ties in the double tee roof joint:
roof element, see Figure 2.7.9(b).
Maximum load at the next to last joint
Continued next page

Example 2.12 One-storey building (continued from previous page)
(c) Chord force, see Figure 2.7.10: The tensile force per unit length is:
T = C = M / d = 1200 / 36000 x 10-3 ft =
P M
= 33.3 kN A S
Tf = (1.4)(33.3) = 46.6 kN 2 2 2
S = l / 6 = 36 / 6 = 216 mm
This force can be transmitted between A = l = 36 m
elements by ties at the roof tees, wall panels
M = VRhs = (100)(6.3) = 630 kN-m
or a combination, as illustrated in Figure
2.7.10. P = D.L. of wall = 482 kN
0.9P 1.4M
Reinforcing bars can be placed in the ft =
A S
flanges to resist higher forces or where more (0.9)(482) (1.4)(630)
ductility is required. Design procedures are =
36 216
discussed in Section 2.8.
= 8.0 kN/ m (compression)
(d) Wall panel connections:
No tension connections are required for wind
This shear wall can be designed to act as
loads. Minimum tension connections are required
a series of independent units, without ties
for structural integrity, see CSA A23.3, Clause 16.5.
between the panels. The shear force is
assumed to be -distributed equally among
the wall panels, see Figure 2.7.11.
n = 36000/2400 = 15 panels
Vi = VR /n = 100/15 = 6.67 kN
D = (1.9 kN/m2)(2400)(7050) x 10-6
= 32.1 kN
Design base connection for 1.4W - 0.9D
Tf = [(1.4)(6.67)(6300) - (0.9)(32.1)(600)] /
1200
= 34.6 kN tension
Alternatively, the shear wall can be
designed with 2 or more panels connected
together as illustrated in Figure 2.7.12.
Shear ties between panels: Figure 2.7.11 Panels acting as individual units
v = VR / d = 100 / 36 = 2.78 kN/m in a shear wall
The unit shear stress, vf, is equal on all
sides of the panel:
Vf = (2.78)(1.4) = 3.9 kN/m
The total connection force between vertical
panel joints = 3.9(6.3) = 24.6 kN (can
be designed using a single mid-height
connection).
Check for tension using factored loads:
The required load factor equation to use for
this condition is 0.9D - 1.4W. Figure 2.7.12 Panels connected together as a
monolithic shear wall

Example 2.13 Four-storey building
Given:
A typical four-storey residential building as shown
in Figure 2.7.13. 200 mm deep hollowcore units
are used for the floors and roof, and 200 mm thick
precast concrete walls are used for all walls shown.
Unfactored loads are given as follows:
Gravity loads: L.L. D.L.
Roof: 1.44
Roofing, mechanical, etc. 0.48
Hollowcore slabs 3.06
3.54 kN/m2
Sample calculation of these properties for Element
Typical floor: 4:
Living areas 1.92 0.25h = 0.25(10200)
Corridors & stairs 4.80 = 2550 (Does not control)
Partitions 0.48 The section properties of this T section are:
Hollowcore slabs 3.06 Aw = (8200)(200) = 1640
3
10 mm
2
3.54 kN/m2 3 2
Af = (2080)(200) = 416 10 mm
Walls: 4.8 kN/m2
(1640000)(4000) +(416000)(8100)
Stairs: 4.8 6.2 kN/m2 yb =
1640000 + 416000
Wind loads: = 4910 mm
0 to 9 m above grade 1.2 kN/m2
9 m to 10.4 m above grade 1.4 kN/m2 yt = 8200 4910 = 3290 mm
(200)(8200)3
Problem: I = + (1640000)(4100 4910)2
12
Analyze and design the structure for wind in the
north-south and east-west directions. + (416000)(8100 4910) 2
= 14500 10 9 mm4
Solution:
Wind in north-south direction:
The equivalent stiffness is calculated using the Case
This example will conservatively neglect the 1 multi-storey formula from Figure 2.7.3:
resistance provided by the stairs, elevator and I
Ieq =
longitudinal walls for wind in the north-south 13.4 I
1+
direction. As shown in Figure 2.7.13, flanged walls A w h2
are modeled for wind in the north-south direction.
Figure 2.7.14 shows the wind resisting elements and 14500 10 9
=
a summary of their properties is shown in Figure (13.4)(14500 10 9 )
1+
2.7.15. (1640 10 3 )(2600) 2
= 780 10 9 mm4
In this example the storey height is used when

calculating equivalent stiffness. However, for multi-
storey structures the height of the structure may be
more appropriate with Figure 2.7.3 height values.
Continued next page

Example 2.13 Four-storey building (continued from previous page)
Figure 2.7.13 Four-storey building example
Continued next page

Ieq is the relative stiffness: (8.1)

= (8.1) [31.9 + (3)(43.6) + 11.7]
Kr = 1 / 2
= 5720 kN- m
Ph3
=
3EIeq Factor of safety:
3EIeq dead load resisting moment
Kr = =
Ph3 wind moment
5720
Since 3, E, P, and h are all constants when comparing = = 22.6 > 2.0 OK
253
stiffnesses, Kr varies directly with Ieq.
Check for tension using factored loads:
Distribution of wind load to Element 4, based on its
Dead load on wall:
relative stiffness, is (Figure 2.7.15):
P = (8.1) [31.9 + (3)(43.6) + (11.7)]
I (780)(100)
= = 5.5% = 1410 kN
ΣnIeq 14130
Maximum wind moment at foundation:
Figure 2.7.16 shows the load summary for wall 0.9P 1.4M
Element 4 for gravity and transverse wind loading. f =
l (l 2 / 6)
Note: 5.5% of the total wind load has been assumed
to be carried by this element. Concentrated loads (0.9)(1410) (1.4)(253)
=
from the corridor lintels can be assumed to be 8.1 (8.1 2 / 6)
distributed as shown in this figure. These loads = +124 kN/ m (compression)
have been conservatively neglected to simplify the
calculations. The building is stable under wind loads in north-
south direction. No tension connections are required
Check the overturning of the shear wall dead load
between panels and the foundation. Other design
resisting moment about the toe of the wall:
considerations may dictate the use of minimum
vertical ties [6] and CSA A23.3, Clause 16.5.
Figure 2.7.14 Wind resisting elements for north-south wind

Continued next page

Wind in the east-west direction: The building is stable under wind loads in the east-
west direction. No tension connections are required
For wind in the east-west direction, the shear walls
between wall and the foundation. Other design
will be connected to the load bearing walls. The
considerations may dictate the use of minimum
assumed resisting elements are shown in Figure
vertical ties. See CSA A23.3, Clause 16.5
2.7.17 and a summary of the properties is shown in
Figure 2.7.19. The connections required for the elements to
act in a composite manner can be designed by
The shears and moments in the east-west direction
considering Element A. The unit stress at the
are shown in Figure 2.7.20, and the distributions are
interface is determined using the classic equation
shown in Figure 2.7.18.
for horizontal shear:
Consider Element B at the first floor to check VQ
vh =
overturning due to wind in the east-west direction. I
From Figure 2.7.16, the dead loads on the 1040 mm Q = (1040)(200)(1400 956 100)
long portion of Element B: 6 3
= 71.6 10 mm
= 31.9 + (3)(43.6) + 11.7 = 174 kN/m (5.4)(71.6)
vh = = 3.8 kN/ m
The dead load on the 2400 mm long portion of 101
Element B is the weight of the wall: Total shear = (3.8)(2.4) = 9.1 kN/level
Connections similar to those shown in Figure 2.7.13
= (10.4)(4.8) = 50 kN/m
can be designed using the principles outlined in
The dead load resisting moment for 11 elements is Chapter 4.
therefore:
Design of floor diaphragm:
M = (11) [(174)(1.04)(1.2) + (50)(2.4)(1.2)] Analysis procedures for the floor diaphragm are
= 3970 kN-m described in Section 2.5. For this example, refer to
Figure 2.7.21.
The factor of safety against overturning can
be calculated conservatively neglecting the The factored wind load for a typical floor is:
contribution of the other elements: wf = (1.4)(1.2)(2.6) = 4.37 kN/m
3970
Factor of safety = = 3.1 > 2.0 OK For wind from the north or south:
1267
(4.37)(9)
To check for tension, also consider Element B: VfR = = 20 kN
2
Total dead load on wall: M (4.37)(9)2
Cf = Tf = f = = 2.6 kN
P = (174)(1.04) + (50)(2.4) = 301 kN l (8)(17.0)
Total wall area: The reaction V is transferred to the shear wall by
A = (2400 + 1040)(200) = 68800 mm2 static friction:
The wind moment carried by Element B (Figure DL of floor: (9/2)(18)(3.54) = 287 kN

2.7.19): DL of wall: (2.4)(16.2)(4.8) / 2 = 93 kN
Total = 380 kN
M = 51.9 kN-m The factored stress is:
0.9P 1.4M Static coefficient of friction from Figure 4.4.1
f =
A S (bearing strip to concrete) = 0.4. Reduce by factor
(0.9)(301 103 ) (1.4)(51.9 106 ) of 5 as recommended in Chapter 4.
=
688000 (230 109 /1200) µ = 0.4 / 5 = 0.08
Resisting force = (0.08)(380)
= 0.015 MPa (compression)
= 30.4 > 20 kN OK
Continued next page

Aw I Ieq No. of n Ieq Ieq

Element (100%)
(mm2 x 103) (mm4 x 109) (mm4 x 109) elements (mm4 ´x 109) nIeq
1660 16355 800 2 1600 5.7
900 3442 400 2 800 2.8
1780 15956 850 2 1700 6.0
1640 14500 780 12 9360 5.5
1520 5321 670 1 670 4.7
∑ n Ieq = 14130
Figure 2.7.15 Properties of resisting elements for wind in transverse north-south direction
Continued next page

Summary of gravity loads

2
Load Tributary Unit loads (kN/m ) Wall weight Total unfactored load
mark area L.L. D.L. (kN/m) L.L. D.L. T.L.
2
PR 8.1 m 1.44 3.54 – 11.7 kN 28.7 kN 40.4 kN
P4 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 – 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P3 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 – 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
P2 8.1 m 4.80 3.06 – 38.9 kN 24.8 kN 63.7 kN
WR 9.0 m 1.44 3.54 – 13.0 kN/m 31.9 kN/m 44.9 kN/m
*
W4 9.0 m 0.77 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
*
W3 9.0 m 0.77 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
*
W2 9.0 m 0.77 3.54 11.7 7.0 kN/m 43.6 kN/m 50.6 kN/m
W1 N/A – – 11.7 0 11.7 kN/m 11.7 kN/m
*Includes live load reduction allowed by codes
Figure 2.7.16 Loading on wall Element 4
Continued next page

Figure 2.7.17 Wind resisting elements for east-west wind
4th floor 3rd floor 2nd floor 1st floor

Element Dist. (%) Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
(kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m) (kN) (kN-m)
64 87 122 330 180 723 283 1267
A 1.90 1.2 1.7 2.3 6.3 3.4 13.7 5.4 24.1
B 4.10 2.6 3.6 5.0 13.5 7.4 29.6 11.6 51.9
C 7.06 4.5 6.1 8.6 23.3 12.7 51.0 20.0 89.5
D 7.41 4.7 6.5 9.0 24.5 13.3 53.5 21.0 94.0
E 4.07 2.6 3.5 5.0 13.4 7.3 29.4 11.5 51.6
F 6.96 4.5 6.0 8.5 23.0 12.5 50.3 19.7 88.2
G 7.27 4.7 6.3 8.9 24.0 13.1 52.6 20.6 92.1
Note: The relative stiffness and percent distribution for the elements in this table are assumed the same for all stories. The exact values
may be slightly different for each storey because the values change due to the reduced flange width (see Figure 2.7.2 .b).
Figure 2.7.18 Distribution of wind shears and moments in longitudinal east-west direction
Although the friction force is adequate to resist CSA A23.3, Clause 16.5.3.5 requires tension ties
the applied shear force, CSA A23.3 Clause 16.5.3.7 around the perimeter with a factored tensile
requires additional connections to effectively tie resistance of not less than 60 kN, that is greater
the elements together for ductility and structural than the diaphragm tension of 2.8 kN:
integrity. It is common to use the vertical wall/wall
Required As = 60 x 103 / 0.85(400) = 176 mm2
reinforcement as both a vertical tie and a horizontal
Use a 15M bar, As = 200 mm2
shear connection.
The shear resistance of the grout key (see
The chord tension Tf is resisted by the steel
Section 2.5.1.1) is:
reinforcement in the floor slab. The grout key
between slabs must also resist the corresponding Vr = 0.3 A = (0.3)(9000/2)(75) / 103
horizontal shear: = 101 kN > 2.6 kN OK
Continued next page

For wind from the east or west – Figure 2.7.21(b): Grout key = 75 mm deep
(4.37)(18.4) Vr = (0.3)(62800)(75) / 103
VfR = = 40 kN
2 = 1410 kN > 40 OK
(4.37)(18.4)2 Only the resistance to wind loading has been
Cf = Tf = = 2.9 kN
(8)(62.8) analyzed in this example. Other required loadings,
including abnormal loads, must be reviewed for a
Shear resistance of a grout joint:
complete analysis.
Ieq
Aw I yb Ieq No. of n Ieq ∑y Ieq (∑y)
Element ∑nIeq
(mm2x103) (mm4x109) (mm) (mm4x109) elem. (mm4x109) (mmx103) (mm5x109)
(100%)
280 101 956 54.5 4 218 1.90 37.4 2038
480 230 1200 118 11 1298 4.10 93.5 11,033
520 892 1300 203 2 406 7.06 20.7 4202
520 1137 1082 213 2 426 7.41 12.4 2641
480 231 1200 117 1 117 4.07 18.4 2153
520 851 810 200 1 200 6.96 16.2 3240
520 1022 1184 209 1 209 7.27 14.8 3093
∑nIeq = 2874 ∑ = 28,400

Note: 1. Centre of rigidity = 28,400 / 2874 = 9.88 m
2. The east-west wind load is slightly eccentric by 9.8 - 18.4 / 2 = 0.68 m
3. Torsion due to this eccentricity is neglected in calculating shears and moments in Figure 2.7.20
Figure 2.7.19 Properties of resisting elements for wind in longitudinal east-west direction
Continued next page

Figure 2.7.20 Wind load in east-west direction
Figure 2.7.21 Diaphragm analysis
2.7.7 Architectural Panels as Shear Walls

It is beneficial in many structures to take advantage of the inherent strength and rigidity of exterior panels, and
design them as the lateral load resisting system.
Figure 2.7.22 illustrates the foundation reaction distributions of exterior architectural precast shear wall systems
under the action of lateral load, with and without connections between the shear walls and the windward or
leeward walls. A structure with corner connections is structurally more efficient for resisting lateral loads.
The lateral load resisting system shown in Figure 2.7.22(b) is frequently labeled a tube. Full tube behavior does
not develop because the components and the connections are not perfectly rigid. Figure 2.7.23 illustrates the
difference. The peaking of the foundation reaction at the corner results from shear lag that limits the effective width
of the flange. Accurate evaluation of shear lag is difficult, but the effective flange width for most structures should
not be assumed to extend farther from the face of the web than:
1. One-half of the clear distance to an adjacent shear wall web, or
2. 25% of the wall height above the section under consideration.

Figure 2.7.23 Influence of shear lag on tube
behavior
Figure 2.7.22 Foundation reaction distributions

resulting from lateral loads
2.8 EARTHQUAKE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

2.8.1 General
Buildings may experience earthquake events throughout their service life. Although rare, earthquake loads and
effects resulting from ground motion can be significant and may cause damage to buildings. The National Building
Code of Canada prescribes seismic design requirements which buildings are required to meet. In general, the
primary objectives of these requirements are to protect the life and safety of building occupants and the general
public during strong ground shaking and to limit building damage during low to moderate levels of ground
shaking. As such, buildings may suffer significant damage during strong earthquakes but should have sufficient
resistance to prevent collapse.
Capacity design
An approach normally taken in earthquake design is to identify certain structural elements within the structure
where the damage will be concentrated rather than design the complete structure to be able to deform in
the inelastic range. These structural elements are provided with special seismic detailing to ensure adequate
ductility and energy dissipation whereas the remaining elements are made strong enough so that they will remain
essentially elastic. In general, the level of ductilility in the energy dissipating elements dictates the seismic force
design demand that a building structure is designed to resist. This approach to seismic design of structures is
commonly called capacity design. The nonlinear response of a one-storey precast building subject to earthquake
excitation is discussed in Reference [10].

CHAPTER 2 Analysis and Design of Structures
Although the magnitude of the lateral design forces may be governed by wind forces, detailing for seismic
forces may still be required to ensure that the building’s lateral seismic force resisting system has sufficient ductility to
withstand the anticipated design earthquake forces.
Load tests of prestressed concrete elements have shown that large deflections occur as the design strength is
approached. Cyclic load tests have shown that prestressed concrete beams can undergo several cycles of load reversals
and still maintain their original strength. This sort of ductile behaviour is exactly what is needed for the elements that are
expected to be damaged during an earthquake.
Prestressed concrete structures can be designed to withstand the effects of earthquakes in accordance with the
requirements of the applicable building code. For some types of buildings, box-type structures offer an economical
solution. In other cases, ductile moment-resisting frames can be used. The following discussion deals mainly with
the design of critical connections and components to provide adequate resistance to seismic forces, and the design
procedures necessary to ensure that the complete structure will behave as intended during an earthquake.
Earthquakes generate horizontal and vertical ground movement. When an earthquake passes beneath a structure, the
foundation will tend to move with the ground, while the superstructure will tend to remain in its original position. The
lag between foundation and superstructure movement will cause distortions and develop forces in the structure. These
distortions and forces can best be investigated using non-linear dynamic analysis taking into account the properties
of the soil, the intensity and duration of the ground shaking and the physical properties of the structure. A linear or
elastic dynamic analysis can be used to predict the response to moderate earthquakes and can also provide an insight
into which elements are likely to yield and what the maximum deflection is likely to be in a more severe earthquake.
Important structural properties include mass, stiffness, strength and ductility, and their distribution throughout the
structure. In lieu of dynamic analysis, building codes present formulae for equivalent static forces and force distributions
which can, if the underlying assumptions are understood and respected, be used to design acceptable structures in the
majority of cases.
The current philosophy for the design of earthquake-resistant structures in Canada permits minor damage for
moderate earthquakes, and accepts major damage for severe earthquakes, provided collapse is prevented and
occupants can leave the building without serious injury. Large non-linear or inelastic deformations may be expected
in some connections and other elements as a result of the earthquake induced forces. In precast structures, these
are accommodated by providing ductility in these elements and connections. While this ductility limits the design
earthquake forces for the building and prevents total collapse, the resultant distortions will usually lead to significant
damage to connections and other structural elements that yield and may also result in damage to non-structural
elements and mechanical and electrical systems.
Buildings may be designed as either flexible or rigid. Flexible structures will develop large deflections and small inertial
forces; conversely, rigid structures will develop large inertial forces but small deflections. Either type may be designed to
be safe against total collapse. However, experience demonstrates that a rigid structure, properly designed to account for
the large inertia forces, will incur significantly less damage to architectural, mechanical, and electrical elements.
To limit the damage to non-structural or architectural elements in a flexible building, these elements may be uncoupled
from the structural system so that they are not forced to undergo as much deformation as the supporting structure.
This requires connections between individual elements and the supporting structure be designed to withstand large
distortions without fracture. As explained above, damage can also be reduced by building a more rigid building to
minimize the deformations imposed on the architectural elements. This will require a stronger structure to reduce the
amount of yielding and consequent inelastic deformation that occurs. In most buildings, non-structural architectural wall
panels should be uncoupled from the lateral force resisting structure.
Since ground motion is random in direction, a structure that is shaped to be equally resistant in any direction is the
optimum solution. Experience has shown that structures that are symmetric in plan, with minimum torsional eccentricity,
behave better in earthquakes than structures that are unsymmetric and have their centres of mass and rigidity well
separated. Closed sections (i.e., boxes or tubes) have demonstrated markedly improved behaviour when compared
with open sections, because: (1) closed sections provide a high degree of torsional resistance, and (2) the higher axial

stresses and resultant deformations in the exterior columns provide significant energy absorption.
An architectural precast concrete facade can be used to provide the earthquake resistant structural elements. This
can be in the form of either shear walls or spandrel beams and closely spaced columns (mullions) that simultaneously
provide the exterior skin and the structural tube. It is also often possible to create a structure that is symmetric in
plan. The energy dissipation characteristics of precast walls will depend to a great extent upon the behaviour of the
connections. In addition, precast walls with large openings can behave similar to a beam-column system. However,
unless comprehensive test data is available, precast wall type structures should be treated as specified by codes for
shear wall structures.
The PRESSS (Precast Seismic Structural Systems) program has researched systems that take advantage of the jointed
nature of precast concrete, including the testing of a five storey 60% scale building. [20] This test structure used precast
frames with several different ductile joints in one direction, and precast concrete shear walls in the other direction.
In 2002, a 39-storey building using a hybrid frame system was completed in San Francisco. [3] Further research and
codification of precast seismic resisting systems is ongoing.
2.8.2 Building Code Requirements

The previous Fourth Edition of the CPCI Design Manual was based on the requirements of the 2005 National Building
Code of Canada (NBCC). This Fifth Edition is based on the 2015 NBCC [7]. The seismic design provisions in the 2015
NBCC are similar to the provisions in the 2005 NBCC.
Some of the major changes in the 2015 NBCC include:
1. the introduction of design requirements in low hazard zones,
2. updated seismic data,
3. new period-dependent site coefficients,
4. revised formulas for calculating design spectral acceleration values,
5. a new type of structure irregularity to consider,
6. revised higher mode and base overturning moment reduction factors,
7. revised cut-off formulas for calculating maximum static base shear,
8. a revised minimum base shear force at long periods for walls, coupled-walls and wall-frame systems,
9. new foundation design provisions,
10. the introduction of seismic isolation design provisions, and
11. the introduction of supplemental energy dissipation design provisions.
Additional background information on the changes to the seismic design provisions of the 2015 National Building Code
of Canada can be found in Reference [21]. Additional information on the seismic design of concrete buildings to the
2015 NBCC can be found in Reference [25].
Further references to the NBCC in this section pertain to the 2015 edition of the NBCC [7], unless noted
otherwise. Notation, language and tables are reproduced with the permission of the National Research Council
of Canada, copyright holder.
2.8.3 2015 NBCC Requirements

This section contains selected seismic provisions from the NBCC, which have been adapted and reformatted to suit the
context of this manual. A complete catalog of seismic requirements can be found in the 2015 NBCC [7].
2.8.3.1 General requirements

The deflections and specified loading due to earthquake motions must be determined as noted below unless the
“triggers” IEFsSa(0.2) and IEFsSa(2.0) are less than 0.16 and 0.03 respectively. In such cases, it is permitted to determine
the deflections and the specified loading due to earthquakes using the “simplified approach” noted through Sentences
4.1.8.1.(2) to 4.1.8.1.(15) of the NBCC. For the purpose of determining the “trigger” values, the site coefficient, Fs, is based
on the average N60 or Su for the top 30 m of soil below the footings, pile caps or mat foundations and has a value of

(a) 1.0 for rock sites or when N60 > 50 or Su > 100 kPa,
(b) 1.6 when 15 ≤ N60 ≤ 50 or 50 kPa ≤ Su ≤ 100 kPa, and
(c) 2.8 for all other cases, and
Sa(T) is the 5% damped spectral response acceleration value for period T, deteremined in accordance with NBCC
Subsection 1.1.3. Structures shall be designed with a clearly defined load path, or paths, that will transfer the inertial
forces generated in an earthquake to the supporting ground. The structure shall have a clearly defined Seismic Force
Resisting System(s) (SFRS). The SFRS shall be designed to resist 100% of the earthquake loads and their effects.
All structural framing elements not considered to be part of the SFRS must be investigated and shown to behave
elastically, or have sufficient non-linear capacity to support their gravity loads while undergoing earthquake-induced
deformations calculated from the deflections, determined in Section 2.8.3.7.
Stiff elements that are not considered part of the SFRS, such as concrete, masonry, brick or precast walls or panels, shall
be separated from all structural elements of the building with properly detailed connections such that no interaction
takes place as the building undergoes deflections due to earthquake effects or they shall be made part of the SFRS.
Stiffness imparted to the structure from elements not part of the SFRS, other than those described above, shall not be
used to resist earthquake deflections but shall be accounted for:
(a) in calculating the period of the structure for determining forces if the added stiffness decreases the fundamental
lateral period by more than 15%,
(b) in determining the irregularity of the structure, except the additional stiffness must not be used to make an
irregular SFRS regular or to reduce the effects of torsion, and
(c) in designing the SFRS if inclusion of the elements not part of the SFRS in the analysis has an adverse effect on
the SFRS.
Structural modeling shall be representative of the magnitude and spatial distribution of the mass of the building and of
the stiffness of all elements of the SFRS, including stiff elements that are not separated from the SFRS, and shall account
for:
(a) the effect of cracked sections in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry elements,
(b) the effect of the finite size of members and joints,
(c) sway effects arising from the interaction of gravity loads with the displaced configuration of the structure, and
(d) other effects that influence the lateral stiffness of the building.
2.8.3.2 Methods of analysis

The NBCC requires that the analysis for design earthquake actions be carried out using the Dynamic Analysis Procedure
described in Section 2.8.3.3 except that the Equivalent Static Force Procedure (ESFP) described in Section 2.8.3.4 may be
used for structures that meet any of the following criteria:
(a) in cases where IEFaSa(0.2) < 0.35,
(b) regular structures that are less than 60 m in height and have a fundamental lateral period, Ta, less than 2
seconds in each of two orthogonal directions, or
(c) structures with structural irregularity, of Type 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 8 as defined in Figure 2.8.4 that are less than 20 m
in height and have a fundamental lateral period, Ta, less than 0.5 seconds in each of two orthogonal directions.
Structures having any of the features listed in Figure 2.8.4 shall be designated irregular. Structures not classified as
irregular may be considered regular.
2.8.3.3 Dynamic analysis procedures

Except where seismic isolation or supplemental energy dissipation are used as the the seismic design concept, the
Dynamic Analysis Procedure shall be in accordance with one of the following methods:

(a) Linear Dynamic Analysis by either the Modal Response Spectrum Method or the Numerical Integration Linear
Time History Method using a structural model as described in the general requirements under Section 2.8.3.1
or,
(b) Non-linear Dynamic Analysis Method, in which case a special study shall be performed.
The spectral acceleration values used in the Modal Response Spectrum Method shall be the design spectral
acceleration values S(T) as defined in Section 2.8.3.4. The ground motion histories used in the Numerical Integration
Linear Time History Method shall be compatible with a response spectrum constructed from the design spectral
acceleration values, S(T) as defined in Section 2.8.3.4.
The effects of accidental torsional moments acting concurrently with the lateral earthquake forces that cause them shall
be accounted for by the following methods:
(a) the static effects of torsional moments due to (±0.10 Dnx)Fx at each level x, where Fx is either determined from
the elastic dynamic analysis or determined from the Equivalent Static Force Procedure multiplied by RdRo/IE,
shall be combined with the effects determined by dynamic analysis, or
(b) if B is less than 1.7, it is permitted to use a three-dimensional dynamic analysis with the centres of mass shifted
by a distance of -0.05 Dnx and + 0.05 Dnx.
For structures located on sites other than Class F that have an SFRS with Rd equal to or greater than 1.5, the elastic base
shear obtained from a Linear Dynamic Analysis may be multiplied by the larger of the following to obtain the design
elastic base shear, Ved:
2S(0.2)
≤ 1.0 and
3S(Ta)
S(0.5)/S(Ta) ≤ 1.0
In all other cases, the design elastic base shear, Ved, shall be equal to the elastic base shear, Ve, obtained from a Linear
Dynamic Analysis. The design elastic base shear, Ved, shall be multiplied by the importance factor, IE, and shall be divided
by RdRo to obtain the design base shear, Vd.
Except for irregular structures requiring dynamic analysis, if the base shear Vd is less than 80% of the lateral earthquake
design force, V, determined from the ESFP, Vd shall be taken as 0.8V. For such structures, Vd shall be taken as the larger of
Vd and 100% of V determined from the ESFP.
The value of elastic storey shears, storey forces, member forces, and deflections obtained from the Linear Dynamic
Analysis, including the effect of accidental torsion, shall be multiplied by Vd/Ve to determine their design values, where
Vd is the base shear. For the purpose of calculating deflections, it is permitted to use a value for V based on the value of
Ta without the specified upper limit, except that for walls, coupled walls and wall-frame systems, Ta shall not exceed 4.0 s,
and for moment-resisting frames, braced frames and other systems, Ta shall not exceed 2.0 s, to obtain Vd.
See the NBCC for further information on the dynamic method of analysis and for requirements where seismic isolation or
supplement energy dissipation systems are used.
2.8.3.4 Equivalent static force procedure

The minimum lateral earthquake force, V, shall be calculated using the following formula:
V = S(Ta)MvIEW/(RdRo)
except:
(a) for walls, coupled walls and wall-frame systems, V shall not be taken less than
S(4.0)MvIEW/(RdRo)
(b) for moment-resisting frames, braced frames, and other systems, V shall not be less than
S(2.0)MvIEW/(RdRo)

(c) for buildings located on a site other than Class F and having an SFRS with an Rd equal to or greater than 1.5, V
need not be taken greater than the larger of:
2
/3 S(0.2)IEW/(RdRo) and
S(0.5) IEW/(RdRo).
The design spectral acceleration values of S(T) shall be determined as follows, using linear interpolation for intermediate
values of T:
S(T) = F(0.2)Sa(0.2) or F(0.5)Sa(0.5), whichever is larger, for T ≤ 0.2 s
= F(0.5)Sa(0.5) for T = 0.5 s
= F(1.0)Sa(1.0) for T = 1.0 s
= F(2.0)Sa(2.0) for T = 2.0 s
= F(5.0)Sa(5.0) for T = 5.0 s
= F(10.0)Sa(10.0) for T ≥ 10.0 s
The peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV), and the 5% damped spectral response acceleration
values Sa(T) for the reference ground conditions (Site Class C in Figure 2.8.1) for periods T of 0.2 s, 0.5 s, 1.0 s, 2.0 s, 5.0 s
and 10.0 s, shall be determined in accordance with Subsection 1.1.3 of the NBCC and are based on a 2% probability of
exceedance in 50 years.
The values of the site coefficients for design spectral acceleration at period T, F(T), and of similar coefficients F(PGA)
and F(PGV) shall conform to Figures 2.8.2.A to 2.8.2.H using linear interpolation for intermediate values of PGAref. The
site classifications for soils used in Figures 2.8.2.A to 2.8.2.H shall conform to Figure 2.8.1 and shall be determined using
Vs30 . If the average shear wave velocity, Vs30 , is not known, the Site Class shall be determined from energy corrected
Average Standard Penetration Resistance, N60 , or from soil average undrained shear strength, su, as noted in Figure
2.8.1, N60 , and su, being calculated based on rational analysis. For the purpose of determining the values of F(T) to be
used in the calculation of design spectral acceleration, S(T), and the values of F(PGA) and F(PGV), the value of PGAref to
be used with Figures 2.8.2A to 2.8.2H shall be taken as:
(a) 0.8 PGA, where the ratio Sa(0.2)/PGA < 2.0, and
(b) PGA, otherwise.
For application in this section, Fa is to be taken as F(0.2) and Fv as F(1.0).
The fundamental lateral period, Ta, in the direction under consideration shall be determined as:
(a) for moment-resisting frames that resist 100% of the required lateral forces and where the frame is not enclosed
by or adjoined by more rigid elements that would tend to prevent the frame from resisting lateral forces, and
where hn is in metres:
i) 0.085 (hn)3/4 for steel moment frames,
ii) 0.075 (hn)3/4 for concrete moment frames, or
iii) 0.1 N for other moment frames,
(b) 0.025 hn for braced frames where hn is in metres,
(c) 0.05 (hn)3/4 for shear wall and other structures where hn is in metres, or
(d) other established methods of mechanics using a structural model as defined in the general requirements
under Section 2.8.3.1, except that:
i) for moment resisting frames, Ta shall not be taken greater than 1.5 times that in (a),
ii) for braced frames, Ta shall not be taken greater than 2.0 times that in (b),
iii) for shear wall structures, Ta shall not be taken greater than 2.0 times that in (c),
iv) for other structures, Ta shall not be taken greater than that in (c), and
v) for the purpose of calculating the deflections, the period without the upper limit specified in (d)(i) to (d)
(iv) may be used, except that, for walls, coupled walls and wall-frame systems, Ta shall not exceed 4.0 s,
and for moment-resisting frames, braced frames, and other systems, Ta shall not exceed 2.0 s.

For single-storey buildings with steel deck or wood roof diaphragms, the fundamental lateral period, Ta, in the direction
under consideration is permitted to be taken as:
(a) 0.05 (hn)3/4 + 0.004 L for shear walls,
(b) 0.035 hn + 0.004 L for steel moment frames and steel braced frames, or
(c) the value obtained from methods of mechanics using a structural model as defined in the general
requirements under Section 2.8.3.1, except that Ta shall not be greater than 1.5 times the value determined in
clauses (a) or (b), as applicable,
where L is the shortest length of the diaphragm, in m, between adjacent vertical elements of the SFRS in the direction
perpendicular to the direction under consideration.
The higher mode factor, Mv, is given in Figure 2.8.6.
The earthquake importance factor, IE, is given in Figure 2.8.3.
The weight, W, of the building shall be calculated in accordance with the following formula:
n
W= ∑ Wi
i=1
The ductility-related force modification factor, Rd, and overstrength-related modification factor, Ro, are given
in Figure 2.8.5 along with the corresponding system restrictions. When a particular value of Rd is required, the
corresponding Ro shall be used. For combinations of different types of SFRS acting in the same direction in the same
storey, RdRo shall be taken as the lowest value of RdRo corresponding to these systems. For vertical variations of RdRo,
excluding rooftop structures not exceeding two storeys in height whose weight is less than the greater of 10% of W and
30 of Wi of the level below, the value of RdRo used in the design of any storey shall be less than or equal to the lowest
value of RdRo used in the given direction for the storeys above, and the elements of the SFRS below the level where the
change in RdRo occurs shall be designed for the forces associated with the lateral capacity of the SFRS above that level.
If it can be demonstrated through testing, research and analysis that the seismic performance of a structural system is at
least equivalent to one of the types of SFRS given in Table 4.1.8.9 of the NBCC, then such a structural system will qualify
for the values of Rd and Ro corresponding to the equivalent type in that Table.
The total lateral seismic force, V, shall be distributed such that a portion, Ft, shall be assumed to be concentrated at the
top of the building, where Ft is equal to 0.07 TaV but need not exceed 0.25 V and may be considered as zero where the
fundamental lateral period,Ta, does not exceed 0.7 s; the remainder, V – Ft shall be distributed along the height of the
building, including the top level, in accordance with the following formula:
n
Fx = (V − Ft )Wx hx /( ∑ Wihi )
i=i
The structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused by the earthquake forces. The overturning moment
at level x, Mx, shall be determined from the following equation:
n
Mx = Jx ∑ Fi (hi − hx )
i= x
where
Jx = 1.0 for hx > 0.6hn, and
Jx = J + (1 - J)(hx / 0.6hn) for hx < 0.6hn,
The base overturning moment reduction factor, J, is given in Figure 2.8.6.
Torsional effects that are concurrent with the effects of the lateral forces applied to the structure and are caused by
the simultaneous actions of the following torsional moments shall be considered in the design of the structure as noted
below:
(a) torsional moments introduced by eccentricity between the centres of mass and resistance and their dynamic
amplification, and

(b) torsional moments due to accidental eccentricities.

Torsional sensitivity shall be determined by calculating the ratio Bx for each level x according to the following equation
for each orthogonal direction determined independently:
Bx = dmax/dave
where
B = maximum of all values of Bx, in both orthogonal directions, except that the Bx for one-storey penthouses with
a weight less than 10% of the level below need not be considered,
dmax = maximum storey displacement at the extreme points of the structure, at level x in the direction of the
earthquake induced by the equivalent static forces acting at distances ± 0.10Dnx from the centres of mass at
each floor, and
dave = average of the displacements at the extreme points of the structure at level x produced by the above-
mentioned forces.
Torsional effects shall be accounted for as follows:
(a) for a building with B ≤1.7 or where IEFaSa(0.2) is less than 0.35, by applying torsional moments about a vertical
axis at each level throughout the building, derived for each of the following load cases considered separately:
i) Tx = Fx(ex + 0.1Dnx), and
ii) Tx = Fx(ex - 0.1Dnx)
where Fx is the lateral force at each level and where each element of the building is designed for the
most severe effect of the above load cases, or
(b) for a building with B > 1.7, in cases where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, by a Dynamic Analysis
Procedure.
2.8.3.5 Direction of loading

Earthquake forces shall be assumed to act in any horizontal direction, except that the following shall be considered to
provide adequate design force levels in the structure:
(a) where components of the SFRS are oriented along a set of orthogonal axes, independent analyses about each
of the principal axes of the structure shall be performed,
(b) where the components of the SFRS are not oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and IEFaSa(0.2) is less than
0.35, independent analyses about any two orthogonal axes is permitted, or
(c) where the components of the SFRS are not oriented along a set of orthogonal axes and IEFaSa(0.2) is equal
to or greater than 0.35, analysis of the structure independently in any two orthogonal directions for 100% of
the prescribed earthquake loads applied in one direction plus 30% of the prescribed earthquake loads in
the perpendicular direction, with the combination requiring the greater element strength being used in the
design.
2.8.3.6 System restrictions

Refer to Figure 2.8.4 for Structural Irregularity types and definitions. Except for post-disaster buildings, structures with a
Type 6 irregularity (Discontinuity in Capacity - Weak Storey) are not permitted unless IEFaSa(0.2) is less than 0.2 and the
forces used for design of the SFRS are multiplied by RdRo.
Post-disaster buildings shall:
(a) not have any irregularities Types 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 in cases where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than
0.35,
(b) not have a Type 6 irregularity,
(c) shall have an SFRS with a Rd of 2.0 or greater, and
(d) have no storey with a lateral stiffness that is less than that of the storey above it.

For buildings having fundamental lateral periods, Ta of 1.0 s or greater, and where IEFvSa(1.0) is greater than 0.25, shear
walls that are other than wood-based and form part of the SFRS shall be continuous from their top to the foundation
and shall not have irregularities of Type 4 or 5.
The ratio, a, for a Type 9 irregularity as described in Figure 2.8.4, shall be determined independently for each orthogonal
direction using the following formula:
a = QG /Qy
where
QG = gravity-induced lateral demand on the SFRS at the critical level of the yielding system, and
Qy = t he resistance of the yielding mechanism required to resist the minimum earthquake loads, which need not
be taken as less than Ro multiplied by the minimum lateral earthquake force determined from the Equivalent
Static Force Procedure or the Dynamic Analysis Procedure, as appropriate.
For buildings with a Type 9 irregularity and where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.5, deflections determined
in accordance with Section 2.8.3.7 shall be multiplied by 1.2. Structures where the value of a exceeds twice the limits
specified in Figure 2.8.4 for a Type 9 irregularity, and where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.5 are not permitted
unless determined to be acceptable based on non-linear dynamic analysis studies.
2.8.3.7 Deflections and drift limits

Lateral deflections obtained from a linear elastic analysis using either the Equivalent Static Force Procedure or a (linear)
Dynamic Analysis Procedure and incorporating the effects of torsion, including accidental torsional moments, shall be
multiplied by RdRo/IE and increased to account for foundation movements and as required for Type 9 irregularity to give
realistic values of anticipated deflections. The largest interstorey deflection at any level based on the lateral deflections
shall be limited to 0.01hs for post-disaster buildings, 0.02hs for High Importance Category buildings, and 0.025hs for all
other buildings. Refer to NBCC Articles 4.1.8.20 and 4.1.8.22 for lateral deflection requirements of seismically isolated
structures and structures with supplemental energy dissipation, respectively.
2.8.3.8 Structural separation

Adjacent structures shall either be separated by the square root of the sum of the squares of their individual deflections,
or shall be connected to each other. The method of connection shall take into account the mass, stiffness, strength,
ductility and anticipated motion of the connected buildings and the character of the connection. Rigidly connected
buildings shall be assumed to have the lowest RdRo value of the buildings connected. Buildings with non-rigid or energy
dissipating connections require special studies.
Although not listed as an explicit requirement in the NBCC, expansion joints separating a structure should also meet
these requirements.
2.8.3.9 Design provisions

Diaphragms, collectors, chords, struts and connections shall be designed so as not to yield, and the design shall account
for the shape of the diaphragm, including openings, and for the forces generated in the diaphragm due to the following
cases, whichever one governs:
(a) forces due to loads determined from the Equivalent Static Force Procedure or Dynamic Analysis Procedure
applied to the diaphragm are increased to reflect the lateral load capacity of the SFRS, plus forces in the
diaphragm due to the transfer of forces between elements of the SFRS associated with the lateral load
capacity of such elements and accounting for discontinuities and changes in stiffness in these elements, or
(b) a minimum force corresponding to the design-based shear divided by N for the diaphragm at level x.
For single-storey buildings with steel deck or wood roof diaphragms designed with a value of Rd greater than 1.5 and
where the calculated maximum relative deflection, ΔD, of the diaphragm under lateral loads exceeds 50% of the average

storey drift, ΔB, of the adjoining vertical elements of the SFRS, dynamic magnification of the inelastic response due to
the in-plane diaphragm deformations shall be accounted for in the design of the vertical elements of the SFRS that shall
be designed and detailed to any one of the following:
(a) to accommodate the anticipated magnified lateral deformations taken as RoRd (ΔB + ΔD) - RoΔD
(b) to resist the forces magnified by Rd(1+ ΔD/ΔB)/(Rd + ΔD/ΔB), or
(c) by a special study.
In cases where IEFaSa(0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, the elements supporting any discontinuous wall, column or
braced frame, shall be designed for the lateral load capacity of the components of the SFRS they support.
Where structures have vertical variations of RdRo, the elements of the SFRS below the level where the change in RdRo
occurs shall be designed for the forces associated with the lateral load capacity of the SFRS above that level.
Where earthquake effects can produce forces in a column or wall due to lateral loading along both orthogonal axes,
account shall be taken of the effects of potential concurrent yielding of other elements framing into the column or wall
from all directions at the level under consideration and as appropriate at other levels. This means to consider biaxial
loading as well as concurrent loads framing into the element in question.
The design forces associated with the lateral capacity of the SFRS need not exceed the forces determined with RdRo
taken as 1.0, unless otherwise provided by the applicable referenced design standards for elements, in which case the
design forces associated with the lateral capacity of the SFRS need not exceed the forces determined with RdRo taken as
less than or equal to 1.3.
Foundations need not be designed to resist the lateral load overturning capacity of the SFRS, provided the design and
the Rd and Ro for the type of SFRS used conform to Table 4.1.8.9 of the NBCC and that the foundation is designed in
accordance with the applicable foundation provisions as noted in the next section.
Foundation displacements and rotations shall be considered.
2.8.3.10 Foundation provisions

The increased displacements of the structure resulting from foundation movement shall be shown to be within
acceptable limits for both the SFRS and the structural framing elements not considered to be part of the SFRS.
Unless otherwise permitted, foundations shall be designed to have a factored shear and overturning resistances greater
than the lateral load capacity of the SFRS.
The shear and overturning resistances of the foundation determined using a bearing stress equal to 1.5 times the
factored bearing strength of the soil or rock and all other resistances equal to 1.3 times the factored resistances need not
exceed the design forces using RdRo = 1.0, except that the factor of 1.3 shall not apply to the portion of the resistance to
uplift or overturning resulting from gravity loads.
A foundation is permitted to have a factored overturning resistance less than the lateral load overturning capacity of the
supported SFRS, provided the following requirements are met:
(a) neither the foundation nor the supported SFRS are constrained against rotation, and
(b) the design overturning moment of the foundation is
i) not less than 75% of the overturning capacity of the supported SFRS, and
ii) not less than that determined using RdRo = 2.0
The design of the foundations shall be such that they are capable of transferring earthquake loads and effects between
the building and the ground without exceeding the capacities of the soil and rock.
In cases where IEFaSa (0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, the following requirements shall be satisfied:
(a) piles or pile caps, drilled piers, and caissons shall be interconnected by continuous ties in not less than two
directions,

(b) piles, drilled piers, and caissons shall be embedded a minimum of 100 mm into the pile cap or structure, and
(c) piles, drilled piers, and caissons other than wood piles shall be connected to the pile cap or structure for a
minimum tension force equal to 0.15 times the factored compression load on the pile.
At sites where IEFaSa (0.2) is equal to or greater than 0.35, basement walls shall be designed to resist earthquake lateral
pressures from backfill or natural ground.
At sites where IEFaSa(0.2) is greater than 0.75, the following requirements shall be satisfied:
(a) piles, drilled piers, or caissons shall be designed and detailed to accommodate cyclic inelastic behaviour when
the design moment in the element due to earthquake effects is greater than 75% of its moment capacity, and
(b) spread footings founded on soil defined as Site Class E or F shall be interconnected by continuous ties in not
less than two directions.
Each segment of a tie that is required between elements shall be designed to carry by tension or compression a
horizontal force at least equal to the greatest factored pile cap or column vertical load in the elements it connects,
multiplied by a factor of 0.10 IEFaSa(0.2), unless it can be demonstrated that equivalent restraints can be provided by
other means.
The potential for liquefaction of the soil and its consequences, such as significant ground displacement and loss of soil
strength and stiffness, shall be evaluated based on the ground motion parameters referenced in NBCC Subsection 1.1.3,
as modified by the appropriate site coefficient, and shall be taken into account in the design of the structure and its
foundations.
Additional information on the seismic design of foundations can be found in References [23] and [24].
2.8.3.11 Site stability

The potential for slope instability and its consequences, such as slope displacement, shall be evaluated based on site-
specific material properties and ground motion parameters referenced in NBCC Subsection 1.1.3, as modified by the
appropriate site coefficient, and shall be taken into account in the design of the structure and its foundations.
2.8.3.12 Elements of structures, nonstructural components and equipment

Except as stated below, elements and components of buildings described in Figure 2.8.7 and their connections to the
structure shall be designed to accommodate the building deflections and the element or component deflections as
noted below and shall be designed for a lateral force, Vp, distributed according to the distribution of mass:
Vp = 0.3 FaSa(0.2)IESpWp
where
Fa = F(0.2) given in Figure 2.8.2.A,
Sa(0.2) = spectral response acceleration value at 0.2 s
IE = importance factor for the building given in Figure 2.8.3
Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp (the maximum value of Sp shall be taken as 4.0 and the minimum value of Sp shall be taken
as 0.7), where
Cp = element or component factor (see Figure 2.8.7)
Ar = element or component force amplification factor (see Figure 2.8.7)
Ax = height factor (1 + 2 hx /hn)
Rp = element or component response modification factor (see Figure 2.8.7)
Wp = weight of the component or element.
For buildings other than post-disaster buildings, seismically isolated buildings, and buildings with supplemental
energy dissipation systems, where IEFaSa(0.2) is less than 0.35, the requirements noted above need not apply to
Categories 6 through 22 of Figure 2.8.7.

For the purpose of applying the above noted requirements for Categories 11 and 12 of Figure 2.8.7, elements or
components shall be assumed to be flexible or flexibly connected unless it can be shown that the fundamental
period of the element or component and its connection is less than or equal to 0.06 s, in which case the element or
component is classified as being rigid or rigidly connected.
The weight of access floors shall include the dead load of the access floor and the weight of permanent
equipment, which shall not be taken as less than 25% of the floor live load.
When the mass of a tank plus its contents or the mass of a flexible or flexibly connected piece of machinery, fixture
or equipment is greater than 10% of the mass of the supporting floor, the lateral forces shall be determined by
rational analysis.
Forces shall be applied in the horizontal direction that results in the most critical loading for design except for
Category 6 in Figure 2.8.7 where the forces shall be applied up and down vertically.
Connections to the structure of elements and components in Figure 2.8.7 shall be designed to support the
component or element for gravity loads, shall conform to the above noted requierement, and shall also satisfy
these additional requirements:
(a) friction due to gravity loads shall not be considered to provide resistance to seismic forces,
(b) Rp for non-ductile connections, such as adhesives or power-actuated fasteners, shall be taken as 1.0,
(c) Rp for anchorage using shallow expansion, chemical, epoxy or cast-in-place anchors shall be 1.5, where
shallow anchors are those with a ratio of embedment length to diameter of less than 8,
(d) power-actuated fasteners and drop-in anchors shall not be used for tension loads,
(e) connections for non-structural elements or components of Category 1, 2 or 3 of Figure 2.8.7 attached to the
side of a building and above the first level above grade shall satisfy the following requirements:
i) for connections where the body of the connection is ductile, the body shall be designed for values
of Cp, Ar and Rp given in Figure 2.8.7, and all other parts of the connection, such as anchors, welds,
bolts and inserts, shall be capable of developing 2.0 times the nominal yield resistance of the body
of the connection, and
ii) connections where the body of the connection is not ductile shall be designed for values of
Cp = 2.0, Rp = 1.0 and Ar given in Figure 2.8.7, and
(f) a ductile connection is one where the body of the connection is capable of dissipating energy though cyclic
inelastic behaviour.
Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms shall satisfy the requirements for diaphragms stated in Section 2.8.3.9.
Lateral deflections of elements or components shall be based on the loads specified in this section and lateral
deflections obtained from an elastic analysis shall be multiplied by Rp/IE to give realistic values of the anticipated
deflections.
The elements or components shall be designed so as not to transfer to the structure any forces unaccounted for in
the design, and rigid elements such as walls or panels shall satisfy the general requirements.
Seismic restraint for suspended equipment, pipes, ducts, electrical cable trays, etc. shall be designed to meet the
force and displacement requirements in this section and be constructed in a manner that will not subject hanger
rods to bending.
Isolated suspended equipment and components, such as pendent lights, may be designed as a pendulum system
provided that adequate chains or cables capable of supporting 2.0 times the weight of the suspended component
are provided and the deflection requirements noted above are satisfied.

For structures with supplemental energy dissipation, the following criteria shall apply:
(a) The value of Sa(0.2) used in determining Vp shall be determined from the mean 5% damped floor spectral
acceleration values at 0.2 s by averaging the individual 5% damped floor spectra at the base of the structure
determined using Non-Linear Dynamic Analysis, and
(b) The value of Fa used in determining Vp shall be 1.
2.8.3.13 Seismic isolation

Design provisions and requirements for seismically isolated buildings can found in Articles 4.1.8.19 and 4.1.8.20 of
the NBCC.
2.8.3.14 Supplemental energy dissipation

Design provisions and requirements for buildings with supplemental energy dissipation systems can found in
Articles 4.1.8.21 and 4.1.8.22 of the NBCC.
Average properties in top 30 m,

as per NBCC Note A-4.1.8.4.(3) and NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-A
Ground profile
Site class Average standard
name Average shear wave Soil undrained shear
– penetration resistance,
velocity, Vs30, m/s – strength, s u
N60
(1)(2) –
A Hard rock Vs30 > 1500 n/a n/a
(1) –
B Rock 760 < Vs30 1500 n/a n/a
Very dense soil and – –

C 360 < Vs30 < 760 N60 > 50 su > 100 kPa
soft rock
– –
D Stiff soil 180 < Vs30 < 360 15 N60 50 50 kPa < su 100 kPa
– –
Vs30 < 180 N60 < 15 su < 50 kPa
Any profile with more than 3 m of soil with the following characteristics:
E Soft soil • plasticity index: PI > 20
• moisture content: w 40%, and
• undrained shear strength: su < 25 kPa
(3)
F Other soils Site-specific evaluation required
Notes:
(1)
Site Classes A and B, hard rock and rock, are not to be used if there is more than 3 m of softer materials between the rock and the
underside of footing or mat foundations. The appropriate Site Class for such cases is determined on the basis of the average properties of
the total thickness of the softer materials (see NBCC Note A-4.1.8.4.(3) and Table 4.1.8.4.-A).
(2) –
Where Vs30 has been measured in-situ, the F(T) values for Site Class A derived from NBCC Tables 4.1.8.4.-B to 4.1.8.4.-G are permitted to
– 1/2
be multiplied by the factor 0.04 + (1500/ Vs30) .
(3)
Other soils include:
(a) liquefiable soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, collapsible weakly cemented soils, and other soils susceptible to failure or collapse
under seismic loading,
(b) peat and/or highly organic clays greater than 3 m in thickness,
(c) highly plastic clays (PI > 75) more than 8 m thick, and
(d) soft to medium stiff clays more than 30 m thick.
Figure 2.8.1 Site classification for seismic site response – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-A

Values of F(0.2)
Site Class
PGAref ≤ 0.1 PGAref = 0.2 PGAref = 0.3 PGAref = 0.4 PGAref ≥ 0.5
A 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69

B 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.24 1.09 1.00 0.94 0.90
E 1.64 1.24 1.05 0.93 0.85
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)Site-specific evaluation is required to determine F(T), F(PGA) and F(PGV) for Site Class F.
Figure 2.8.2.A Values of F(0.2) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-B
Values of F(0.5)
Site Class
PGAref 0.1 PGAref = 0.2 PGAref = 0.3 PGAref = 0.4 PGAref 0.5
A 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57

B 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.47 1.30 1.20 1.14 1.10
E 2.47 1.80 1.48 1.30 1.17
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Site-specific evaluation is required to determine F(T), F(PGA) and F(PGV) for Site Class F.
Figure 2.8.2.B Values of F(0.5) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-C
Values of F(1.0)
Site Class
A 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.57

B 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.55 1.39 1.31 1.25 1.21
E 2.81 2.08 1.74 1.53 1.39
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.C Values of F(1.0) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-D

Values of F(2.0)
Site Class
A 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58

B 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.57 1.44 1.36 1.31 1.27
E 2.90 2.24 1.92 1.72 1.58
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.D Values of F(2.0) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-E
Values of F(5.0)
Site Class
A 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61

B 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.58 1.48 1.41 1.37 1.34
E 2.93 2.40 2.14 1.96 1.84
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.E Values of F(5.0) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-F
Values of F(10.0)
Site Class
A 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67

B 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.49 1.41 1.37 1.34 1.31
E 2.52 2.18 2.00 1.88 1.79
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.F Values of F(10.0) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-G

Values of F(PGA)
Site Class
A 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90

B 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.87
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.29 1.10 0.99 0.93 0.88
E 1.81 1.23 0.98 0.83 0.74
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.G Values of F(PGA) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-H
Values of F(PGV)
Site Class
A 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.62

B 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67
C 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 1.47 1.30 1.20 1.14 1.10
E 2.47 1.80 1.48 1.30 1.17
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1)
F
Notes:
(1)
Figure 2.8.2.H Values of F(PGV) as a function of site class and PGAref – NBCC Table 4.1.8.4.-I
Importance Factor, IE
Importance Category
(1)
ULS SLS
Low 0.8
Normal 1.0 (2)
High 1.3
Post-disaster 1.5
Notes:
(1)
See NBCC Article 4.1.8.13.
(2)
See NBCC Note A-Table 4.1.8.5.
Figure 2.8.3 Importance factor for earthquake loads and effects, IE – NBCC Table 4.1.8.5

Type Irregularity type and definition Notes
Vertical Stiffness Irregularity

Vertical stiffness irregularity shall be considered to exist when the lateral stiffness of the (2) (3) (4)
1
SFRS in a storey is less than 70% of the stiffness of any adjacent storey, or less than
80% of the average stiffness of the three storeys above or below.
Weight (mass) Irregularity

Weight irregularity shall be considered to exist where the weight, Wi, of any storey is (2)
2
more than 150% of the weight of an adjacent storey. A roof that is lighter than the floor
below need not be considered.
Vertical Geometric Irregularity

(2) (3) (4) (5)
3 Vertical geometric irregularity shall be considered to exist where the horizontal
dimension of the SFRS in any storey is more than 130% of that in an adjacent storey.
In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting Element

Except for braced frames and moment-resisting frames, an in-plane discontinuity shall (2) (3) (4) (5)
4
be considered to exist where there is an offset of a lateral-force-resisting element of the
SFRS or a reduction in lateral stiffness of the resisting element in the storey below.
Out-of-Plane Offsets
(2) (3) (4) (5)
5 Discontinuities in a lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical
elements of the SFRS.
Discontinuity in Capacity - Weak Storey

A weak storey is one in which the storey shear strength is less than that in the storey (2) (3)
6
above. The storey shear strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements
of the SFRS sharing the storey shear for the direction under consideration.
Torsional Sensitivity (to be considered when diaphragms are not flexible)

(2) (3) (4) (6)
7 Torsional sensitivity shall be considered to exist when the ratio B calculated according
to NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.11.(10) exceeds 1.7.
Non-orthogonal Systems
(2) (4) (7)
8 A non-orthogonal system irregularity shall be considered to exist when the SFRS is not
oriented along a set of orthogonal axes.
Gravity-Induced Lateral Demand Irregularity

Gravity-induced lateral demand irregularity on the SFRS shall be considered to exist (2) (3) (4) (7)
9
where the ratio,  , calculated in accordance with NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.10.(5), exceeds
0.1 for an SFRS with self-centering characteristics and 0.03 for other systems.
Notes:
(1)
One-storey penthouses with a weight of less than 10% of the level below need not be considered in the application of this Table.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
See NBCC Sentences 4.1.8.11.(10), (11) and 4.1.8.12.(4).
(7)
Figure 2.8.4 Structural irregularities (1) – NBCC Table 4.1.8.6

(2)
Restrictions
Cases
Cases Where IEFaSa(0.2) Where
Type of SFRS Rd Ro
IEFvSa(1.0)
0.2 to 0.35 to
< 0.2 > 0.75 > 0.3
< 0.35 0.75
Concrete Structures Designed and Detailed According to CSA A23.3
Ductile moment-resisting frames 4.0 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile moment-resisting frames 2.5 1.4 NL NL 60 40 40
Ductile coupled walls 4.0 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile coupled walls 2.5 1.4 NL NL NL 60 60
Ductile partially coupled walls 3.5 1.7 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile partially coupled walls 2.0 1.4 NL NL NL 60 60
Ductile shear walls 3.5 1.6 NL NL NL NL NL
Moderately ductile shear walls 2.0 1.4 NL NL NL 60 60
Conventional construction
(3)
Moment-resisting frames 1.5 1.3 NL NL 20 15 10
Shear walls 1.5 1.3 NL NL 40 30 30
Two-way slabs without beams 1.3 1.3 20 15 NP NP NP
Tilt-up construction
Moderately ductile walls and frames 2.0 1.3 30 25 25 25 25
(4)
Limited ductility walls and frames 1.5 1.3 30 25 20 20 20
Conventional walls and frames 1.3 1.3 25 20 NP NP NP
Other concrete SFRS(s) not listed above 1.0 1.0 15 15 NP NP NP
Notes:
(1)
(2)
NP = system is not permitted.
NL = system is permitted and not limited in height as an SFRS.
Numbers in this Table are maximum height limit above grade, in m.
Height may be limited in other Parts of the Code.
The most stringent requirement governs.
(3)
Frames limited to a maximum of 2 storeys.
(4)
Frames limited to a maximum of 3 storeys.
Figure 2.8.5 SFRS ductility-related force modification factors, Rd, overstrength-related modification factors, Ro,
and general restrictions (1) – Excerpt of NBCC Table 4.1.8.9

S(0.2)/S(5.0) Mv for Mv for Mv for Mv for J for J for J for J for

Ta 0.5 Ta = 1.0 Ta = 2.0 Ta 5.0 Ta 0.5 Ta = 1.0 Ta = 2.0 Ta 5.0
Moment-resisting frames
5 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.97 0.92 (5)
20 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.93 0.85 (5)
40 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.87 0.78 (5)
65 1 1 1.03 (5) 1 0.80 0.70 (5)
Coupled walls(6)
5 1 1 1 1(7) 1 0.97 0.92 0.80(8)
20 1 1 1 1.08(7) 1 0.93 0.85 0.65(8)
40 1 1 1 1.30(7) 1 0.87 0.78 0.53(8)
65 1 1 1.03 1.49(7) 1 0.80 0.70 0.46(8)
Braced frames
5 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.95 0.89 (5)
20 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.85 0.78 (5)
40 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.79 0.70 (5)
65 1 1.04 1.07 (5) 1 0.71 0.66 (5)
Walls, wall frame systems

5 1 1 1 1.25(7) 1 0.97 0.85 0.55(8)
20 1 1 1.18 2.30(7) 1 0.80 0.60 0.35(8)
40 1 1.19 1.75 3.70(7) 1 0.63 0.46 0.28(8)
65 1 1.55 2.25 4.65(7) 1 0.51 0.39 0.23(8)
Other systems
5 1 1 1 (5) 1 0.97 0.85 (5)
20 1 1 1.18 (5) 1 0.80 0.60 (5)
40 1 1.19 1.75 (5) 1 0.63 0.46 (5)
65 1 1.55 2.25 (5) 1 0.51 0.39 (5)
Notes:
(1)
For intermediate values of the spectral ratio S(0.2)/S(5.0), M v and J shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
(2)
For intermediate values of the fundamental lateral period, T a, S(Ta)Mv shall be obtained by linear interpolation using the values of M v
obtained in accordance with Note (1).
(3)
For intermediate values of the fundamental lateral period, T a, J shall be obtained by linear interpolation using the values of J obtained in
accordance with Note (1).
(4)
For a combination of different seismic force resisting systems (SFRS) not given in Table 2.8.6 that are in the same direction under
consideration, use the highest M v factor of all the SFRS and the corresponding value of J.
(5)
For fundamental lateral periods, Ta, greater than 2.0 s, use the 2.0 s values obtained in accordance with Note (1). See NBCC Clause
4.1.8.11.(2)(b).
(6)
A “coupled” wall is a wall system with coupling beams, where at least 66% of the base overturning moment resisted by the wall system is
carried by the axial tension and compression forces resulting from shear in the coupling beams.
(7)
For fundamental lateral periods, Ta, greater than 4.0 s, use the 4.0 s values of S(Ta)Mv obtained by interpolation between 2.0 s and 5.0 s
using the value of Mv obtained in accordance with Note (1). See NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.(2)(a).
(8)
For fundamental lateral periods, Ta, greater than 4.0s, use the 4.0 s values of J obtained by interpolation between 2.0 s and 5.0 s using the
value of J obtained in accordance with Note (1). See NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.(2)(a).
Figure 2.8.6 Higher mode factor, Mv, and base overturning reduction factor, J(1)(2)(3)(4) – NBCC Table 4.1.8.11

Category Part or portion of building Cp Ar Rp

1 All exterior and interior walls except those in Category 2 or 3 1.00 1.00 2.50
2 Cantilever parapet and other cantilever walls except retaining walls 1.00 2.50 2.50
3 Exterior and interior ornamentations and appendages 1.00 2.50 2.50
(2)
4 Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms - - -
5 Towers, chimneys, smokestacks and penthouses when connected to or forming part
1.00 2.50 2.50
of a building
6 Horizontally cantilevered floors, balconies, beams, etc. 1.00 1.00 2.50
7 Suspended ceilings, light fixtures and other attachments to ceilings with independent
1.00 1.00 2.50
vertical support
8 Masonry veneer connections 1.00 1.00 1.50
9 Access floors 1.00 1.00 2.50
10 Masonry or concrete fences more than 1.8 m tall 1.00 1.00 2.50
11 Machinery, fixtures, equipment and tanks (including contents)
that are rigid and rigidly connected 1.00 1.00 1.25
that are flexible and flexibly connected 1.00 2.50 2.50
12 Machinery, fixtures, equipment and tanks (including contents) containing toxic or
o
explosive materials, materials having a flash point below 38 C or firefighting fluids
that are rigid and rigidly connected 1.50 1.00 1.25
that are flexible and flexibly connected 1.50 2.50 2.50
13 Flat bottom tanks (including contents) attached directly to a floor at or below grade
0.70 1.00 2.50
within a building
14 Flat bottom tanks (including contents) attached directly to a floor at or below grade
within a building containing toxic or explosive materials, materials having a flash point 1.00 1.00 2.50
o
below 38 C or firefighting fluids
15 Pipes, ducts (including contents) 1.00 1.00 3.00
16 Pipes, ducts (including contents) containing toxic or explosive materials 1.50 1.00 3.00
17 Electrical cable trays, bus ducts, conduits 1.00 2.50 5.00
18 Rigid components with ductile material and connections 1.00 1.00 2.50
19 Rigid components with non-ductile material or connections 1.00 1.00 1.00
20 Flexible components with ductile material and connections 1.00 2.50 2.50
21 Flexible components with non-ductile material or connections 1.00 2.50 1.00
(3)
22 Elevators and escalators
machinery and equipment as per category 11
elevator rails 1.00 1.00 2.50
(4)
23 Floor-mounted steel pallet storage racks 1.00 2.50 2.50
24 Floor-mounted steel pallet storage racks on which are stored toxic or explosive
o (4) 1.50 2.50 2.50
materials or materials having a flash point below 38 C
Notes:
(1)
(2)
See NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.18.(8).
(3)
See also ASME A17.1/CSA B44, “Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators”.
(4)
See NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.18.(13) and NBCC Note A -Table 4.1.8.18.
Figure 2.8.7 Elements of structures and non-structural components and equipment(1) – NBCC Table 4.1.8.18

Forces and deflections under

various corner conditions.
Refer to Section 2.8.5 and
points 1 through 7.
Half sidewall shear 1.00 1.00 1.00
Half sidewall moment 2.19 1.00 0.43
Half endwall axial force 0 1.00 1.53
Building deflection 2.87 1.00 0.89
Figure 2.8.9 Forces and deflections due to lateral load – 23-storey building Ref. [8]
2.8.4 Structural Layout and Connections

Box-type structures can have a large number of precast
concrete elements assembled into walls, floors, roof and
frames. Properly designed connections between pieces can
create diaphragms and shear walls. Connections must be
designed to transmit forces between the elements within a
horizontal diaphragm or shear wall. Other connections can
be designed to join diaphragms and shear walls. Some parts
of the building, such as the shear walls, can be designed to
absorb energy through non-linear deformation. Horizontal
diaphragms are normally designed to remain elastic during
an earthquake.
In seismic design, forces must be positively transmitted.
Load paths must be as direct as possible. Anchors are
often attached to or hooked around reinforcing bars or
otherwise terminated to effectively transfer forces to the Figure 2.8.10 Drift response
bars. Reinforcement in the vicinity of the anchors should
be designed to distribute forces and preclude local failure.
Concrete dimensions and reinforcement must be adequate
to accommodate the connection hardware. Connections should be designed to transmit incidental forces that are
normal to the usual plane of the load path. The ductility of each connection must be adequate for its location and
intended role in resisting seismic forces.
2.8.5 Design Guidelines for Structural Wall Panels

Guidelines for structural walls subjected to seismic lateral forces:
1. Exterior walls with perforated windows will act somewhere between an unperforated wall and a flexible frame.
For tall buildings, this will result in a non-linear distribution of forces due to the effect of shear lag, as indicated
in Figure 2.8.9. [8] This figure indicates the relative differences, and the base stress patterns, due to lateral
loading on a 23-storey building (plan dimension 22 m by 30 m).

2. Portions of walls with openings can have significant axial loads. These wall sections may require reinforcement
with closely spaced ties similar to columns.
3. Connected walls may act as coupled walls. The connection between walls can be achieved either by a lintel
or by the floor construction. Provisions must be made for reversible shears and moments in the connecting
elements.
4. Walls will be subjected to lateral loads perpendicular to the plane of the wall (wind, seismic) in addition to
loads in the plane.
5. Large deflections occur under severe earthquakes. The investigation of individual walls and the entire structure
should consider deflections (P-D effect).
6. Accidental torsion can occur in elements subjected to seismic forces. Reinforcement should be detailed
accordingly.
7. Seismic-induced forces are reversible. This is particularly important at joints.
8. The best energy absorbing elements are those with high moment-rotation capabilities. The energy absorbing
capacity of a flexural element is measured by the area under the moment-rotation curve. Correctly reinforced
concrete can exhibit high ductility. See CSA A23.3, for proper methods or reinforcing to achieve ductility.
9. Joints represent discontinuities, and may be the location of stress concentrations. Reinforcing or mechanical
anchorage must be provided through the joints to fully transmit the horizontal shear and flexure developed
during an earthquake. See Chapter 4 and Section 2.8.6 for a discussion on connections. In zones of high
seismicity, cast-in-place reinforced concrete in combination with precast concrete has proven to be successful
in economically transferring seismic forces. [9]
2.8.6 Design Guidelines for Cladding Panel Connections

Guidelines for cladding panels subjected to seismic lateral forces:
1. Wherever possible, make panel connections to the supporting structure statically determinate to permit a
more accurate determination of the force distribution.
2. Choose the number and location of connections to minimize internal stresses and permit movements in the
plane of the panel to accommodate storey drift and volume changes. Drift is defined as the relative movement
of one storey with respect to the stories immediately above or below the level under consideration.
3. Locate connections to minimize torsional moments on supporting spandrel beams, particularly if the beams
are structural steel.
4. Provide separation between non-load bearing panels and the building frame to prevent contact during an
earthquake.
5. Seismic forces should be combined with the forces and eccentricities created by manufacturing and erection
tolerances.
6. Between points of connection, non-load bearing panels should be separated from the building frame to avoid
contact under seismic action. In the immediate area of connections, the panel will be forced to follow the
supporting frame. A statically determinate support system should be designed, however there may be some
built-in restraint at the connections. Some allowance for internal forces should be considered. Figure 2.8.10
illustrates the effects of storey drift.

2.8.7 Analysis of Cladding Panels

The analysis of panels should be in accordance with
established methods of structural mechanics. The
following systematic approach is recommended:
1. Start with a free-body diagram for every load
condition.
2. Solve for reactions using equations of equilibrium
for statically determinate systems, or equations
of equilibrium and compatibility for statically
indeterminate systems.
3. Tabulate loads and reactions and identify critical
design values.
4. Compute the internal forces (moments, shears,
axial) due to the critical values. For complicated
architectural shapes, consider the use of computer
analysis using methods such as finite element
analysis.
A free-body diagram of a typical panel is shown in
Figure 2.8.11.
Double wythe insulated panels

There are several additional design considerations
relating to double wythe insulated panels (see Chapters Figure 2.8.11 Free body diagrams
3 and 5 for a more complete discussion):
1. The structural wythe of non-composite panels
resists all loads, contains all connections, and
transfers loads through these connections to the
building frame. (See Figure 2.8.12.)
2. Seismic loads, analysis, and design of connections
between the structural wythe and the building
frame is identical to that of non-double wythe
insulated panels. The value Wp used to determine
the seismic force Vp will include the weight of all
elements of the panel.
3. Connection between the two wythes should be
capable of transferring a seismic force V’p, where V’p
is computed using the weight of the non-structural
wythe and insulation. Figure 2.8.12 Details of a typical double wythe
4. The seismic forces Vp and V’p should be assumed to insulated panel
act in any horizontal direction in conjunction with
the weight of the panel.
5. The non-structural wythe should be proportioned and reinforced to resist the stresses induced by the seismic
force V’p in addition to its self weight.

Example 2.14 Architectural precast panel with earthquake loading
Given: Solution:
A multi-storey 16.5 m tall hospital is located in From NBCC:
Montreal. A soil report indicates Site Class C. Sa(0.2) = 0.595 Div. ‘B’, App. ‘C’, Table C-3
Precast concrete cladding wall panels are 2130 PGA = 0.379
mm tall by 8530 mm long with a cross-sectional
area of 0.30 m2, as shown below. A 1830 mm high Sa(0.2)/PGA = 1.57 < 2 4.1.8.4.(4)
window is attached to the top of the panel, and a PGAref = 0.8PGA = 0.303
2440 mm high window is attached to the bottom. Hospitals are post disaster facilities therefore
Connections are assumed to be non-ductile,
assuming the body of the connection does not yield IE = 1.5 (Figure 2.8.3)
at its design load. Consider self weight of panel and Fa = F(0.2) = 1.00 (Figure 2.8.2.A)
windows to be uniformly distributed. Panel self weight = 0.30 x 24 x 8.53 = 61.4 kN
Concrete f’c = 35 MPa (normal density, 24 kN/m3) Weight of upper window = 1.83 x 0.5 x 8.53 = 7.8 kN
Window weight = 0.5 kPa Panel centre of gravity from datum (bottom outside
Problem: corner):
Determine the seismic forces on the panel and the y = 875 mm
connections.
z = 115 mm
Continued next page

Example 2.14 Architectural precast panel with earthquake loading (continued from previous page)
(a) Seismic forces acting on wall element near top of Seimic load acting at top of panel due to upper
building: window
1.83
C p = 1.0 (Figure 2.8.7) = 0.30 0.5 x 8.53
2
Ar = 1.0 (Figure 2.8.7)
= 1.17 kN acting perpendicular or
Rp = 2.5 (Figure 2.8.7)
parallel to face of panel
hx /hn = 0.9 based on wall panel elevation and
building height Seimic load acting at bottom of panel due to lower
window
Vp = 0.3FaSa(0.2)IESpWp (NBCC Clause
2.44
4.1.8.18.(1)) = 0.30 0.5 x 8.53
2
Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp = 1.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/2.5
= 1.12 O.K. since 0.7 ≤ Sp ≤ 4.0 = 1.56 kN acting perpendicular or
Vp = 0.3(1.00)(0.595)(1.5)(1.12)Wp parallel to face of panel
= 0.30 Wp (b) Connections for wall panel near top of building:
Seismic load due to self weight of panel Cp = 2.0, Ar = 1.0, Rp = 1.0 (NBCC Sub-clause
= 0.30 (61.4) 4.1.8.18.(7)(e)(ii))
=1 8.4 kN acting perpendicular or parallel Vp = 0.3FaSa(0.2)IESpWp
to face of panel Sp = Cp Ar Ax /Rp = 2.0(1.0)(1+2x0.9)/1.0
Continued next page

= 5.6, however 0.7 ≤ Sp ≤ 4.0 eccentricity of dead load (each end of

Sp = 4.0 panel) assuming that during erection only
the connections at each end of the panel
Vp = 0.3(1.0)(0.595)(1.5)(4.0)Wp
are used to resist dead load)
= 1.07 Wp
Seismic load due to self weight of panel
= 34.6 (0.190 – 0.108) / 0.825
= 1.07 (7.2 x 8.53) = 3.5 kN acting outward for top

= 65.7 kN acting perpendicular or parallel connection and inward for bottom
to face of panel connection
Seimic load acting at top of panel due to upper ii) Seismic forces acting perpendicular to face of
window panel (refer to panel loading diagram):
1.83 Determine centre of seismic force acting on
= 1.07 0.5 x 8.53
2 panel:
= 4.18 kN acting perpendicular or
Fp y z Fp y Fpz
parallel to face of panel (kN) (mm) (mm) (kN-m) (kN-m)
Seimic load acting at bottom of panel due to Panel 65.8 876 114 57.6 7.6
lower window
Upper
2.44 4.18 2.130 50 8.9 0.2
= 1.07 0.5 x 8.53 Window
2 Lower
5.57 0.0 0.560 0.0 3.1
= 5.57 kN acting perpendicular or Window
parallel to face of panel Total 75.6 66.5 10.9
i) Connection forces due to gravity loading (refer
Centre of force from lower left:
to panel loading diagram):
y = 66.5 / 75.6 = 0.88 m
Wp (panel) = 61.4 kN
Wp (upper window) = 7.8 kN z = 10.9 / 75.6 = 0.144 m
Wp (lower window) = 0 kN
Taking moment about bottom connection
Determine centre of dead load: yields:
(▼/■)total = 75.6 (0.880 – 0.695)/0.825
Wp z Wp z
(kN) (mm) (kN-m) = 17.0 kN (top of panel)
Panel 61.4 114 7.1 (X)total = 75.6 -17.0 = 58.6 kN (bottom
Upper Window 7.8 50 0.4 of panel)
Lower Window 0.0 560 0.0 A continuous beam analysis shows that the
centre connection will take 58% of the load and
Total 69.2 7.5
each end connection will take 21% resulting in
Centre of dead load from lower left the following in-out seismic loads:
z = 7.5/69.2 = 0.108 m (▼) = 3.6 kN
(▼) Vertical connection (each end of panel) (■) = 9.9 kN
= 69.2/2 = 34.6 kN
(▼/ X) Horizontal connections due to
Continued next page

(X)end = 12.3 kN
(X)centre = 34.0 kN
iii) Seismic connections forces when seismic load acts parallel to face of panel (refer to panel loading
diagram):
(■) parallel = ± 75.6 kN
75.6(0.695+0.825–0.880)
(▼) up-down = 2(3.96)
= ± 6.1 kN per connection
(▼) in-out = 75.6(0.144–0.114)
2(3.96)
= ± 0.3 kN per connection (does not control)
Summary of Loads to Connections (kN)

1 2
Dead Load Seismic
Connection
Vert (y) In. (z) Out (z) Vert (y) Horiz (x) In. (z) Out (z)
■ ± 75.6 9.9 9.9
▼ 34.6 3.5 ± 6.1 3.6 3.6
Tie-b’k ctr X 34.0 34.0
Tie-b’k end X 3.5 12.3 12.3
1. Load factor of 1.0 applied. To design the connections, wind load must also be examined and
the appropriate load factors must be applied to determine the
2. Load factor of 1.0 applied. governing load case such as 1.4D, 1.25D + 1.4W, and 1.0D + 1.0E.
Typical tie-back connection

Example 2.15 Typical single-storey industrial building
Given:
The single-storey manufacturing building shown
is located in Duncan, BC and is exposed in open
terrain. A soil report indicates site class D. Wall panels
are located along the perimeter of the building and
are the seismic force resisting system. Wall panels are
3050 mm wide double wythe insulated panels with a
100 mm thick interior wythe, 50 mm insulation, and a
50 mm thick exterior wythe, weighing an average of
3.63 kPa. 3050 mm wide lightweight double tees are
used on the roof, weighing 1.9 kPa. The wall panels
are to be detailed as a conventional concrete shear
wall seismic force resisting system. A dead load of
0.5 kPa is superimposed on the roof. 25% of the
roof design snow load is 0.46 kPa. The dead load
contribution from beams and columns is estimated to
be 670 kN.
Problem:
Determine the following using the equivalent static
force procedure approach:
(a) the lateral earthquake force, V,
(b) the shear force VL in the west wall,
(c) the sliding resistance of the west foundation wall,
(d) the diaphragm connection forces,
(e) the west wall panel connection forces.
Solution:
(a) Lateral earthquake force, V:
From NBCC Div. ‘B’, App. ‘C’, Table C-3:
Sa(0.2) = 1.17
Sa(0.5) = 1.09
Sa(1.0) = 0.631
Sa(2.0) = 0.378
Sa(5.0) = 0.118
Sa(10.0) = 0.042
PGA = 0.513
Mean roof height is 6.4m Continued next page

Example 2.15 Typical single-storey industrial building (continued from previous page)
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.11.(3)(c), the fundamental From Figure 2.8.6, for:
lateral period is;
S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 1.199/0.158 = 7.59
Ta = 0.05(hn)3/4 = 0.05(6.4)3/4 = 0.2 s T = 0.2s
Sa(0.2)/PGA = 1.17 / 0.513 Mv = 1.0
= 2.28 ≥ 2.0 J = 1, hence, Jx = 1
... PGAref = PGA
From NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.11.(2):
= 0.513
From Figures 2.8.2A to 2.8.2F for a Site Class D and = 1.199(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
PGAref of 0.513:
= 0.615W
F(0.2) = 0.90
Check maximum:
F(0.5) = 1.10
Vmax = larger of:
F(1.0) = 1.21
2/3 S(0.2) IEW/(RdRo) and
F(2.0) = 1.27
S(0.5) IEW/(RdRo)
F(5.0) = 1.34
= 2/3(1.199)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3) and
F(10.0) = 1.31
1.199(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
From NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.4.(9) = 0.615W
S(0.2) = F(0.2)Sa(0.2) ≥ F(0.5)Sa(0.5) Check minimum:
= 0.90 (1.17) ≥ 1.10 (1.09)
Vmin = S(4.0) MvIEW/(RdRo)
= 1.053 ≥ 1.199
From Figure 2.8.6:
= 1.199
S(0.5) = F(0.5)Sa(0.5) For S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 5,
= 1.10 (1.09) For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.00
= 1.199 For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 1.25
S(1.0) = F(1.0)Sa(1.0)
= 1.21 (0.631) For S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 20,
= 0.764 For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.18
S(2.0) = F(2.0)Sa(2.0) For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 2.30
= 1.27 (0.378) Interpolating for S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 7.59:
= 0.480 For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.03
S(5.0) = F(5.0)Sa(5.0)
For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 1.43
= 1.34 (0.118)
= 0.158 Calculating S(T)Mv:
S(10.0) = F(10.0)Sa(10.0) For Ta = 2.0s, S(2.0)Mv = 0.494
= 1.31 (0.042) For Ta ≥ 5.0s, S(5.0)Mv = 0.226
= 0.055
Interpolating for 4.0s, S(4.0)Mv = 0.315
From Figure 2.8.5 for a conventional concrete shear wall: = (0.315)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
Rd = 1.5 = 0.162W
Ro = 1.3 ... V = 0.615W (governs)
From Figure 2.8.3 the importance factor for earthquake

load is 1.0.
Continued next page

straightforward. Assuming no substantial door

openings in the shear walls, the centre of mass
and centre of rigidity is at the centre of the
building.
Considering walls on all sides at the perimeter,
B < 1.7 ... Sentence 4.1.8.11.(11) of the NBCC
requires that an accidental eccentricity of 10% be
considered.
Accidental eccentricity = 0.1(48.75) = 4.875 m.
Thus, consider the centre of mass is 19.5 m from
the left wall (29.25 m from the right wall) and that
the torsion is resisted by only the east and west
walls.
29.25
VL = 5065 x = 3039 kN
48.75
For the seismic diaphragm design (chord steel and
shear connectors between roof tees) for this single-
storey building, will use total base shear V = 5065 kN
amplified to reflect the lateral capacity of the SFRS.
(c) Sliding resistance of the west foundation wall:
Dead load on the footing:
Wall = 3.63(7.2)(36.5) = 954 kN
300 mm x 450 mm footing
= 24(0.3)(0.45)(36.5) = 118 kN
Assume 600 mm backfill = 20(0.25)(0.6)(36.5)
= 110 kN
Total = 1182 kN
Assume coefficient of friction against granular soil,
µs = 0.5
Building weight (lumped at roof level): Sliding resistance = µsN = 0.5(1182) = 591 kN
Walls DL = 2(48.75 + 36.5)(3.63)(6.4/2 + 0.8)= 2476 < 3039 kN indicating the foundation will slide.
Roof DL = (48.75)(36.5)(1.9 + 0.5) = 4271 kN This analysis is an approximation and a more
Roof SL = (48.75)(36.5)(0.46) = 819 kN detailed analysis is required, but based on the
Beams and columns = 670 kN above calculations additional foundation roof
W = 2476 + 4271 + 819 + 670 = 8236 kN anchorage is required to prevent sliding.
Lateral earthquake force V = 0.615W = 0.615 (8236)= (d) Diaphragm connection forces:
5065 kN i) Diaphragm to West wall connections:
(b) Shear force VL , in the west walls Diaphragm forces are designed to follow
In a single-storey building, the lateral earthquake NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.15.(1). Therefore, to
force acts through the roof diaphragm. For a ensure that the diaphragm does not yield, it
single-span diaphragm such as this, design is Continued next page

must be designed so that the forces applied Diaphragm moment:
to it reflect the strength of the SFRS to which Vl 5065 (1.1)(48.75)
the diaphragm is connected rather than just = = 33951 kN-m
8 8
the computed lateral earthquake loads. For
Chord force (see plan):
example, if the actual base shear capacity
of the SFRS is 10% larger than the required Assume chord reinforcement is located 0.3
base shear, then the shear forces applied to m from exterior wall face. Since these are
the diaphragm due to the lateral loads must seismic forces, they are considered factored:
also be increased by 10%, subject to the 33951
upper limits noted in NBCC. However, design Tf = = 946 kN
(36.5–0.3(2))
forces associated with the lateral capacity
Required amount of reinforcing steel:
of the SFRS need not be taken greater than
forces determined using RdRo = 1.0 (i.e. forces Tf 946x10 3 2
As = = = 2782 mm (10–20M)
corresponding to an elastic structure). f
s y 0.85x400
VL (increased by SFRS capacity) = 1.10(3039) This amount of reinforcement should be
= 3343 kN placed at the perimeter. Since several
VL (calculated using RdRo = 1.0) = 5926 kN bars are required, they will have to be
... Vf (design) = 3343 kN distributed within the chord area, and the
effective depth of the diaphragm tension
Considering a spacing of 1.5 m c/c, there will reinforcement will be reduced based on
be a total of 25 connections along the roof at actual location of the bars rather than the 0.3
the west wall. Each connection will need to be m assumption. The increased Tf requirement
designed to resist: can be recalculated based on the actual
3343
Vf (per connection) = = 133.7 kN reinforcement location in the diaphragm
25
and the required reinforcing steel adjusted
ii) Shear connection forces between the first set of
accordingly.
double tees parallel to the west perimeter wall:
The maximum shear is at the first joint (3.05 The chord force can be transmitted between
m) from the west wall. Considering a SFRS members by ties at the roof tees, wall panels
capacity 10% larger than the demand and or a combination, as illustrated. These
assuming a uniformly distributed lateral force of ties and transmission of forces will usually
5065(1.1)/48.75 = 114.3 kN/m: provide the tie requirements for structural
integrity as required by Clause 16.5.
Shear at the first joint = 3039(1.1) – 114.3 x
3.05 = 2994 kN (e) West wall panel connections:
This shear wall may be designed to act as
iii) Roof diaphragm chord forces and required a series of independent units, without ties
reinforcement: between the panels. The shear force is
To determine chord reinforcement, the assumed to be distributed equally among
seismic force is also assumed to be distributed the wall panels as shown.
uniformly across the building width, b and
amplified by 10% to reflect lateral capacity of n = 36.5/3.05 = 12 panels
the SFRS. For simplicity, the effects of accidental Vf = 3039/12 = 253 kN/panel
torsion were neglected here but should be
considered in design.
Continued next page

Wall panel self weight:

D = 3.63(3.05)(7.2) = 80 kN
253(6.4) – 80(1.22)
Tf = =624 kN
2.44
This magnitude of tension may be too large
for typical panel-to-foundation tension
connections.
As an alternative, the shear walls may
be designed with two or more panels
connected together. The following sketch
illustrates an analysis where tension and
compression compensate one another with
simple shear connections across the vertical
joints. For simplicity, it is assumed that the
walls have no openings. Connections are
made across the vertical panel joints to take
Since this force system can exist for all interior
advantage of the fact that compensating
panels, edge shears will balance to zero when all
forces are generated in the panels.
panels have the same dimensions and weight. The
Note: Determining connection forces only requirement for the connections is a transfer of
requires solving classic equations of vertical shear. Therefore, connections which permit
equilibrium. Compression forces are horizontal deformations can be used if volume
assumed to be no problem, as the joint change restraint is of concern. At the exterior
between the shear wall panels and panels, the edge shear V1 from an exterior panel
foundations is normally grouted. will be applied at one edge only. Because tension
and compression base connections are not located
Considering an interior panel:
at the panel edges, equilibrium may have to be
M about C = 0: V(h) = V1(b) + D(b/2 – a) satisfied with tension and compression connections
V(h) D(b / 2 a) to the foundation, or connections to the orthogonal
V1 =
b panel that will allow the non-shear wall to contribute
additional dead load at the corner.
V = 0: C = D
At the tension side exterior panel, equilibrium can
be determined by summing moments about the
compression force, assuming the tension is taken by a
tie-down into the foundation:
Continued next page

For this example, locate the foundation connections For the compression side exterior panel:
0.305 m from each side. The pertinent dimensions
253(6.4)–80(3.05/2–0.305)–499(3.05–0.305)
are: Tf =
2.44
h = 6.4 m ; b = 3.05 m ; a = 0.305 m; d = 2.44 m = 62 kN (tension)
V = 253 kN, D = 80 kN
Cf = Tf + Df + V1 = 62 + 80 + 499 = 641 kN
For interior panels with factored loads:
253(6.4)–80(3.05/2–0.305) The wall panel and grout must be checked for the
V1 = = 499 kN
(3.05) above compressive forces. The compressive stress
block assumption of 305 mm used in the calculations
Cf = Dead load of panel
should also be checked and confirmed for the
For the tension side exterior panel: factored compressive force of 601 kN.
253(6.4)–80(3.05/2–0.305)–499(0.305) To finalize design of the shear wall connections, wind
Tf =
2.44 load must also be examined and the appropriate
= 561 kN load factors must be applied to determine the
Cf = Tf + Df – V1 = 561 + 80 – 499 = 142 kN governing load case such as 0.9D + 1.4W, and 1.0D
+ 1.0E.

Example 2.16 Three level parking structure

Given: Seismic analysis:
The three-level parking structure shown is located From NBCC Div. ‘B’, App. ‘C’, Table C-3:
in Toronto, ON. A soil report indicates Site Class C.
Sa(0.2) = 0.249
Problem: Sa(0.5) = 0.126
Determine the feasibility of a shear wall structure in Sa(1.0) = 0.063
this location. Sa(2.0) = 0.029
Solution: Sa(5.0) = 0.0071
For gravity loads, 660 mm deep, 3050 mm wide Sa(10.0) = 0.0028
pretopped double tees will be used. The total PGA = 0.160
weight of double tees, beams, columns, and
Check if simplified approach can be used:
curbs will be taken as 5.3 kPa. The code specified
live load is 2.4 kPa. It is determined that for this IE.Fs.Sa(0.2) = 1 x 1 x 0.249 > 0.16
magnitude of loading, 9150 mm bays with 600 mm IE.Fs.Sa(2) = 1 x 1 x 0.29 = 0.029 < 0.03.
square columns, and 900 mm deep girders in the Since one requirement is violated, the “simplified
end bays will support the vertical loads. approach” cannot be used.
Continued next page

Example 2.16 Three level parking structure continued from previous page)
From NBCC, Clause 4.1.8.11.(3)(c), the From NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.11.(2):
fundamental lateral period for a shear wall
structure is:
From Figure 2.8.6.
Height to highest level = 3(3.2) = 9.6 m
Ta = 0.05hn3/4 = 0.05(9.6)3/4 = 0.27 s For S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 0.249 / 0.0071 = 35.1, Mv = 1.0
From Figures 2.8.2A to 2.8.2F V = 0.224(1.0)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)

= 0.115W
For Sa(0.2)/PGA = 0.249 / 0.16 = 1.56 < 2.0
... PGAref = 0.8 PGA = 0.128 Check maximum:
F(0.2) = 1.0 Vmax = larger of
F(0.5) = 1.0 2/3 S(0.2) IEW/(RdRo) and
F(1.0) = 1.0 S(0.5) IEW/(RdRo)
F(2.0) = 1.0 = 2/3(0.249)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3) and
F(5.0) = 1.0 (0.126)(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
F(10.0) = 1.0 = 0.085W (governs)
From NBCC, Sentence 4.1.8.4.(9). Check minimum:
S(0.2) = F(0.2)Sa(0.2) ≥ F(0.5)Sa(0.5) Vmin = S(4.0) MvIEW/(RdRo)
= 1.0 (0.249) ≥ 1.0 (0.126)
= 0.249 ≥ 0.126 From Figure 2.8.6:
= 0.249 For S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 20,
S(0.5) = F(0.5)Sa(0.5) For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.18
= 1.0 (0.126) For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 2.30
= 0.126
S(1.0) = F(1.0)Sa(1.0) For S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 40,
For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.75
= 1.0 (0.063)
For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 3.70
= 0.063
S(2.0) = F(2.0)Sa(2.0) Interpolating for S(0.2)/S(5.0) = 35.1:
= 1.0 (0.029)
For Ta = 2.0s, Mv = 1.61
= 0.029
For Ta ≥ 5.0s, Mv = 3.36
S(5.0) = F(5.0)Sa(5.0)
= 1.0 (0.0071) Calculating S(T)Mv:
= 0.0071 For Ta = 2.0s, S(2.0)Mv = 0.047
S(10.0) = F(10.0)Sa(10.0)
For Ta ≥ 5.0s, S(5.0)Mv = 0.024
= 1.0 (0.0028)
= 0.0028 Interpolating for 4.0s, S(4.0)Mv = 0.032
From interpolation, S(0.27) = 0.224 Vmin = 0.032(1.0)W/(1.5x1.3)
From Figure 2.8.3, the earthquake importance = 0.016W
factor is 1.0. Hence
From Figure 2.8.5. for a conventional concrete V = 0.085W (governs)
shear wall:
Dead Load (W) is the weight of the structure plus
Rd = 1.5, Ro = 1.3 25% of the snow load.
From NBCC Clause 4.1.8.7.(1)(b) the structure W = 5.3(80.5)(54.9)(3)+0.25(1.12)(80.5)(54.9)
can be analyzed by the Equivalent Static Force = 71,507 kN
Procedure. Continued next page

Total lateral seismic force rigidity, NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.11.(9) requires that
accidental torsion be considered. The accidental
V = 0.085(71507) = 6078 kN
eccentricity = 0.1(80.5) = 8.05 m. For simplicity, the
NBCC, Sentence 4.1.8.11.(7) states, that a portion accidental torsion is assumed to be conservatively
of the lateral load shall be concentrated at top of resisted by the shear walls in the north-south
building but may be taken as zero when Ta ≤ 0.7 s. direction only. Summing moments about the shear
Ta ≤ 0.7 therefore Ft = 0 walls on one side, the force each pair of shear walls
must resist is:
Substantial shear resisting elements are required. 6078 6078 x 0.1 x 80.5
Loadbearing shear walls are chosen, primarily F = +
2 54.9
because the vertical gravity load will help resist the
= 3930 kN or 1965 kN to each wall
overturning moments due to applied lateral loads.
While the corner stairwells and elevator shafts The force at each level on the wall can be
could be used as part of the lateral load resisting determined by the % values in the previous table.
system, this may result in high forces due to restraint
of volumetric deformations; consequently, it is Level 3 F3 = 0.513(1965) = 1008 kN
decided that the corners will be isolated from the Level 2 F2 = 0.325(1965) = 639 kN
main structure. Alternatively, it might have been Level 1 F1 = 0.162(1965) = 318 kN
decided to use these corner elements, and provide Overturning moment on the wall at base as per
connections that are flexible in the direction of Sentence 4.1.8.11.(8):
volumetric restraint.
For Ta = 0.27 s, J = 1, hence Jx = 1
The distribution of seismic shears to each level using
Mf = 318(3.2) + 639(6.4) + 1008(9.6)
NBCC Sentence 4.1.8.11.(7) is shown in the table
= 14784 kN-m
below.
Dead load on each wall (includes all components)
Lateral force distribution through levels
Wx hx = 3(12.8/2)(18.3)(5.3)
Level X Wx hx (m) Fx (kN) % (kN)
(kN•m) = 1862 kN (not including 25% of snow load)
3 24661 9.6 236746 3117 51.3
2 23423 6.4 149907 1974 32.5
1 23423 3.2 74954 987 16.2
Totals 461607 6078 100
North – South Direction 14784

For the north-south load resisting system, try two
200 mm thick load bearing shear walls located at
each end of the ramp. These walls support the 900 1862
mm deep girder, and may be as long as 9 m without
1965
interfering with the traffic flow; a 6 m length is used
as a first iteration. The figure above illustrates the
arrangement and loading.
1672
The shear walls are located 27.45 m from the centre
of mass in the east-west direction of the structure North-South Direction Shear Wall
which also corresponds to the the centre of rigidity
of the SFRS. Although there is no eccentricity For seismic load combinations, dead load is not
between the centre of mass and the centre of reduced (NBCC Sentence 4.1.3.2.(5).
Continued next page

For preliminary design, the contribution of Overturning moment on each wall:

distributed reinforcement and the depth of
= 44(3.2) + 88(6.4) + 139(9.6) = 2038 kN-m
equivalent rectangular stress block in the
compression zone will be neglected. The double tee floor weight = 3.6 kPa
Assuming the effective depth of vertical Dead load on each wall = one wall + one tee at
reinforcement is 5.5 m: each level (three levels, not including 25% of snow
14784–1862(3) load):
Tf = = 1672 kN
5.5 DL = (3)[24(0.2)(3.2)(2)+3.6(18.3)(3.05)] = 695 kN
Tf 1672x103 2 Assuming 1.7 m effective depth to vertical

As = = = 4918 mm (10–25M)
s fy 0.85x400 reinforcement and neglecting the contribution of
distributed reinforcement and the compressive
The force transfer between the precast shear rectangular stress block for this preliminary design.
wall and the foundation can be accomplished
2038–695(1)
by reinforcing bars with grouted sleeves, rated Tf = = 790 kN
mechanical couplers, or welding. Alternatively, 1.7
post-tensioning bars could be chosen. The Tf 790x103 2
As = = = 2324 mm (5-25M)
preliminary analysis is completed by examining f
s y 0.85x400
the capacity of the foundation system to transfer
this force to the supporting ground; that analysis
is not shown here.
East – West Direction

For resistance in the east-west direction, 18
individual loadbearing walls located along the
length on each side of the interior ramped bay
will be used. These 200 mm thick walls are spaced
3.05 m on centres, supporting one 18.3 m span
2038
double tee on each side of the wall. Each wall is 2
m wide to accommodate the 1.5 m stem spacing
of the double tees, and to allow visibility between
the wall units. As in the north-south direction, an 695
accidental eccentricity of 10% must be considered 270
and is conservatively assumed to be resisted by
the east-west shear walls only.
Eccentricity = 0.1(54.9) = 5.49 m
790
Total force in walls in one row:
East-West Direction Shear Wall
6078 6078 x 0.1 x 54.9
F= + = 4862 kN, or 4862/18
2 18.3 Diaphragm analysis

= 270 kN to each wall The diaphragm is modeled for north-south seismic
forces as shown below.
The force on each wall:
Diaphragm forces are designed to follow NBCC
Level 3 F3 = 0.513(270) = 139 kN Sentence 4.1.8.15.(1). Therefore, to ensure that the
Level 2 F2 = 0.325(270) = 88 kN
Level 1 F1 = 0.162(270) = 44 kN Continued next page

diaphragm does not yield, it must be designed

so that the forces applied to it reflect the lateral
capacity of the SFRS to which the diaphragm is
connected rather than just the computed lateral
earthquake loads. For example, if the actual base
shear capacity of the SFRS is 10% larger than
the required base shear, then the shear forces
applied to the diaphragm due to the lateral
loads must also be increased by 10%, subject to
the upper limits noted in the NBCC. However,
design forces associated with the lateral capacity
of the SFRS need not be taken greater than
forces determined using RdRo = 1.0 (i.e. forces
corresponding to an elastic structure).
Lateral capacity of the SFRS would be greater
than the calculated seismic load by the ratio
of the actual provided/required vertical
reinforcement area to resist Tf. However, as
the effective depth was assumed with some
approximation for preliminary design, assume a
lateral capacity of the SFRS 10% greater than the
earthquake load and that the SFRS forces in the
diaphragm are distributed uniformly. To simplify
the calculation, the force is divided among the
three bays, and the flat and ramp areas are
3428
analyzed separately. Accidental torsional effects Total uniform load at roof level: = 42.6 kN/m
are neglected in the preliminary design but 80.5
should be considered in the final design. 42.6
Uniform load on each bay = w1 = w3 =
3
Consider the diaphragm at Level 3. Sentence = 14.2 kN/m
4.1.8.15.(1) of the NBCC requires that the
diaphragm be designed for the larger of: In the flat area, half of the load of the centre bay
is assumed taken by each of the north and south
(a) the factored earthquake load amplified to
bays.
reflect the lateral capacity of the SFRS = (1.1)
(3117) = 3428 kN w2 = 14.2 + 14.2/2 = 21.3 kN/m
(b) the earthquake base shear divided by the Because the overhanging cantilevers will reduce
number of stories = 6078/3 = 2026 kN the stresses in the level area, positive moments
are calculated for the ramp, and the results
But the diaphragm load need not be greater than
conservatively used for the flat area. Negative
the seismic load multiplied by Rd.Ro = 3117 x 1.5 x
moments are also calculated.
1.3 = 6078 kN.
Research [22] indicates that in a three-bay
Therefore the diaphragm at Level 3 is required to
structure such as this one, the tee-to-beam joints
be designed for 3428 kN.
at the end bays at the four inverted tee beams are
particularly vulnerable. The pour strips over these
Continued next page

Example 2.16 Three level parking structure (continued from previous page)
beams should have transverse reinforcement across Diaphragm shear design:

the joints to improve strength and ductility. Vf to each wall from the 54.9 m span diaphragm =
195 kN at the middle bay, and 390 kN at the north
w 1 (l ) 2 14.2(54.9) 2 and south bays.
Mf+ = = = 5350 kN-m
8 8
At the middle ramp, 3.05 m of each wall is
w 2 (l ) 2 21.3(12.8) 2
Mf - = = = –1745 kN-m connected to a tee.
2 2
Vf = 195/3.05 = 63.9 kN/m
14.2(54.9)
Vf = = 390 kN
2 If flange-to-wall connectors are provided at 1.0 m
R2 = 390/2 = 195 kN for the middle on centres, required capacity per connector = 63.9
diaphragm at the ramp kN.
Diaphragm moment design: Connection forces at the north and south bays
Assuming a 17.7 m moment arm along the tee span: to shear walls will be higher than this load, and
heavier connections will be required or the load
T3 = 5350/17.7 = 302 kN path will have to be designed to transfer the
This tensile force may be resisted by reinforcing diaphragm shear to connections on each side of
bars placed into field applied concrete topping or the shear wall. Alternatively, additional shear walls
curbs located at each end of the double tees, or could be utilized at the elevator and stair wells.
by reinforcing steel shop welded to plates cast in For the first interior tee-to-tee connection in the
the edges of the double tee flanges. These plates diaphragm:
are connected together in the field across the joint
using splice plates and welds. Vf = 390 – 3.05(14.2) = 347 kN
Tf 302x103 2 Vf = 347/18.3 = 18.96 kN/m
As = = = 888 mm (3-20M)
f
s y 0.85x400
If flange connectors are provided at 1.5 m
Splice plate of 300 MPa steel: on centres, required capacity per connector
= 18.96(1.5) = 28.4 kN.
Tf 302x103
Required A pl = =
0.9x300 Additional information on seismic analysis and
s fy
design of concrete diaphragms, chords and
2
= 1119 mm (Plate 8 x 140) collectors can be found in Reference [26].
The arrangement of reinforcement is as shown. Conclusion:
Typical chord tension connections This preliminary analysis indicates that the
presumed sizes and arrangement of seismic
force resisting systems are reasonable, although
increasing the length of shear walls would decrease
the amount of vertical tension reinforcement
and assist with connections to the diaphragm.
Refinements can be made to the structure
including any architectural revisions, and then the
final analysis can be performed.

2.9 SEGMENTAL CONSTRUCTION

2.9.1 General
Segmental construction [11] is defined as a method of construction for buildings and other structures in which
primary load carrying elements are composed of individual segments post-tensioned together.
Segmental construction requires the Engineer to consider the following:
1. Choice of element size (dimension and weight),
2. Configuration and structural response of the joint between elements,
3. Construction sequence, loads and deflections imposed at various stages, and
4. Recognition of tolerances and the effect of these upon the joint.
Segmental construction provides all the advantages associated with precast concrete and, in addition permits the
economical use of precast for the solution of specific problems:
1. Reduction of erection weights, permitting the use of smaller capacity erection equipment,
2. Ability to manufacture large elements in plants of limited size,
3. Multiple re-use of forms, permitting the economical construction of complicated shapes ,
4. The ability of constructing deep elements (by keeping the width of individual elements within the
allowable for transportation), and thus
permitting the economical spanning of
long distances,
5. Various structural configurations, such as
trusses with inclined or parallel chords,
may be readily constructed, and
6. Temporary falsework can be minimized
by use of cantilever construction for
columns, similar to familiar bridge
construction methods.
2.9.2 Joints and Joint Construction

Joints are of two types: either open, to permit
completion by a field pour, or narrow, where
the joint may be completed either dry or by use
of a thin layer of adhesive (Figure 2.9.1). Both
methods, which have been successfully used in
the past, are discussed below.
Wide or open joints

The width of these joints vary from 50 to 300
mm. They can be filled with concrete, grout or
dry pack.
Concrete filled joints require forming around
the joint and should be at least 100 mm wide
to allow proper concrete placement and
compaction. High range water reducing agents
in the joint concrete will substantially reduce the
problem of compaction. The joining of tendon
ducts can be well supervised and inspected with
Figure 2.9.1 Types of joints
wide joints.

The compressive strength of the joint concrete at a specified age should be equal to the strength of the concrete
in the adjacent precast segments. High early strength hydraulic cement may be used. Aggregate size should be
selected to ensure maximum compaction.
The height of each concrete placement or lift must be limited so that the concrete can be properly consolidated.
Ports are normally provided for inspection.
Formwork must prevent leakage of concrete during and after its placement. Adequate curing is necessary to reach
the design strength of the concrete.
Grouted joints are usually filled using pressure grouting. The perimeter of the joint is sealed with a compressible
gasket, the compression achieved either by use of external devices or by introducing a small amount of prestress.
Gaskets are also provided around the individual post-tensioning tendons to prevent grout leakage into the ducts
that would block passage of the tendons. The joint detail should provide for vents at the top to permit escape of
entrapped air during grouting. At the conclusion of the grouting operation, vents should be closed and pressure
increased to a minimum of 0.1 MPa at the vent, to ensure full grout intrusion. Within a few days after grouting,
vents should be re-opened and if consolidation is evident, the vent is filled.
The width of the pressure grouted joint should not be greater than 50 mm. The compressive strength of the grout
should equal that of the concrete in adjacent segments, but not less than 30 MPa. Admixtures, such as water
reducing agents or expansive agents, if used, should be of the non-staining type.
Dry-packed joints are used in conjunction with smaller elements having good access to all parts of the joint. Dry-
packing allows earlier application of the final post-tensioning.
The concrete mortar must have a compressive strength equal to the concrete in adjacent segments, or at least
30 MPa. Good mortar should be thoroughly mixed and have zero slump. Maximum aggregate size normally does
not exceed 5 mm. Mortar should be rammed into place using a heavy hammer and a wood ram. The width of
dry-packed joints should not exceed approximately 50 mm. Mortar should be introduced into the joint in small
quantities or batches not exceeding a mass of 5 kg. Each batch must be thoroughly tamped and packed before
the next batch is placed. Containment may be necessary, particularly at the bottom of the joint.
All wide joints require preparatory treatment of the joint surfaces prior to filling. The joint surfaces must be clean,
free from grease and oil, etc. and preferably wire brushed or sandblasted. Prior to construction of the joint, the
adjacent concrete surface should be kept thoroughly wet for approximately 6 hours, or bonding agent should be
applied.
Narrow or closed joints

Narrow joints can be dry or epoxy bonded. The joint width varies from practically zero for dry joints to about 2 mm
for epoxy bonded joints.
In both cases, a perfect match of the joint surfaces is essential. This can be achieved through match-casting or the
use of precision steel bulkheads.
Match-casting requires that each new segment is cast against its previously cast neighbour. The use of bond
breaking agents allows the segments to be separated. Match-casting involves careful organization and additional
handling of the segments.
The use of precision bulkheads provides more flexibility in production and ties up less floor space, but its success
depends on machined steel bulkheads fabricated to very tight tolerances.
Match-cast segments are normally joined by coating abutting surfaces with a thin (1 mm) layer of epoxy adhesive,
and then drawing together and holding in position the precast elements. An epoxy filler is not always necessary,
however, it does provide the following advantages:
1. During placement the epoxy will act as a lubricant, which will assist in the alignment process.

2. The epoxy will even out any small contact surface differences and thus provide a uniform bearing surface.
3. The epoxy will provide a joint with tensile capacity greater than the concrete, and thus assure monolithic
behaviour.
4. The epoxy will provide water tightness and durability at the joints.
Epoxy bonding agents for match cast joints should be thermosetting, 100% solid compositions, that do not contain
solvents or any non-reactive organic ingredient, except for pigments required for colouring. Epoxy bonding agents
should be of two components, a resin and a hardener. The two components should be distinctly pigmented, so
that mixing produces a third colour similar to the concrete in the segments to be joined, and should be packaged
in pre-portioned, labelled, ready-to-use containers.
Epoxy bonding agents should be formulated to provide application temperature ranges that will permit erection
of match-cast segments at ambient temperatures from 5°C to 45°C. If two surfaces to be bonded have different
temperatures, the adhesive applicable at the lower temperature should be used.
If the project requires or would benefit from erection at a concrete temperature lower than 5°C, the temperature
of the concrete within the vicinity of the joint should be elevated to at least 5°C to ensure effective wetting of the
surface by the epoxy compound in a reasonable length of time. An artificial environment will have to be provided
to accomplish this elevation in temperature, and should be created by an enclosure heated by circulating warm
air or by radiant heaters. Localized heating should be avoided, and the heat should be provided in a manner that
prevents surface temperatures greater than 45°C during the epoxy hardening process. Direct flame heating of
concrete surfaces should be prohibited.
Surfaces of the match-cast joints to be bonded should be sound, and clean. All traces of mold release agents,
curing compounds, laitance, oil, dirt and loose concrete should be removed from surfaces to be bonded by proper
washing or sandblasting.
The concrete surfaces that are to be bonded should not be wet; a damp but not saturated surface is permissible.
To get rid of a wet surface, the concrete may be dried with hot air just before applying the adhesive.
The adhesive should be applied in a uniform thickness to both surfaces. Care must be taken that no epoxy mix enters
the ducts for the tendons. After joining the segments, the ducts must be checked to ensure they are not blocked by
any adhesive. Some post-tensioning should be applied within 45 minutes after application of the epoxy material and
a minimum average temporary prestress of 0.4 MPa over the cross-section should be applied within 70% of the open
time of the epoxy material, and should be maintained until the permanent tendons are stressed. At no point on the
cross-section should the temporary prestress be less than 0.2 MPa. If the correct amount of adhesive has been used, a
small amount will extrude from the joint when pressure is applied.
In case of unforeseen interruptions, and 70% of the open time expires before the segments are fully joined (an
approximate determination of the open time can be noted from behaviour of lap joint samples spread on small
cement boards), the epoxy should be removed and any remainder washed off with solvent, according to the
instructions of the manufacturer, followed by sandblasting. Particular care is required in cold weather.
Epoxy bonding agents should be relatively insensitive to damp conditions during application and, after curing, should
exhibit high bonding strength to cured concrete, good water resistivity, low creep characteristics, and tensile strength
greater than the concrete. The compressive strength of the epoxy should equal that of the concrete in adjacent
segments under any environmental condition that may be encountered during the life of the structure.
Epoxy bonding agents should be tested to determine their workability, set time, open time, bond, compression and
shear strength, and working temperature range. The frequency of tests should be stated in the Contract.
If desired, test specimens can be made at the site to later verify the properties of the epoxy. These may include
prisms of adhesive to test the compressive strength, and diagonally-cut concrete cylinders or prisms bonded together
with the epoxy to indirectly test shear strength by compressive loading. If necessary, concrete cores may be drilled
through the bond line and tested in compression.

Dry joints are fast to handle during construction and, providing there is a perfect match of segments, very little can
go wrong. Post-tensioning should be designed in such a way that after all losses a compressive stress of about 1.0
MPa remains across all dry joints.
Joint surfaces
Requirements concerning surface quality must be stricter for narrow joints than for wide joints filled with mortar or
concrete.
Orientation:
Surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the main post-tensioning tendons, to minimize shearing forces and
dislocation in the plane of the joint during post-tensioning. Inclination with respect to a plane perpendicular to
the longitudinal axis is permitted for joints with assured friction resistance. The inclination should generally not
exceed 20°. Larger inclination, but not more than approximately 30°, may be permitted if the inclined surface area
is located close to the neutral axis and does not exceed 25 percent of the joint’s total surface area.
Quality:
For wide joints, rough surfaces are preferable, as they produce better bond between segment and filling material.
Since it is difficult in normal practice to produce perfect sharp edges, it is advisable to make joint surface edges
slightly rounded or chamfered. Although this will tend to make joints visible, it will also reduce the contrast if
neighbouring segments have slight colour variance. Rounding or chamfering of edges should not decrease the
joint surface area by more than approximately 2.5 percent.
For narrow joints, the surface, including formed keys, should be even and smooth, to avoid point contact and
surface crushing or chipping off of edges during post-tensioning.
Holes for tendons and couplers

Holes or sheathing for tendons must be located very precisely, such as by using steel templates or precision
steel bulkheads, when producing segments joined by post-tensioning. Care is required to prevent leakage or
penetration of joint-filling materials into the duct, thus blocking passage of the tendons.
Joints are always crossed by post-tensioning ducts and tendons. Two basic methods are used:
1. Tendons in ducts through the segments, and
2. Tendons placed outside the segment.
The second case does not cause any problems for the joints. The first case is discussed in detail in the PTI Post-
Tensioning Manual. [12]
2.9.3 Design Considerations

Design procedures for precast segmental structures are essentially the same as for monolithic prestressed concrete
structures.[13]
Settlement and shortening of scaffolding due to dead load of segments as well as construction loads must be
considered. Segments need to be carefully aligned and levelled before forming joints and post-tensioning.
Shortening of the segments and jointing materials due to temperature, settlement, or change in loading conditions
should be checked before post-tensioning the structure. If joints separate due to the above causes, the post-
tensioning may cause uneven distribution of stresses or grout leakage.
Elements that are post-tensioned require the following additional considerations:
Flexural stresses
1. For elements that are assembled using a dry joint and to prevent joint opening, tension should not be
permitted between segments under any stage of erection or service loading.
2. For elements that are assembled using an epoxy joint, the allowable tensile stress at the joint may be
considered the same as that for monolithic construction.

3. For elements that are assembled using a grout joint, the allowable tensile stress at the joint should be
taken as zero unless tests indicate otherwise.
Joint shear
When joints are composed of an epoxy or grout with a tensile strength at least equal to the concrete, the element
may be designed as a monolithic. When a dry joint is used, shear should be considered transferred by friction, using a
friction factor of 0.7. (This value is given as a guide. The actual value to be used requires engineering judgement.) At
working loads, care should be taken that there is no relative displacement at the joint. At ultimate, the available shear
resistance Vr should be at least equal to Vf, where Vf is the factored shear.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement, to meet at least minimum requirements for flexural elements in accordance with the Code, is normally
required in segments for:
1. Transverse bending moments,
2. Shear,
3. Torsion due to eccentric loading,
4. Thermal and volume change forces, and
5. Temporary forces imposed during fabrication, transportation, or erection.
Bearing and anchorage

Bearing areas are subjected to large concentrated forces; they may also need to accommodate substantial
movement due to volume changes and thermal effects.
Generally, four different areas of diagonal splitting and cracking can be identified in anchorage or bearing areas that
will require reinforcement:
1. Under end surfaces, not more than 20 mm deep, to control possible surface cracking around anchorages.
2. Internally, to prevent splitting of separate anchorages. Size and location of this area and of the magnitude of
splitting (bursting) force depends on the type of anchorage and the force in the post-tensioning tendon, and
should be investigated individually for each type of anchorage.
3. Internally, to prevent splitting between groups of anchorages (not distributed on bearing surface uniformly).
For each case, the splitting force and necessary reinforcement should be defined separately for the vertical
and horizontal directions.
4. To decrease the possibility of damage to segments during post-tensioning due to unintended stress
concentrations, or during handling of segments, supplemental reinforcement may be desirable immediately
adjacent to the joint surface.
Concrete that is placed around anchorages, after post-tensioning, should be reinforced to ensure that it will not spall.
Couplers
Couplers should be designed to develop the full ultimate resistance of the tendons they connect. Adjacent to the
coupler, the tendons should be straight for a minimum length of 12 times the diameter of the coupler. Adequate
provisions should be made to ensure that couplers can move during prestressing. It is particularly important that
the void areas around a coupler be deducted from gross section areas when computing stresses at the time of
prestressing.
Deflections
Deflection calculations should consider dead load, prestress, erection loads, concrete creep and shrinkage, and steel
relaxation. For joints using an epoxy or grout with a tensile strength at least equal to the concrete, the elements may be
considered monolithic. When a dry joint is used, deflection should be computed based on a bilinear moment-deflection
relationship, using a transformed cracked section when tensile stresses exist in the precompressed tensile zone.

2.9.4 Post-tensioning Considerations

Background information on various post-tensioning systems and their applications is given in Chapter 1 and in the
PTI Post-Tensioning Manual. [12]
2.10 REFERENCES
1. National Research Council., National Academy of 16. American Concrete Institute Response of Multi-
Sciences Expansion Joints in Buildings, Technical storey Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces, Special
Report No. 65, 1974 Publication SP-36., 1973
2. Martin, L.D., Background and Discussion on PCI Design 17. ACI Committee 442 Response of Buildings to Lateral
Handbook Second Edition, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 25, No. Forces, ACI JOURNAL, V68. No. 2, February 1971
1, Jan-Feb 1980, pp. 24-41 18. Portland Cement Association Design of Combined
3. Englekirk, R.E. Design-Construction of the Paramount Frames and Shear Walls, Advanced Engineering Bulletin
– A 39 Story Precast Prestressed Concrete Apartment No. 14, 1965
Building, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 47, No. 4, Jul-Aug 2002 19. Fintel, M., Handbook of Concrete Engineering, 2nd
4. Gouwens, A.J., Lateral Load Analysis of Multi-storey Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, NY, 1965
Frames with Shear Walls, Bulletin AEC2, Portland 20. Nakaki, S. D., Stanton, J.F., Sritharan, S. , An overview
Cement Association Computer Program of the PRESSS Five-Story Precast Test Building PCI
5. MacGregor, J.G., and Hage, S.E., Stability Analysis and JOURNAL, Special Report, Vol. 44, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1999,
Design of Concrete, Proceedings, JOURNAL of the pp. 26-39
Structural Division, ASCE, October, 1977 21. Humar, J., Background to some of the seismic design
6. Speyer, I.J., Consideration for the Design of Precast provisions of the 2015 National Building Code of
Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to Withstand Abnormal Canada, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2015,
Loads, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 2, Mar-Apr 1976, pp. 42(11): 940-952 [22]
18-51 22. Fleischman, Robert B., Farrow, Kenneth, T., and eastman,
7. National Building Code of Canada 2015, Canadian Kristin, Seismic Performance of Perimeter Lateral System
Commission on Building and Fire Codes, National structures with Highly flexible Diaphragms Earthquake
Research Council of Canada, 2015 Spectra, Vol. 18, No.2, May 2002, Earthquake Eng.
8. Design Considerations for Precast Prestressed Research Institute
Apartment Building, Prestressed Concrete Institute, 23. Adebar P., Devall R., Bazargani P., Anderson DL, Seismic
1975, 224 pp Design of Foundations: The 2015 Canadian Building
9. [9] Kahn, L.F., Reinforced Concrete Infilled Shear Code, Proceedings of the 10th National Conference
Walls for Aseismic Strengthening, Report UMEE 76R1, in Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Jan. 1976 Research Institute, Anchorage, AK, 2014
10. S
pencer, R.A. and Tong, W.K.T., Design of a One-story 24. Adebar, P., Nonlinear Rotation of Capacity-Protected
Precast Concrete Building for Earthquake Loading, Proc., Foundations: The 2015 Canadian Building Code,
Eighth World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, San Earthquake Spectra, Volume 31, 1885-1907, November
Francisco, 1984, Vol. V, pp. 653-660 2015, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
11. PCI Committee on Segmental Construction, 25. Adebar, P., Mutrie, J.G., DeVall, R., Mitchell, D., Seismic
Recommended Practice for Segmental Construction in Design of Concrete Buildings: The 2015 Canadian
Prestressed Concrete, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 20, No. 2, Mar- Building Code, Proceedings of the 10th National
Apr 1975, pp. 22-41 Conference in Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, Anchorage, AK, 2014
12. Post-Tensioning Manual, Sixth Edition, Post-Tensioning
Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 2006 26. Moehle, Jack P., Hooper, John D., Kelly, Dominic J.,
Meyer, Thomas R., Seismic Design of Cast-in-Place
13. Martynowicz, A. and McMillan, C.B., Large Precast Concrete Diaphragms, Chords, and Collectors, A
Prestressed Vierendeel Trusses Highlight Multi-storey Guide for Practicing Engineers, NEHRP Seismic Design
Building, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 20, No. 6, Nov-Dec 1975, Technical Brief No. 3, produced by NEHRP Consultants
pp. 50-65 Joint Venture, a partnership of the Applied Technology
14. Benjamin, J.R., Statically Indeterminate Structure, Council and the Consortium of Universities for Research
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959 in Earthquake Engineering, for the National Institute
of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, NIST
15. Aristizabal-Ochoa, J.D., Moment Restraint and Second
GCR 10-917-4, 2010.
Order Analysis of a Cantilevered Precast Column
Supported by an Isolated Footing, PCI JOURNAL, V47.
No. 6, Nov-Dec 2002


CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
3.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................................................3-3
3.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................3-10
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS..........................................................................................................3-10

3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors..................................................................................................3-10
3.2.2 Importance Factors.................................................................................................................................3-10
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors....................................................................................................................3-11
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE.........................................................................................................3-11

3.3.1 Design Procedures..................................................................................................................................3-11
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in CSA A23.3.................................................................................................3-13
3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility.......................................................................................................3-26
3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE..............................................................................3-28

3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design....................................................................................................................3-28
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design—General.................................................................................................3-29
3.4.4 Prestress Loss—General.........................................................................................................................3-35
3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method.....................................................................................................3-36
3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method .......................................................................................................3-38
3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in Composite Elements....................................................................3-44
3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design....................................................................................................3-52
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand Development.........................................................................................3-61
3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer..........................................................................................................................3-67
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION.....................................................................................................................3-67

3.5.1 Initial Camber...........................................................................................................................................3-68
3.5.2 Elastic Deflections...................................................................................................................................3-69
3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection..............................................................................................................3-71
3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection............................................3-72
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection—
Fully Prestressed Elements.....................................................................................................................3-73
3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load Deflection of Partially Prestressed Elements...............................3-74
3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite Elements..................................................................................3-76
3.6 SHEAR.........................................................................................................................................................3-76
3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance.................................................................................3-77
3.6.2.1 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance of the Concrete......................................3-77
3.6.2.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance due to Prestressing ...............................3-78
3.6.2.3 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance of the Shear Reinforcement..................3-78
3.6.2.3.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement............................................................................3-78
3.6.2.3.2 Spacing...................................................................................................................3-78
3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and Shear Diagrams............................................................................3-78
3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in Composite Elements...........................................................................3-83

CHAPTER 3 Design of Elements
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION .......................................................................................................3-87

Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................3-87
3.8 COMPRESSION..........................................................................................................................................3-94
3.8.1 Factored Resistance................................................................................................................................3-94
3.8.2 Development Length..............................................................................................................................3-95
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects...............................................................................................................................3-100
3.8.3.1 Magnified moment approach................................................................................................3-100
3.8.3.2 Empirical design of rectangular wall panels.........................................................................3-104
3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels..............................................................................................................3-107
3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels.....................................................................................................3-107
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia...........................................................................................................3-107
3.8.7 Piles.........................................................................................................................................................3-109
3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................................................3-113

3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors........................................................................................................3-113
3.9.2 Flexure....................................................................................................................................................3-113
3.9.3 Lateral Stability......................................................................................................................................3-119
3.9.4 Storage...................................................................................................................................................3-123
3.9.5 Transportation........................................................................................................................................3-124
3.9.6 Erection..................................................................................................................................................3-124
3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS................................................................................................................3-125

3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads....................................................................................................3-125
3.10.2 Effects of Openings...............................................................................................................................3-127
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core and Double Tee Slabs..........................................................3-127
3.10.4 Cantilevers..............................................................................................................................................3-127
3.11 MULTI-WYTHE PANEL DESIGN................................................................................................................3-128

3.11.1 General Double Wythe.........................................................................................................................3-128
3.11.2 Reinforcement........................................................................................................................................3-128
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design...........................................................................................................3-128
3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design..................................................................................................................3-129
3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED ELEMENTS............................................................................................3-133

3.12.1 General...................................................................................................................................................3-133
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis..............................................................................................................................3-133
3.12.3 Design for Service Loads......................................................................................................................3-136
3.12.4 Prestress Losses.....................................................................................................................................3-136
3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads...................................................................................................................3-138
3.12.6 Other Considerations............................................................................................................................3-157
3.13 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................3-166

3.0 NOTATION
A = effective tension area of concrete b = horizontal distance between supports
surrounding the flexural tension b = width of compression face of element
reinforcement bt = width of tension zone of section
A = area of that part of cross-section between bv = width of cross section at contact surface
flexural tension face and centroid of gross being investigated for longitudinal shear
section.
bw = minimum effective web width within depth d
Ac = concrete cross-sectional area, not including
area of reinforcement C = compressive force
Acomp = cross-sectional area of the equivalent C = cross sectional constant used in definition of
rectangular stress block equivalent column torsional properties
Acr = area of cracked section C1 = multipliers for determining long term
cambers and deflections
Act = area of concrete on flexural tension side of
member Cc = compressive force capacity of composite
topping
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear
transfer C m = factor relating the actual moment diagram to
an equivalent uniform moment diagram
Ag = gross area of section
Cs = shrinkage coefficient
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, including
holes if any Ct = creep coefficient
Aoh = area enclosed by stirrup centreline, including Cu = ultimate creep coefficient for standard
holes if any. conditions
Ap = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension C∞ = long term creep coefficient
zone c = distance from extreme compression fibre to
A’p = area of prestressed reinforcement in neutral axis
compression zone ca = applied overhanging moment arm
Ar = concrete area in tension below the neutral cr = resisting moment arm
axis c1 = width of column in direction moments taken
As = area of non-prestressed tension c2 = width of column in direction perpendicular
reinforcement to moments taken
A’s = area of non-prestressed compression cu = neutral axis depth assuming fpr = fpu
reinforcement cy = neutral axis depth assuming fpr = fpy
Ast = Ap + As Es/Ep D = dead load
At = area of one leg of closed stirrup d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
Atop = effective area of cast-in-place composite centroid of prestressed and non-prestressed
topping tension reinforcement, but need not be less
Atr = area of uncracked transformed section than 0.8h for prestressed members.
Av = area of shear reinforcement d = distance from extreme compression fibre
Avf = area of shear friction reinforcement to centroid of non-prestressed tension
reinforcement
Av l = area of shear ties
d = distance from extreme compression fibre to
Avt = vertical reinforcement to resist bursting and centroid of tension reinforcement for entire
splitting stresses composite section
a = panel support height d’ = distance from extreme compression fibre to
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block centroid of non-prestressed compression
a = width of a panel reinforcement
a = length of overhang db = nominal diameter of reinforcing bar or
ag = maximum aggregate size prestressing strand
b = length of a panel

dc = concrete cover to centre of reinforcement f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete

dp, d’p = distance from extreme compression fibre to f’cc = specified compressive strength of composite
centroid of stressed reinforcement topping, or of concrete in columns
dv = effective shear depth; taken as flexural lever fce = stress in concrete at the level of prestressing
arm but need not be taken less than 0.9 d or tendons after all losses
0.72 h fce = compressive stress in concrete due to
E = earthquake load and effects prestress only after all losses, at the extreme
E = modulus of elasticity fibre of a section at which tensile stresses are
caused by applied loads
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
fci = compressive stress in concrete at time of
Ecc = modulus of elasticity of concrete for column
prestress transfer
Eci, Eco = modulus of elasticity of concrete at time of
f’ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of
prestress transfer
prestress transfer
Ecs = modulus of elasticity of concrete for slab
fco = concrete compressive stress at centroid of
Ec1 = modulus of elasticity of concrete at specified tendon at critical section immediately after
strength transfer
Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressed fcp = compressive stress in concrete (after
reinforcement allowance for all prestress losses) at the
Es = modulus of elasticity of non-prestressed centroid of the cross section
reinforcement fc1 = concrete stress at centroid of tendon at the
e = eccentricity of design load or prestress force critical section caused by sustained loads not
parallel to axis measured from the centroid included in the calculation of fco (tension
of the section negative)
e’ = distance between centroid of prestress force f
l = calculated stress due to live load
at end and centroid of prestress force at fpe = effective stress in prestressed reinforcement
lowest point = ec – ee after allowance for all prestress losses
ec = eccentricity of prestress force from the fpi = stress in tendon after transfer
centroid of the section at the centre of the
fpo = stress in pretensioned tendon immediately
span
before transfer
ee = eccentricity of prestress force from the
fpp = stress in tendon at a distance y from the
centroid of the section at the end of the
jacking end
span
fpr = stress in prestressed reinforcement at
ej = initial lateral eccentricity of the C.G. of beam
factored resistance
etr = eccentricity of prestress force in uncracked
fpu = tensile strength of tendon
transformed section
fpx = stress in tendon at a distance x from the
ex = eccentricity of prestress force from x axis
jacking end
ey = eccentricity of prestress force from y axis
fpy = yield strength of tendon
F = force as defined in section used (with
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete
subscripts)
f’r = allowable flexural tension stress computed
Feq = equilibrium forces in anchorage zone
on the basis of gross concrete section
Flt = required tensile force in longitudinal
fre = intrinsic relaxation loss in prestressing steel
reinforcement on flexural tension side of
member fs = stress in the non-prestressed tension
reinforcement due to specified loads
FS = factor of safety against cracking
fs = increase in stress in the prestressed and non-
FS’ = factor of safety against failure or roll-over
prestressed reinforcement beyond state of
Fsp = spalling force decompression
fall = allowable compressive stress f’s = stress in the non-prestressed compression
fb = stress in the bottom fibre of the cross section reinforcement due to specified loads
fc = unit stress in concrete fsd = stress due to service dead load
ft = stress in the top fibre of the cross section

ft
l = final total stress in the element k = effective length factor for compression
fy, f’y = specified yield strength of non-prestressed elements
reinforcement k = ratio of depth to the neutral axis to the
h = overall height or thickness of a member depth, d, for a cracked section at service
moment
hc = centre to centre column height
kc = stiffness coefficient
hf = thickness of compression flange of an
element k1, kp, = factors for type of prestressing steel
hr = height of axis above road kp = coefficient used in calculating critical load,
Pc
hu = unsupported height of wall
kp = coefficient accounting for the shape of
h1 = distance from centroid of tensile
tendon stress-strain curve
reinforcement to neutral axis
L = live load due to intended use
h2 = distance from extreme tensile fibre to neutral
l = overall length
axis
l = span length
I = moment of inertia about centroidal axis
l = length of tendon
I’c = effective moment of inertia for calculating
curvature l 1 = span in direction moments considered
Ic = moment of inertia of concrete section l 2 = span in direction perpendicular to moments
Icr = moment of inertia of the cracked trans- considered
formed section l b = length of bar,
Ie = effective moment of inertia l b = length of bearing
Iequi = equivalent moment of inertia for non- l c = vertical distance between supports
l d
uniform cross sectional compression = development length
member
l e = length of tendon between anchors divided
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section by the number of plastic hinges required
Iminor = moment of inertia about the minor axis to develop a failure mechanism in the span
Imajor = moment of inertia about the major axis under consideration
l n = length of clear span of element
Is = moment of inertia of reinforcement
l o = overall length of tendon between anchors
IS = importance factor for snow load
l t = transfer length of tendons
Itr = moment of inertia of uncracked transformed
section l u = unsupported length of a compression
IW = importance factor for wind load element
l v = horizontal shear length as defined in Figure
Ix = moment of inertia about x axis
3.6.4
Iy = moment of inertia about y axis
M = moment due to specified loads
Ixy = Ag (x – xL) (y – yb)
M’ = secondary moment
J = polar moment of inertia
Ma = total moment at the section
j = ratio of distance between centroid of
compression and centroid of tension to the Mbal = balance load moment in post-tensioned
depth, d, for a cracked section at service element
moment Mc = moment used for design of compression
K = wobble coefficient for a post-tensioning elements
tendon Mcr = cracking moment
Kc = flexural stiffness of column MCS = moment in column strip
Kec = flexural stiffness of equivalent column Mcvr = total moment due to factored load plus
Ko = sum of rotational spring constants of supports the eccentric shear about centre line of the
critical section
Kr = moment coefficient
Md = moment due to specified dead load
Ks = flexural stiffness of slab
Mdc = decompression moment
Kt = torsional stiffness of torsion element
MDS = moment in design strip

Mf = moment due to factored loads n = modular ratio

M l = moment due to specified live loads n = number of bars
Mlat = lateral bending moment at cracking no = Ep/Eco
Mn = net moment at a section Ms Ep
na =
Mn l = net load moment in post-tensioned element 2
bd E c
Mns = moments from a first order analysis due to A E p + A sE s
p
gravity loads, which do not contribute to nr =
Ec bd
sway
Mo = first order bending moment at critical section n1 = Ep / Ec1
of compression members as obtained from Pbu = final force in upper layer of bottom
elastic analysis prestressed reinforcement
Mocr = pure flexural cracking moment Pb
l = final force in lower layer of bottom
Mr = factored flexural resistance prestressed reinforcement
Mro = factored flexural resistance of a compression Pc = critical axial load
element with zero axial load Pc = shrinkage coefficient to account for cement
Mrb = factored flexural resistance under balanced content
conditions Pc = compression force in concrete
Ms = factored sway moment Pdc = decompression force
M s = moment due to all specified loads, including P e = prestress force after all losses
P-D effects Pf = shrinkage coefficient to account for fine to
Msd = moment due to superimposed dead load total aggregate ratio
Msl = moment due to all sustained load except Pf = factored axial load
element mass P h = shrinkage coefficient to account for relative
Msw = moment due to self weight humidity
M v = moment transferred by eccentricity of shear Pi = prestress force immediately after transfer
Mvcr = total moment due to factored loads plus Po = initial prestress force immediately before
eccentric shear transfer
Mx, My PR = anchorage zone equilibrium force reaction
Mz = service or stripping load moments about x, y Pr = factored axial load resistance
and z axes
Pr = shrinkage coefficient to account for volume
M1 = smaller factored end moment on a to surface ratio
compression element, positive if bent in
single curvature, negative if double curvature Prb = factored axial resistance under balanced
conditions
M2 = larger factored end moment, always positive
Pro = factored axial resistance of a compression
M2ns = factored end moment on a compression element with zero eccentricity
member at the end at which M2 acts, due
to loads that cause no appreciable sway, Ps = force in non-prestressed reinforcement due
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame to time dependent strain
analysis Psh = long term shrinkage modification factor
M2s = factored end moment on a compression Ps
l = shrinkage coefficient to account for slump
member at the end at which M2 acts, due Pt = final force in top prestressed reinforcement
to loads that cause appreciable sway, Pv = shrinkage coefficient to account for air
calculated using a fist-order elastic frame content
analysis
P1 = horizontal force exerted at the end of
m = unfactored mass element due to straight strands
N = unfactored axial load P2 = horizontal force exerted at the end of
N’ = allowable axial load element due to draped strandsp = Pdc dp/Ms
Nf = factored axial load occurring with Vf pc = outside perimeter of cross section
Nv = equivalent factored axial load caused by ph = perimeter of stirrup centreline
shear and torsion po = perimeter of shear flow path

Q = stability index of a storey Vf l = factored longitudinal shear force

Qa = creep coefficient to account for concrete age Vp = factored component in the direction of the
at time of loading and curing conditions applied shear of the effective prestressing
Qcp = creep modification factor for non-standard force factored by fp or, for variable depth
conditions members, the sum of the component of
the prestressing force and the components
Qf = creep coefficient to account for the fine to
of flexural compression and tension in the
total aggregate ratio
direction of the applied shear, positive if
Qh = creep coefficient to account for relative resisting applied shear, factored by fp
humidity
Vr = factored shear resistance
Qr = creep coefficient to account for the volume
Vr l = factored longitudinal shear resistance
to surface ratio
Vs = factored shear resistance provided by shear
Qs l = creep coefficient to account for concrete
reinforcement
slump
vr = factored shear stress resistance of shear
Qv = coefficient to account for concrete air
plane
content
vs = factored shear stress resisted by shear
R = nominal resistance
reinforcement
Vse = shear due to specified loads
r = radius of stability = KO / W
W = live load due to wind or internal moment or
sz = crack spacing parameter, can be taken as forces
equal to dv
W = total weight of beam
sze = equivalent sz allowing for aggregate size
W = weight per unit length of beam
S = section modulus
w = specified load per unit length of beam or per
S = time dependent factor to calculate long term unit area of slab
deflection
w = maximum crack width at extreme tension
S = live load due to snow including ice and fibre
associated rain
wd = specified dead load per unit length
Sb = section modulus with respect to the bottom
w l = specified live load per unit of length
fibre of a cross section
wn l = service load per unit of length (unfactored)
St = section modulus with respect to the top fibre
of a cross section wp = vertical distributed load exerted on an
element by a post-tensioning tendon
s = shear or torsion reinforcement spacing
in a direction parallel to the longitudinal wsd = specified superimposed dead load
reinforcement x = anchorage length of a tension tie of torsion
T = tensile force resisting cross section
T = cumulative effects of temperature, creep, xL = distance from left edge to y axis
shrinkage and differential settlement Y = height of the C.G. of beam above the roll
Tcr = pure torsional cracking resistance axis (adjusted for camber)
Tf = factored torsional moment on a section Yr = height of the roll axis above the C.G. of
beam (adjusted for camber)
t = thickness
y = larger overall dimension of rectangular part
t = time
of torsion resisting cross section
V/S = volume to surface ratio
= distance from top to centroid of Acomp
Vc = factored shear resistance of the concrete
yb = from bottom fibre to centroid of the section
Vcw = factored shear resistance provided by
ycr = distance to tension fibre being considered
concrete when diagonal cracking results
from centroid of cracked section
from excessive principal tensile stress in web
ye = eccentricity of the tendons after cracking
Vf = factored shear force
yt = distance from top fibre to centroid of
vf = factored shear stress
cracked section
Vfcf = factored shear force at column face
Vfcl = factored shear force at column centre

su
ytr = distance to extreme tension fibre from it = time dependent deflection due to sustained
centroid of uncracked transformed section load
P
Z = total bursting force ii = initial deflection due to prestressing
P
Z = lateral deflection of C.G. of beam it = time dependent deflection due to
Zmax = horizontal distance from centre of vehicle to prestressing
centre of dual tire iP = change in prestressing force in concrete
Z̄o = theoretical lateral deflection of the C.G. of (loss)
beam with full load applied laterally iPo = force in prestressed reinforcement
’
Z̄o = adjusted for cracked section at tilt angle corresponding to fc due to dead load and
under consideration effective prestress
z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural iPp = force in tendon corresponding to the
reinforcement concrete strength fc at the level of the
tendon under dead load and effective
a = angle change in post-tensioning tendon
prestress
a = load factor (with subscripts) as defined in
iPs = force in non-prestressed reinforcement
Figure 3.2.1
corresponding to fc due to dead load and
a = superelevation of tilt angle of support effective prestress
af = angle between shear friction reinforcement d = strand elongation due to post-tensioning
and shear plane
d = moment magnifier (with subscripts)
ec = the value of concrete strain
compression block to the specified concrete
strength ece = the strain in concrete corresponding to a
stress of fpe in the steel
ab = bw/b
ecp = strain due to creep
af = hf/h
ei = initial elastic strain
ar = relaxation reduction coefficient (Figure 3.4.4)
ep = strain at level of prestressed reinforcement
b = angle used in post-tensioning friction
calculations epr, e’pr = strain in prestressed reinforcement
b = fpi / fpu es, e’s = strain in non-prestressed reinforcement
b = ifp / fpi epe = strain in prestressed reinforcement after
losses
b = factor accounting for shear resistance of
cracked concrete esh = shrinkage strain
b1 = ratio of depth of rectangular compression eshu = ultimate shrinkage strain
block to depth to the neutral axis ex = longitudinal strain of flexural tension chord
bd = ratio of factored dead load moment to total of the member
load moment for non-sway frames ey = yield strain of non-prestressed reinforcement
bd = ratio of the maximum factored sustained θ = angle of minor axis of a section
shear within a storey to the maximum θ = angle of inclination of diagonal compressive
factored shear in that storey for sway frames stresses to the longitudinal axis of member
bp = shear stress factor θi = initial roll angle of rigid beam = ei / Yr
c = importance factor θmax = tilt angle at which cracking begins
cf = first order relative deflection at top and θm
’ ax = tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety
bottom of that storey due to Vf against failure
i = deflection (with subscripts) l = factor to account for density of concrete
i = post-tensioning anchorage set l = modification factor for EI for compression
ifp = change in prestress due to creep, shrinkage members
and relaxation l = amplification factor due to creep and
ifpo = change in prestress due to elastic loss shrinkage
ifs = change in stress in reinforcement due to µ = shear friction coefficient
creep and shrinkage µ = coefficient of curvature friction (post-
su
ii = initial deflection due to sustained load tensioned tendon)

r = reinforcement ratio
r’ = A’s/bd
rp = Ap/bd = reinforcement ratio for prestressed
reinforcement
A E
rs = s s
Ac E p
s = effective normal stress

st = top stress
sb = bottom stress
so = bursting stress in anchorage zone at x = 0
sx = bursting stress in anchorage zone at ‘‘x’’
sy = bursting stress in anchor zone at ‘‘y’’
f = resistance factor (with subscripts) as defined
in Figure 3.2.3
fm = member resistance factor used in moment
magnification calculation
y = curvature
z = deflection multiplier for sustained load
w = rfy/f’c
wp = rpfpr/ f’c
wpu = rpfpu/ f’c
q = ifp/ifpi; (ifp – ifp1) / fpi
* = superscript used to identify terms used in
the creep transformed section method (see
Section 3.4.7)

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides a summary of design procedures for precast concrete elements with pretensioned, post-ten-
sioned and non-prestressed reinforcement. Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing where the tendons are ten-
sioned after the concrete has reached a predetermined strength. Pretensioning is a method of prestressing where
the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed.
No attempt has been made in this chapter to differentiate between the design of architectural and structural ele-
ments, or between the design of load bearing and non-load bearing elements, as the design approach is common
to all cases.
3.2 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTORS

3.2.1 Load Combinations and Load Factors
NBCC 2010 specifies a set of load combinations, that takes into account a governing load called the principal load,
and a secondary load known as the companion load. The load combination for various load cases are shown in
Figure 3.2.1. For load combination at service limit state refer to NBCC – 2015 Commentary.
Load Combination
Case Factored Resistance
Principal Loads Companion Loads
1 fR 1.4D —
2 fR (0.9D or 1.25D) + 1.5L 1.0S or 0.4W
3 fR (0.9D or 1.25D) + 1.5S 1.0L or 0.4W
4 fR (0.9D or 1.25D) + 1.4W 0.5L or 0.5S
5 f R + effect of 0.9 D 1.4 W or 1.5L or 1.5S —
6 fR 1.0 D + 1.0 E 0.5 L + 0.25 S
7 f R + effect of 1.0 D 1.0 E —
Notes:
1. Where the effects due to lateral earth pressure H, prestress P and imposed deformation T affect the structural
safety, they shall be taken into account in the calculations, H with a load factor of 1.5, P with a load factor 1.0
and T with a load factor of 1.25.
2. The principal load factor 1.5 for live load L may be reduced to 1.25 for liquids in tanks.
3. The companion load factor 0.5 for live load L shall be increased to 1.0 for storage occupancies.
4. The load factor 1.25 for dead load D for soil, super imposed earth, plant and trees shall be increased to 1.5.
5. Earthquake load E in load combination (6) and (7) includes horizontal earth pressure due to earthquake.
6. The dead load factors of 1.25 specified in load cases 2 to 4 and 1.0 specified in case 5 are to be reduced to 0.9
when dead load acts to resist overturning, uplift, sliding and failure due to stress reversal, and to determine
anchor requirements and factored member resistances.
Figure 3.2.1 Load combinations and load factors from NBCC 2015
3.2.2 Importance Factors

For the purpose of determining specified loads, S, W and E, buildings shall be assigned an Important Category
based on intended use and occupancy. Figure 3.2.2 shows the Importance Factors of specified loads associated
with Importance Categories for building.

Importance Category Snow load factor, Is Wind load factor, IW Seismic load factor, IE
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS
Low 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.75 0.8
Normal 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.75 1.0
High 1.15 0.9 1.15 0.75 1.3
Post Disaster 1.25 0.9 1.25 0.75 1.5
Figure 3.2.2 Importance Factors (NBCC 2015)
3.2.3 Material Resistance Factors

The material resistance factors are as shown in Figure 3.2.3. Clause 16.1.3 of CSA A23.3 states that for elements produced
in manufacturing plants certified in accordance with CSA A23.4, the concrete material resistance factor, fc, may be taken as
0.70.
Materials Factor
Cast in place concrete fc = 0.65
Precast concrete non-certified fc = 0.65
Precast concrete certified to CSA A23.4 fc = 0.70
Reinforcing steel fs = 0.85
Prestressing steel fp = 0.90
Structural steel fa = 0.90
Figure 3.2.3 Material resistance factors
3.3 FACTORED FLEXURAL RESISTANCE

3.3.1 Design Procedures
The flexural resistance of an element must be equal to or greater than the factored load effect:
Mr ≥ Mf
f’c(MPa) a1 b1
The flexural resistance of any section can be determined
30 0.805 0.895
using design procedures that take into account equi-
librium and strain compatibility. For many prestressed 35 0.798 0.883
elements, the stress in the prestressed reinforcement at 40 0.790 0.870
factored resistance, fpr, can be obtained using the equa- 45 0.783 0.858
tions given in CSA A23.3. The equilibrium equations using 50 0.775 0.845
the rectangular stress block are shown in Figure 3.3.1. 55 0.768 0.833
Stress block parameters 60 0.760 0.820
The depth of the rectangular stress block, a, is related to 65 0.753 0.808
the depth to the neutral axis, c, by the equation: 70 0.745 0.795
a = b1c 75 0.737 0.783
b1 = 0.97 – 0.0015f’c but not less than 0.67 80 0.730 0.770
The ratio of average stress in the rectangular compression stress block to the specified strength is given by a1
a1 = 0.85 – 0.0015f’c but not less than 0.67

Flanged elements
Clause 10.3.3, CSA A23.3 limits the overhanging
flange width on either side of the web to be used
in the design of simply supported, symmetrical
T-beams to 12 times the flange thickness, 1/2 the
clear distance to the next web, 1/10 span length
of a continuous beam, or 1/5 the span length for
a simple beam. These empirical provisions were
developed for conventionally reinforced concrete
and do not necessarily apply to prestressed con-
crete. It is common practice to use the full flange
width for double and single tees.
The equations for flexural resistance given in
Figure 3.3.1 apply only to rectangular sections
and flanged sections in which the stress block
lies entirely within the depth of the flange, hf. The
depth of the stress block, a, can be found from the
equations of equilibrium given in Figure 3.3.1.
p A p fpr + s A s fy s A s fy
If a > hf, the force required to develop the a =
1 c fc b
compressive strength of the overhanging flanges
is deducted from the total force in the tension Figure 3.3.1 Factored flexural resistance
reinforcement as shown in Example 3-5.
Limitations on reinforcement
Minimum reinforcing is not required if Mr ≥ 1.33Mf
When minimum reinforcement is required for flexural elements, the reinforcement shall be proportioned so that:
Mr ≥ 1.2Mcr
Mcr is calculated using fr= 0.6 fc
Pe Pe e
Mcr = + + 0.6 fc S
Ag S
In lieu of calculating Mcr, minimum reinforcement may be determined as follows:
0.2 fc
Asmin = bt h
fy
This equation need not apply to the design of slabs and footings that are covered by CSA A23.3 Clause 7.8.
The maximum reinforcement ratio for reinforced elements shall satisfy the following expression:
c 700
d 700 + fy
For flexural members without axial loads, the area of tension reinforcement shall be limited such that c/d is less
than the limit given. In columns or walls when c/d exceeds this limit, the stress in the tension reinforcement shall be
computed based on strain compatibility.
The minimum bonded reinforcement requirements in prestressed members depend on the concrete tensile stress-
es and the type of tendons as summarized in Figure 3.3.2.

For partially prestressed beams and one-way slabs, the distribution of bonded tendons and reinforcement shall be
such that the quantity z does not exceed 20 kN/mm for interior exposure and 15 kN/mm for exterior exposure. Ev-
ery limitation mentioned above must be satisfied separately without any additive effect. This requirement applies
to Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
Critical section
For simply supported, uniformly loaded, prismatic, reinforced elements, the critical section for flexural design will
occur at midspan. Provided that reinforcement is properly developed and adequate shear reinforcement is pro-
vided to meet A23.3 clause 11.3.9 requirements, the amount of flexural reinforcement may be reduced in areas of
lower moment towards the support.
For prestressed elements, because of the limitation on end stresses at the time of prestress transfer, tendons in
some cases are draped or depressed, producing a varying effective depth, dp along the length of the element.
For draped tendons, or non-uniform loading, it may be necessary to compare the factored moment Mf, with the
factored flexural resistance, Mr, at points other than at midspan. For uniform loads with single point depressed
tendons, the governing section is usually near 0.4l (See Figure 3.3.3.)
3.3.2 Analysis Using Equations in CSA A23.3

Reinforced elements
Figures. 3.3.4 and 3.3.5 are convenient aids for the design and analysis of rectangular sections with non-prestressed
reinforcement. Values of wmax corresponding to the maximum c/d ratio are also listed.
The use of this design aid is illustrated in Example 3-1.
Prestressed elements
The following conservative values of fpr may be used if fpe is not less than 0.6 fpy:
1. For elements with bonded tendons, provided c/dp is not greater than 0.5:
c
fpr = fpu 1 kp
dp
where kp = 2(1.04–fpy/fpu) and c is determined using a stress of fpr in the tendons:
fpr
c = cu :
fpu
1
fpr = fpu
1+ kpcu / dp
2. For elements with unbonded tendons:

8000
fpr = fpe + (dp c y ) (See Example 3-36)
l
o
but shall not exceed fpy and cy is determined assuming a stress of fpy in the tendons.
The term kp accounts for the shape of the tendon stress-strain curve. Values of kp are given below:
Tendon Type kp
Low relaxation strand or wire 0.28
Plain prestressing bars 0.38
Deformed prestressing bars 0.48
Example 3-2 shows the method of calculating the flexural resistance of a prestressed element with bonded ten-
dons using Figure 3.3.1 and the appropriate equation for fpr.

For elements with only bonded prestressed reinforcement, the calculations can be using the coefficients given in
Figures. 3.3.6 and 3.3.7, as illustrated in Examples 3-3 and 3-4.
Note that if c/dp > 0.5 or if fpe < 0.6 fpy, the equation for fpr should only be used as the first iteration of a strain
compatibility analysis. Similarly, if c/dp is greater than 0.5, the coefficients in Figures 3.3.6 and 3.3.7 should only be
used to estimate Ap or Mr.
For sections with only bonded prestressed tendons, the coefficients are derived using the following:
From Figure 3.3.1:
a1 fc f’c b a = fp Ap fpr
Dividing by b dp f’c and defining the term:
fpr A p fpr
p = p =
fc bd pf c
1 c fc ba p A p fpr
= = p p
bd pf c bd pf c
p p dp
a =
1 c
Type of member Concrete stress

Tensile stress Tensile stress
0.5 fc > 0.5 fc
Type of tendon Type of tendon
Bonded Unbonded Bonded Unbonded
Beams 0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
One-way slabs 0 0.003 A 0.002 A 0.004 A
Two-way slabs:
0 0.0006 h l n 0.00045 h l n 0.00075 h l n
Negative moment regions
Positive moment regions,
concrete tensile stress 0 0.004 A 0.003 A 0.005 A
> 0.2 fc
Positive moment regions,
concrete tensile stress 0 0 – –
> 0.2 fc
Figure 3.3.2 Minimum area of bonded reinforcement

Figure 3.3.3 Critical sections for flexural design
c 1
Mr = p Ap fpr (dp a/ 2) =
dp 1 c 1
2 + kp
p A p fpr bdp fc (1 a / 2dp )
= p pu
bdp fc 1
p = pu
p pu
2 p p 1 + kp
= p fc bdp p 1
2 1 c 1 c 1
Ap By substituting the equation for p in the equation for

Multiplying the equation for fpr by :
bdp fc Mr and introducing the coefficient:
1
A p fpr A p fpu (1 kp c / dp ) Kr = p pu
= p pu
bdp fc bdp fc 1 + kp
1 c 1
and defining the term pu:
fpu A p fpu
pu = p = p pu
fc bdp fc 1
p pu
2 1 c 1 + kp
1 c 1
Mr = Kr fc bdp2
For flanged sections, the design aid only applies if the compression stress block is confined to the flange where:
p dp pu
hf
p pu
1 c 1 + kp
1 c 1
If stress block is deeper than the flange, Example 3-5 should be followed.

Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine K r = 1. Determine = Ap/bd
fc bd2
fy
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine =
fc
fc
3. Determine = 3. Calculate Kr from the table
fy
4. Determine As = bd 4. Determine Mr = Kr fc bd2

max.
fc (MPa) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
fy (MPa) 1 0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
1 0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300 max. 0.386 0.377 0.368 0.359 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.325 0.317 0.309 0.301
400 max. 0.351 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.303 0.296 0.288 0.281 0.274
fc Kr
30 MPa 0.6600 0.4355 1553

. Kr 0.85 0.6440 2
2
35 0.6531 0.4266 15385
. Kr 0.85 0.6500
2
40 0.6467 0.4182 15218
. Kr 0.85 0.6571
2
45 0.6435 0.4140 15142
. Kr 0.85 0.6604
2
50 0.6345 0.4025 14929
. Kr 0.85 0.6698
2
55 0.6286 0.3951 14792
. Kr 0.85 0.6760
0.6222 0.2878 1.2623K r 2
60 0.85 0.6830
65 0.6164 0.3799 14505
. Kr 0.85 0.6894 2
2
70 0.6099 0.3719 14351
. Kr 0.85 0.6968
2
75 0.6042 0.3650 14216
. Kr 0.85 0.7034
2
80 0.5976 0.3571 14062
. Kr 0.85 0.7111
Figure 3.3.4 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed reinforcement only –
precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (fc =0.70)

Table is based on:

fc = 40 MPa
1 = 0.79
The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.
Values of Kr
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0184 0.0192 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0241
0.03 0.0249 0.0257 0.0265 0.0273 0.0281 0.0289 0.0297 0.0305 0.0313 0.0321
0.04 0.0329 0.0337 0.0345 0.0352 0.0360 0.0368 0.0376 0.0384 0.0392 0.0400
0.05 0.0407 0.0415 0.0423 0.0431 0.0438 0.0446 0.0454 0.0462 0.0469 0.0477
0.06 0.0485 0.0492 0.0500 0.0508 0.0515 0.0523 0.0530 0.0538 0.0545 0.0553
0.07 0.0561 0.0568 0.0576 0.0583 0.0590 0.0598 0.0605 0.0613 0.0620 0.0628
0.08 0.0635 0.0642 0.0650 0.0657 0.0664 0.0672 0.0679 0.0686 0.0694 0.0701
0.09 0.0708 0.0715 0.0722 0.0730 0.0737 0.0744 0.0751 0.0758 0.0765 0.0773
0.10 0.0780 0.0787 0.0794 0.0801 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836 0.0843
0.11 0.0850 0.0857 0.0864 0.0871 0.0878 0.0884 0.0891 0.0898 0.0905 0.0912
0.12 0.0919 0.0925 0.0932 0.0939 0.0946 0.0953 0.0959 0.0966 0.0973 0.0979
0.13 0.0986 0.0993 0.0999 0.1006 0.1013 0.1019 0.1026 0.1032 0.1039 0.1046
0.14 0.1052 0.1059 0.1065 0.1072 0.1078 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097 0.1104 0.1110
0.15 0.1117 0.1123 0.1129 0.1136 0.1142 0.1148 0.1155 0.1161 0.1167 0.1174
0.16 0.1180 0.1186 0.1192 0.1199 0.1205 0.1211 0.1217 0.1223 0.1229 0.1236
0.17 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1278 0.1284 0.1290 0.1296
0.18 0.1302 0.1308 0.1314 0.1320 0.1326 0.1332 0.1338 0.1343 0.1349 0.1355
0.19 0.1361 0.1367 0.1373 0.1378 0.1384 0.1390 0.1396 0.1401 0.1407 0.1413
0.20 0.1419 0.1424 0.1430 0.1436 0.1441 0.1447 0.1452 0.1458 0.1464 0.1469
0.21 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1497 0.1502 0.1508 0.1513 0.1519 0.1524
0.22 0.1530 0.1535 0.1540 0.1546 0.1551 0.1556 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1578
0.23 0.1583 0.1588 0.1593 0.1599 0.1604 0.1609 0.1614 0.1619 0.1625 0.1630
0.24 0.1635 0.1640 0.1645 0.1650 0.1655 0.1660 0.1665 0.1670 0.1675 0.1680
0.25 0.1685 0.1690 0.1695 0.1700 0.1705 0.1710 0.1715 0.1720 0.1725 0.1730
0.26 0.1734 0.1739 0.1744 0.1749 0.1754 0.1758 0.1763 0.1768 0.1773 0.1777
0.27 0.1782 0.1787 0.1792 0.1796 0.1801 0.1805 0.1810 0.1815 0.1819 0.1824
0.28 0.1828 0.1833 0.1838 0.1842 0.1847 0.1851 0.1856 0.1860 0.1864 0.1869
0.29 0.1873 0.1878 0.1882 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1900 0.1904 0.1908 0.1913
0.30 0.1917 0.1921 0.1925 0.1930 0.1934 0.1938 0.1942 0.1946 0.1951 0.1955
0.31 0.1959 0.1963 0.1967 0.1971 0.1975 0.1979 0.1984 0.1988 0.1992 0.1996
0.32 0.2000 0.2004 0.2008 0.2012 0.2015 0.2019 0.2023 0.2027 0.2031 0.2035
0.33 0.2039 0.2043 0.2047 0.2050 0.2054 0.2058 0.2062 0.2066 0.2069 0.2073
0.34 0.2077 0.2080 0.2084 0.2088 0.2091 0.2095 0.2099 0.2102 0.2106 0.2110
0.35 0.2113 0.2117 0.2120 0.2124 0.2127 0.2131 0.2134 0.2138 0.2141 0.2145
0.36 0.2148 0.2152 0.2155 0.2158 0.2162 0.2165 0.2169 0.2172 0.2175 0.2179
0.37 0.2182 0.2185 0.2188 0.2192 0.2195 0.2198 0.2201 0.2205 0.2208 0.2211
0.38 0.2214 0.2217 0.2220 0.2224 0.2227 0.2230 0.2233 0.2236 0.2239 0.2242
0.39 0.2245 0.2248 0.2251 0.2254 0.2257 0.2260 0.2263 0.2266 0.2269 0.2272
Figure 3.3.4 Continued

Example 3-1 Determination of non-prestressed reinforcement using Figure 3.3.4 coefficients

Given: Solution:
300/400 x 1000 L-shaped beam certified in accor- To use Fig. 3.3.4, determine:
dance with CSA A23.4. M (106 ) (950)(10 6)
Kr = f = = 0.0896
fc bd 2 (40)(300)(9402 )
Concrete:
f’c = 40 MPa From Fig. 3.3.4, for Kr = 0.0896:
Normal Density
= 0.1168 < the maximum value of 0.334
Factored Moment Mf = 950 kN-m fc bd
As =
fy
(0.1168)(40)(300)(940)
= = 3294 mm2
(400)
Check minimum reinforcement required:
0.2 fc 0.2 40
Asmin = bt h = (450)(1000)
fy (400)
= 1423 mm2 < A s

60
Use 7 25M Grade 400 bars, As = 3500 mm2
Problem:
Find the required amount of non-prestressed rein-
forcement with fy = 400 MPa.
Example 3-2 Determine factored flexural resistance using the empirical equation for fpr
Given: Section Properties:

1220 x 203 hollow core slab certified in accordance Ag = 138700 mm2
with A23.4. Sb = 6.825 x 106 mm3
Problem:
Find the factored flexural resistance, Mr
Solution:
Check that the depth of compression block is less
than top flange thickness of (203 – 152)/2 = 25 mm:
Concrete: Ap fpu (330)(1860)

pu = = = 0.0708
f’c = 45 MPa a1 = 0.78 b1 = 0.86 fc = 0.70 bd pf c (1220)(158)(45)
Normal Density p dp pu
a =
p pu
Prestressed reinforcement: 1 c 1 + kp
1 c 1
6 - 9 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands (0.9)(158)(0.0708)
=
Total losses = 20% (0.9)(0.0708)
(0.78)(0.70) 1 + (0.28)
fpo = 0.7 fpu (0.78)(0.70)(0.86)
kp = 0.28 = 18 mm < 25
Ap = (6) (55) = 330 mm2
Continued

Example 3-2 Continued

Determine Mr: Check the minimum reinforcement requirement that
c 1 Mr ≥ 1.2 Mcr. Assuming that the effective prestress is
=
dp 1 c 1 0.56 fpu:
+ kp
p pu fpe = (0.56)(1860) = 1042 MPa
1 Pe = fpe Ap = (1042)(330)/10 = 344 kN
3
=
(0.78)(0.70)(0.86)
+ 0.28
(0.9)(0.0708) Pe Pe e
1.2Mcr = 1.2 + + 0.6 f c Sb
= 0.131 < 0.5 Ag Sb
fpr = fpu (1 kpc / dp )

= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.131)] = 1792 MPa (344)(10 3 ) (344)(56.5)(10 3 )
= 1 .2 + + (0.6)(1.0) 45
138700 6825 103
Mr = p Ap fpr (d a/ 2)
= (0.9)(330)(1792)(158 18 / 2) /106 (6825 103 )
= 76.6 kN m < 79.4 OK
= 79.4 kN-m 106
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr = 1. Determine = As / bd
fc bd2
fy
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine =
fc
fc
3. Determine = 3. Calculate Kr from the table
fy
4. Determine As = bd 4. Determine Mr = Kr fc bd2
max.
fc (MPa) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
1 0.895 0.883 0.870 0.858 0.845 0.833 0.820 0.808 0.795 0.783 0.770
fy (MPa) 1 0.805 0.798 0.790 0.783 0.775 0.768 0.760 0.753 0.745 0.738 0.730
300 0.356 0.348 0.340 0.332 0.324 0.316 0.308 0.301 0.293 0.285 0.278
400 0.324 0.317 0.308 0.302 0.294 0.287 0.280 0.273 0.266 0.259 0.252
fc Kr
2
30 MPa 0.6215 0.3751 14400
. Kr 0.85 0.6936
2
35 0.6071 0.3685 14285
. Kr 0.85 0.7000
2
40 0.6006 0.3607 14132
. Kr 0.85 0.7076
2
45 0.5975 0.3571 14060
. Kr 0.85 0.7112
2
50 0.5891 0.3471 13862
. Kr 0.85 0.7214
2
55 0.5837 0.3408 13736
. Kr 0.85 0.7280
2
60 0.5777 0.3338 1.3594K r 0.85 0.7536
2
65 0.5724 0.3277 13469
. Kr 0.85 0.7424
2
70 0.5663 0.3207 13326
. Kr 0.85 0.7504
2
75 0.5610 0.3147 13200
. Kr 0.85 0.7575
2
80 0.5550 0.3079 13058
. Kr 0.85 0.7658
Figure 3.3.5 Flexural resistance design aid for rectangular section with non-prestressed
reinforcement only – precast not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (fc = 0.65)

Table based on:

fc = 40 MPa
1 = 0.79
The error for other concrete strengths does not exceed 3.2%.
Values of Kr
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
0.00 0.0000 0.0008 0.0017 0.0025 0.0034 0.0042 0.0051 0.0059 0.0068 0.0076
0.01 0.0084 0.0093 0.0101 0.0109 0.0118 0.0126 0.0134 0.0142 0.0151 0.0159
0.02 0.0167 0.0175 0.0183 0.0191 0.0200 0.0208 0.0216 0.0224 0.0232 0.0240
0.03 0.0248 0.0256 0.0264 0.0272 0.0280 0.0288 0.0296 0.0304 0.0312 0.0320
0.04 0.0328 0.0336 0.0344 0.0351 0.0359 0.0367 0.0375 0.0383 0.0390 0.0398
0.05 0.0406 0.0414 0.0421 0.0429 0.0437 0.0444 0.0452 0.0460 0.0467 0.0475
0.06 0.0483 0.0490 0.0498 0.0505 0.0513 0.0520 0.0528 0.0535 0.0543 0.0550
0.07 0.0558 0.0565 0.0572 0.0580 0.0587 0.0595 0.0602 0.0609 0.0617 0.0624
0.08 0.0631 0.0638 0.0646 0.0653 0.0660 0.0667 0.0675 0.0682 0.0689 0.0696
0.09 0.0703 0.0710 0.0717 0.0725 0.0732 0.0739 0.0746 0.0753 0.0760 0.0767
0.10 0.0774 0.0781 0.0788 0.0795 0.0802 0.0808 0.0815 0.0822 0.0829 0.0836
0.11 0.0843 0.0850 0.0856 0.0863 0.0870 0.0877 0.0883 0.0890 0.0897 0.0904
0.12 0.0910 0.0917 0.0924 0.0930 0.0937 0.0943 0.0950 0.0957 0.0963 0.0970
0.13 0.0976 0.0983 0.0989 0.0996 0.1002 0.1009 0.1015 0.1021 0.1028 0.1034
0.14 0.1041 0.1047 0.1053 0.1060 0.1066 0.1072 0.1079 0.1085 0.1091 0.1097
0.15 0.1104 0.1110 0.1116 0.1122 0.1128 0.1134 0.1141 0.1147 0.1153 0.1159
0.16 0.1165 0.1171 0.1177 0.1183 0.1189 0.1195 0.1201 0.1207 0.1213 0.1219
0.17 0.1225 0.1231 0.1237 0.1242 0.1248 0.1254 0.1260 0.1266 0.1272 0.1277
0.18 0.1283 0.1289 0.1295 0.1300 0.1306 0.1312 0.1317 0.1323 0.1329 0.1334
0.19 0.1340 0.1345 0.1351 0.1357 0.1362 0.1368 0.1373 0.1379 0.1384 0.1390
0.20 0.1395 0.1401 0.1406 0.1411 0.1417 0.1422 0.1428 0.1433 0.1438 0.1444
0.21 0.1449 0.1454 0.1459 0.1465 0.1470 0.1475 0.1480 0.1486 0.1491 0.1496
0.22 0.1501 0.1506 0.1511 0.1516 0.1522 0.1527 0.1532 0.1537 0.1542 0.1547
0.23 0.1552 0.1557 0.1562 0.1567 0.1572 0.1577 0.1582 0.1586 0.1591 0.1596
0.24 0.1601 0.1606 0.1611 0.1615 0.1620 0.1625 0.1630 0.1635 0.1639 0.1644
0.25 0.1649 0.1653 0.1658 0.1663 0.1667 0.1672 0.1677 0.1681 0.1686 0.1690
0.26 0.1695 0.1699 0.1704 0.1708 0.1713 0.1717 0.1722 0.1726 0.1731 0.1735
0.27 0.1739 0.1744 0.1748 0.1752 0.1757 0.1761 0.1765 0.1770 0.1774 0.1778
0.28 0.1782 0.1787 0.1791 0.1795 0.1799 0.1803 0.1808 0.1812 0.1816 0.1820
0.29 0.1824 0.1828 0.1832 0.1836 0.1840 0.1844 0.1848 0.1852 0.1856 0.1860
0.30 0.1864 0.1868 0.1872 0.1876 0.1880 0.1884 0.1887 0.1891 0.1895 0.1899
0.31 0.1903 0.1906 0.1910 0.1914 0.1918 0.1921 0.1925 0.1929 0.1932 0.1936
0.32 0.1940 0.1943 0.1947 0.1950 0.1954 0.1957 0.1961 0.1965 0.1968 0.1972
0.33 0.1975 0.1979 0.1982 0.1985 0.1989 0.1992 0.1996 0.1999 0.2002 0.2006
0.34 0.2009 0.2012 0.2016 0.2019 0.2022 0.2025 0.2029 0.2032 0.2035 0.2038
0.35 0.2041 0.2045 0.2048 0.2051 0.2054 0.2057 0.2060 0.2063 0.2066 0.2069
0.36 0.2072 0.2075 0.2078 0.2081 0.2084 0.2087 0.2090 0.2093 0.2096 0.2099
0.37 0.2102 0.2104 0.2107 0.2110 0.2113 0.2116 0.2119 0.2121 0.2124 0.2127
0.38 0.2129 0.2132 0.2135 0.2138 0.2140 0.2143 0.2145 0.2148 0.2151 0.2153
0.39 0.2156 0.2158 0.2161 0.2163 0.2166 0.2168 0.2171 0.2173 0.2176 0.2178
If the stress block is deeper than the flange, Example 3-5 should be followed.

Example 3-3 Determination of bonded prestressed reinforcement using Figure 3.3.6 coefficients
Given:
400 x 600 rectangular beam certified in accordance with
CSA A23.4
Concrete:
f’c = 35 MPa Normal Density
Factored Moment: 350 kN-m
Problem:
Find the amount of prestressed reinforcement based on fpu = 1860 MPa and kp = 0.28 (low relaxation
strand).
Solution:
Use Figure 3.3.6 to determine:
Mf (350)(106 )
Kr = = = 0.0907
fc bdp2 (35)(400)(525)2
For Kr = 0.0907, fc = 35 MPa and kp = 0.28:
pu = 0.118
The required area of prestressing reinforcement is:

Ap = pu fc b dp/fpu
= (0.118)(35)(400)(525) / 1860
2
= 466 mm
Provide 5 – 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (Ap = 495 mm2)
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr= 1. Determine p = A p / bdp
fcbdp2
2. Calculate pu from the table 2. Determine pu = pfpu / fc

3. Determine p= pu fc / fpu 3. Calculate Kr from the table
4. Determine Ap= pbdp 4. Determine Mr = K r fcbdp2
Figure 3.3.6 Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with only bonded prestressed reinforcement
precast certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (fc =0.70)

c = 0.70
p = 0.90
kp = 0.28 kp = 0.38 kp = 0.48

f'c 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu Kr Kr Kr
0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214
0.030 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255
0.035 0.0300 0.0300 0.0300 0.0299 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0295
0.040 0.0341 0.0340 0.0340 0.0340 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0337 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0334
0.045 0.0380 0.0380 0.0380 0.0379 0.0379 0.0379 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0376 0.0376 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372
0.050 0.0420 0.0419 0.0419 0.0419 0.0418 0.0418 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0415 0.0414 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409
0.055 0.0459 0.0458 0.0458 0.0457 0.0457 0.0456 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0452 0.0452 0.0451 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0447 0.0446
0.060 0.0497 0.0496 0.0496 0.0495 0.0494 0.0494 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0490 0.0489 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482
0.065 0.0535 0.0534 0.0533 0.0533 0.0532 0.0531 0.0529 0.0528 0.0527 0.0526 0.0525 0.0524 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0519 0.0518
0.070 0.0572 0.0571 0.0570 0.0569 0.0569 0.0568 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0562 0.0561 0.0560 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0554 0.0553
0.075 0.0609 0.0608 0.0607 0.0606 0.0605 0.0604 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0596 0.0595 0.0593 0.0592 0.0591 0.0590 0.0588 0.0587
0.080 0.0645 0.0644 0.0643 0.0642 0.0641 0.0639 0.0636 0.0635 0.0634 0.0632 0.0631 0.0630 0.0628 0.0626 0.0625 0.0623 0.0622 0.0620
0.085 0.0680 0.0679 0.0678 0.0677 0.0676 0.0674 0.0671 0.0669 0.0668 0.0667 0.0665 0.0664 0.0661 0.0660 0.0658 0.0657 0.0655 0.0653
0.090 0.0716 0.0714 0.0713 0.0712 0.0710 0.0709 0.0705 0.0703 0.0702 0.0700 0.0699 0.0697 0.0694 0.0693 0.0691 0.0689 0.0688 0.0686
0.095 0.0750 0.0749 0.0747 0.0746 0.0744 0.0743 0.0738 0.0737 0.0735 0.0733 0.0732 0.0730 0.0727 0.0725 0.0723 0.0721 0.0719 0.0717
0.100 0.0784 0.0783 0.0781 0.0780 0.0778 0.0776 0.0772 0.0770 0.0768 0.0766 0.0764 0.0762 0.0759 0.0757 0.0755 0.0753 0.0751 0.0749
0.105 0.0818 0.0816 0.0815 0.0813 0.0811 0.0809 0.0804 0.0802 0.0800 0.0798 0.0796 0.0794 0.0791 0.0788 0.0786 0.0784 0.0782 0.0779
0.110 0.0851 0.0849 0.0848 0.0846 0.0844 0.0842 0.0836 0.0834 0.0832 0.0830 0.0827 0.0825 0.0822 0.0819 0.0817 0.0814 0.0812 0.0809
0.115 0.0884 0.0882 0.0880 0.0878 0.0876 0.0874 0.0868 0.0865 0.0863 0.0861 0.0858 0.0856 0.0852 0.0850 0.0847 0.0844 0.0842 0.0839
0.120 0.0916 0.0914 0.0912 0.0910 0.0907 0.0905 0.0899 0.0896 0.0894 0.0891 0.0889 0.0886 0.0882 0.0879 0.0877 0.0874 0.0871 0.0868
0.125 0.0948 0.0946 0.0943 0.0941 0.0939 0.0936 0.0929 0.0927 0.0924 0.0921 0.0919 0.0916 0.0911 0.0909 0.0906 0.0903 0.0899 0.0896
0.130 0.0979 0.0977 0.0974 0.0972 0.0969 0.0967 0.0959 0.0957 0.0954 0.0951 0.0948 0.0945 0.0940 0.0937 0.0934 0.0931 0.0928 0.0924
0.135 0.1010 0.1008 0.1005 0.1002 0.0999 0.0997 0.0989 0.0986 0.0983 0.0980 0.0977 0.0974 0.0969 0.0966 0.0962 0.0959 0.0955 0.0952
0.140 0.1041 0.1038 0.1035 0.1032 0.1029 0.1026 0.1018 0.1015 0.1012 0.1009 0.1005 0.1002 0.0997 0.0993 0.0990 0.0986 0.0982 0.0979
0.145 0.1071 0.1068 0.1065 0.1062 0.1058 0.1055 0.1047 0.1044 0.1040 0.1037 0.1033 0.1030 0.1024 0.1021 0.1017 0.1013 0.1009 0.1005
0.150 0.1100 0.1097 0.1094 0.1091 0.1087 0.1084 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1064 0.1061 0.1057 0.1052 0.1048 0.1044 0.1040 0.1035 0.1031
0.155 0.1129 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1116 0.1112 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1088 0.1084 0.1078 0.1074 0.1070 0.1066 0.1061 0.1057
0.160 0.1158 0.1154 0.1151 0.1147 0.1144 0.1140 0.1130 0.1127 0.1123 0.1119 0.1114 0.1110 0.1104 0.1100 0.1096 0.1091 0.1087 0.1082
0.165 0.1186 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1167 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1141 0.1136 0.1130 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1111 0.1106
0.170 0.1214 0.1210 0.1206 0.1202 0.1198 0.1194 0.1184 0.1180 0.1175 0.1171 0.1166 0.1162 0.1155 0.1151 0.1146 0.1141 0.1136 0.1131
0.175 0.1241 0.1237 0.1233 0.1229 0.1225 0.1221 0.1210 0.1206 0.1201 0.1196 0.1192 0.1187 0.1180 0.1175 0.1170 0.1165 0.1160 0.1155
0.180 0.1269 0.1264 0.1260 0.1256 0.1251 0.1247 0.1236 0.1231 0.1226 0.1222 0.1216 0.1211 0.1205 0.1200 0.1194 0.1189 0.1184 0.1178
0.185 0.1295 0.1291 0.1286 0.1282 0.1277 0.1272 0.1261 0.1256 0.1251 0.1246 0.1241 0.1236 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201
0.190 0.1321 0.1317 0.1312 0.1307 0.1303 0.1298 0.1286 0.1281 0.1276 0.1271 0.1265 0.1260 0.1253 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223
0.195 0.1347 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1328 0.1322 0.1311 0.1305 0.1300 0.1294 0.1289 0.1283 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1246
0.200 0.1373 0.1368 0.1363 0.1358 0.1352 0.1347 0.1335 0.1329 0.1324 0.1318 0.1312 0.1306 0.1299 0.1293 0.1287 0.1280 0.1274 0.1268
0.205 0.1398 0.1393 0.1387 0.1382 0.1377 0.1371 0.1359 0.1353 0.1347 0.1341 0.1335 0.1329 0.1322 0.1315 0.1309 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289
0.210 0.1423 0.1417 0.1412 0.1406 0.1401 0.1395 0.1382 0.1376 0.1370 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1331 0.1324 0.1317 0.1310
0.215 0.1447 0.1441 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1405 0.1399 0.1393 0.1386 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1352 0.1345 0.1338 0.1331
0.220 0.1471 0.1465 0.1459 0.1453 0.1447 0.1441 0.1428 0.1421 0.1415 0.1408 0.1402 0.1395 0.1387 0.1380 0.1373 0.1366 0.1359 0.1351
0.225 0.1495 0.1489 0.1483 0.1476 0.1470 0.1464 0.1450 0.1444 0.1437 0.1430 0.1423 0.1416 0.1408 0.1401 0.1394 0.1386 0.1379 0.1371
0.230 0.1518 0.1512 0.1505 0.1499 0.1492 0.1486 0.1472 0.1465 0.1458 0.1451 0.1444 0.1437 0.1429 0.1422 0.1414 0.1407 0.1399 0.1391
0.235 0.1541 0.1534 0.1528 0.1521 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1487 0.1480 0.1472 0.1465 0.1457 0.1449 0.1442 0.1434 0.1426 0.1418 0.1410
0.240 0.1563 0.1557 0.1550 0.1543 0.1536 0.1529 0.1515 0.1508 0.1501 0.1493 0.1485 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1446 0.1437 0.1429
0.245 0.1585 0.1579 0.1572 0.1565 0.1558 0.1550 0.1536 0.1529 0.1521 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1473 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448
0.250 0.1607 0.1600 0.1593 0.1586 0.1579 0.1571 0.1557 0.1549 0.1541 0.1533 0.1525 0.1517 0.1509 0.1501 0.1492 0.1484 0.1475 0.1466
0.255 0.1629 0.1622 0.1614 0.1607 0.1599 0.1592 0.1577 0.1569 0.1561 0.1553 0.1545 0.1536 0.1528 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502 0.1493 0.1484
0.260 0.1650 0.1643 0.1635 0.1628 0.1620 0.1612 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1572 0.1564 0.1555 0.1547 0.1538 0.1529 0.1520 0.1511 0.1502
0.265 0.1671 0.1663 0.1656 0.1648 0.1640 0.1632 0.1617 0.1608 0.1600 0.1591 0.1583 0.1574 0.1566 0.1557 0.1548 0.1538 0.1529 0.1519
0.270 0.1692 0.1684 0.1676 0.1668 0.1659 0.1651 0.1636 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1592 0.1584 0.1575 0.1565 0.1556 0.1546 0.1536
0.275 0.1712 0.1704 0.1696 0.1687 0.1679 0.1670 0.1655 0.1646 0.1638 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1602 0.1592 0.1583 0.1573 0.1563 0.1553
0.280 0.1732 0.1723 0.1715 0.1707 0.1698 0.1689 0.1674 0.1665 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1610 0.1600 0.1590 0.1580 0.1570
0.285 0.1751 0.1743 0.1734 0.1726 0.1717 0.1708 0.1692 0.1683 0.1674 0.1664 0.1655 0.1645 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1597 0.1586
0.290 0.1771 0.1762 0.1753 0.1744 0.1735 0.1726 0.1711 0.1701 0.1692 0.1682 0.1672 0.1662 0.1654 0.1644 0.1634 0.1623 0.1613 0.1602
0.295 0.1790 0.1781 0.1772 0.1763 0.1753 0.1744 0.1728 0.1719 0.1709 0.1699 0.1689 0.1679 0.1671 0.1661 0.1650 0.1640 0.1629 0.1618
0.300 0.1808 0.1799 0.1790 0.1781 0.1771 0.1761 0.1746 0.1736 0.1726 0.1716 0.1706 0.1695 0.1687 0.1677 0.1666 0.1656 0.1645 0.1633
0.305 0.1827 0.1817 0.1808 0.1798 0.1789 0.1779 0.1763 0.1753 0.1743 0.1733 0.1722 0.1712 0.1704 0.1693 0.1682 0.1671 0.1660 0.1649
0.310 0.1845 0.1835 0.1826 0.1816 0.1806 0.1796 0.1780 0.1770 0.1760 0.1749 0.1738 0.1728 0.1720 0.1709 0.1698 0.1687 0.1675 0.1664
0.315 0.1863 0.1853 0.1843 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1797 0.1787 0.1776 0.1765 0.1754 0.1743 0.1736 0.1725 0.1713 0.1702 0.1690 0.1678
0.320 0.1880 0.1870 0.1860 0.1850 0.1839 0.1829 0.1814 0.1803 0.1792 0.1781 0.1770 0.1759 0.1751 0.1740 0.1728 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693
0.325 0.1897 0.1887 0.1877 0.1866 0.1856 0.1845 0.1830 0.1819 0.1808 0.1797 0.1785 0.1774 0.1766 0.1755 0.1743 0.1731 0.1719 0.1707
0.330 0.1914 0.1904 0.1893 0.1883 0.1872 0.1861 0.1846 0.1835 0.1824 0.1812 0.1801 0.1789 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1746 0.1734 0.1721
0.335 0.1931 0.1920 0.1910 0.1899 0.1888 0.1876 0.1862 0.1850 0.1839 0.1827 0.1815 0.1803 0.1796 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1735
0.340 0.1947 0.1937 0.1926 0.1915 0.1903 0.1892 0.1877 0.1866 0.1854 0.1842 0.1830 0.1818 0.1811 0.1799 0.1786 0.1774 0.1761 0.1748
pu (max) 0.303 0.296 0.289 0.282 0.275 0.268 0.321 0.314 0.306 0.299 0.292 0.285 0.342 0.334 0.327 0.319 0.311 0.304

Example 3-4 Factored flexural resistance of a stadia unit

Given: 2Ixy
from tan 2 = :
1600 × 800 stadia unit certified in accordance with Ix Iy
A23.4
θ = 21.9º = angle of minor axis
Length = 10.0 m
Iminor = 3350 × 106 mm4
Span = 9.7 m
Imajor = 83,400 × 106 mm4
Load:
Concrete:
Superimposed dead load: 0.2 kN/m2 = 0.32kN/m
f’c = 35 MPa, a1 = 0.80
Live Load: b1 = 0.88 fc = 0.70
Vertical 4.80 kN/m2 = 7.68 kN/m
f’ci = 25 MPa
Horizontal (0.15)(2) kN/m = 0.30 kN/m
Normal density
Axial (0.3)(2)(10) kN = 6.00 kN
Prestressing reinforcement:
(Axial load acts independently of horizontal load)
9 – 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands
Section Properties: kp = 0.28
Ag = 298500 mm2
Ap = 99 mm2/strand
Weight = 7.0 kN/m
Po = 0.75Apfpu = 1243 kN
yb = 306 mm, xL = 774 mm
Pi = 0.95Po = 1181 kN
Ix = 14500 × 106 mm4
Pe = 0.85Po = 1057 kN
Iy = 72300 × 106 mm4
Ixy = Ag (x – xL)(y – yb) = 27,720 × 106 mm4
147


Problem: By trial and error:
Determine the factored flexural resistance. c = 181.3 mm
Solution: c/dp = 181.3 / 370 = 0.49 0.5
Due to the shape of the compression block and that fpr = 1860[1 (0.28)(0.49)] = 1605 MPa
failure will occur in bending around the minor axis, use
a graphical solution to this problem. Required area of compression block
(0.9)(9)(99)(1605)
By trial and error, a value of c was found that simulta- = = 65,666 mm 2
neously solved the following two equations: (0.80)(0.70)(35)
1. c = p A p fpr ; and
From the figure above, for the area of the
compression block to equal 65,666 mm2 :
1 1 c fc b
1c = 165 mm
Stress in prestressing steel at factored resistance: c = 165/ 0.88 = 181.3 mm
2. fpr = fpu(1–kpc/dp)
The centre of the equivalent compression block is
fp = 0.9 conservatively estimated at 2/3 1c from the top fibre:
dp = 2/3 1 c = (2 / 3)(0.88)(181.3) = 106.7mm
(363+345+326+297+436+418+380+399+147)/9 = 346 mm Mr = p Ap fpr (dp 2/ 3 1c)
= (0.9)(9)(99)(1605)(370 106.7) /103

= 338.6 kN-m
(9.7)2
Mf = {[(7)(1.25) + (0.32)(1.25)
8
+(7.68)(1.5)]cos(21.9o ) + (0.3)(1.5)sin(21.9o )}
= 228 kN- m < 338.6 kN- m
The bending moment around the major axis is small compared to the section depth and can be
safely ignored. Reinforcement should be added to resist the axial load.
Procedure:
Design Analysis
Mf
1. Determine Kr = 1. Determine p = Ap / bdp
fcbdp2
2. Calculate from the table 2. Determine pu = p fpu / fc
3. Determine p = pu fc / fpu 3. Calculate Kr from the table
4. Determine Ap = pbdp 4. Determine Mr = Kr fc bdp2
Figure 3.3.7 Flexural resistance coefficients for elements with bonded prestressed reinforcement only – precast
not certified in accordance with CSA A23.4 (fc = 0.65)

c = 0.65
p = 0.90
kp = 0.28 kp = 0.38 kp = 0.48

f'c 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55 30 35 40 45 50 55
1 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325 0.8950 0.8825 0.8700 0.8575 0.8450 0.8325
1 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675 0.8050 0.7975 0.7900 0.7825 0.7750 0.7675
pu Kr Kr Kr
0.005 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
0.010 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0089 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088 0.0088
0.015 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0132 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131 0.0131
0.020 0.0175 0.0175 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0174 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173 0.0173
0.025 0.0217 0.0217 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0216 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0215 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214 0.0214
0.030 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0258 0.0257 0.0257 0.0257 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0256 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0255 0.0254 0.0254 0.0254
0.035 0.0299 0.0299 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0298 0.0297 0.0297 0.0296 0.0296 0.0296 0.0295 0.0295 0.0294 0.0294 0.0294 0.0293 0.0293
0.040 0.0339 0.0339 0.0338 0.0338 0.0338 0.0337 0.0336 0.0336 0.0336 0.0335 0.0335 0.0334 0.0334 0.0333 0.0333 0.0332 0.0332 0.0332
0.045 0.0379 0.0378 0.0378 0.0377 0.0377 0.0377 0.0375 0.0375 0.0374 0.0374 0.0373 0.0373 0.0372 0.0372 0.0371 0.0370 0.0370 0.0369
0.050 0.0417 0.0417 0.0417 0.0416 0.0416 0.0415 0.0413 0.0413 0.0412 0.0412 0.0411 0.0411 0.0410 0.0409 0.0408 0.0408 0.0407 0.0406
0.055 0.0456 0.0455 0.0455 0.0454 0.0454 0.0453 0.0451 0.0450 0.0450 0.0449 0.0448 0.0448 0.0446 0.0446 0.0445 0.0444 0.0443 0.0443
0.060 0.0494 0.0493 0.0492 0.0492 0.0491 0.0490 0.0488 0.0487 0.0486 0.0486 0.0485 0.0484 0.0483 0.0482 0.0481 0.0480 0.0479 0.0478
0.065 0.0531 0.0530 0.0529 0.0528 0.0528 0.0527 0.0524 0.0523 0.0523 0.0522 0.0521 0.0520 0.0518 0.0517 0.0516 0.0515 0.0514 0.0513
0.070 0.0567 0.0567 0.0566 0.0565 0.0564 0.0563 0.0560 0.0559 0.0558 0.0557 0.0556 0.0555 0.0553 0.0552 0.0551 0.0549 0.0548 0.0547
0.075 0.0603 0.0602 0.0601 0.0600 0.0599 0.0598 0.0595 0.0594 0.0593 0.0592 0.0590 0.0589 0.0587 0.0586 0.0585 0.0583 0.0582 0.0580
0.080 0.0639 0.0638 0.0637 0.0636 0.0634 0.0633 0.0630 0.0628 0.0627 0.0626 0.0624 0.0623 0.0621 0.0619 0.0618 0.0616 0.0615 0.0613
0.085 0.0674 0.0673 0.0671 0.0670 0.0669 0.0668 0.0664 0.0662 0.0661 0.0659 0.0658 0.0656 0.0654 0.0652 0.0650 0.0649 0.0647 0.0645
0.090 0.0708 0.0707 0.0706 0.0704 0.0703 0.0701 0.0697 0.0695 0.0694 0.0692 0.0690 0.0689 0.0686 0.0684 0.0682 0.0681 0.0679 0.0677
0.095 0.0742 0.0741 0.0739 0.0738 0.0736 0.0734 0.0730 0.0728 0.0726 0.0724 0.0723 0.0721 0.0718 0.0716 0.0714 0.0712 0.0710 0.0708
0.100 0.0776 0.0774 0.0772 0.0771 0.0769 0.0767 0.0762 0.0760 0.0758 0.0756 0.0754 0.0752 0.0749 0.0747 0.0745 0.0742 0.0740 0.0738
0.105 0.0808 0.0807 0.0805 0.0803 0.0801 0.0799 0.0794 0.0792 0.0790 0.0787 0.0785 0.0783 0.0780 0.0777 0.0775 0.0772 0.0770 0.0767
0.110 0.0841 0.0839 0.0837 0.0835 0.0833 0.0831 0.0825 0.0823 0.0820 0.0818 0.0816 0.0813 0.0810 0.0807 0.0805 0.0802 0.0799 0.0797
0.115 0.0873 0.0871 0.0868 0.0866 0.0864 0.0862 0.0856 0.0853 0.0851 0.0848 0.0846 0.0843 0.0839 0.0836 0.0834 0.0831 0.0828 0.0825
0.120 0.0904 0.0902 0.0899 0.0897 0.0895 0.0892 0.0886 0.0883 0.0880 0.0878 0.0875 0.0872 0.0868 0.0865 0.0862 0.0859 0.0856 0.0853
0.125 0.0935 0.0932 0.0930 0.0927 0.0925 0.0922 0.0915 0.0913 0.0910 0.0907 0.0904 0.0901 0.0897 0.0893 0.0890 0.0887 0.0884 0.0881
0.130 0.0965 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0955 0.0952 0.0944 0.0941 0.0938 0.0935 0.0932 0.0929 0.0924 0.0921 0.0918 0.0914 0.0911 0.0907
0.135 0.0995 0.0992 0.0990 0.0987 0.0984 0.0981 0.0973 0.0970 0.0967 0.0963 0.0960 0.0957 0.0952 0.0948 0.0945 0.0941 0.0938 0.0934
0.140 0.1024 0.1022 0.1019 0.1016 0.1012 0.1009 0.1001 0.0998 0.0994 0.0991 0.0988 0.0984 0.0979 0.0975 0.0971 0.0968 0.0964 0.0960
0.145 0.1053 0.1050 0.1047 0.1044 0.1041 0.1037 0.1029 0.1025 0.1022 0.1018 0.1014 0.1011 0.1005 0.1001 0.0998 0.0993 0.0989 0.0985
0.150 0.1082 0.1079 0.1075 0.1072 0.1068 0.1065 0.1056 0.1052 0.1049 0.1045 0.1041 0.1037 0.1031 0.1027 0.1023 0.1019 0.1014 0.1010
0.155 0.1110 0.1107 0.1103 0.1099 0.1096 0.1092 0.1083 0.1079 0.1075 0.1071 0.1067 0.1062 0.1057 0.1053 0.1048 0.1044 0.1039 0.1034
0.160 0.1138 0.1134 0.1130 0.1126 0.1123 0.1119 0.1109 0.1105 0.1101 0.1097 0.1092 0.1088 0.1082 0.1077 0.1073 0.1068 0.1063 0.1058
0.165 0.1165 0.1161 0.1157 0.1153 0.1149 0.1145 0.1135 0.1131 0.1126 0.1122 0.1117 0.1113 0.1107 0.1102 0.1097 0.1092 0.1087 0.1082
0.170 0.1191 0.1187 0.1183 0.1179 0.1175 0.1171 0.1160 0.1156 0.1151 0.1147 0.1142 0.1137 0.1131 0.1126 0.1121 0.1116 0.1110 0.1105
0.175 0.1218 0.1214 0.1209 0.1205 0.1200 0.1196 0.1185 0.1181 0.1176 0.1171 0.1166 0.1161 0.1155 0.1149 0.1144 0.1139 0.1133 0.1128
0.180 0.1244 0.1239 0.1235 0.1230 0.1226 0.1221 0.1210 0.1205 0.1200 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1173 0.1167 0.1161 0.1156 0.1150
0.185 0.1269 0.1265 0.1260 0.1255 0.1250 0.1245 0.1234 0.1229 0.1224 0.1218 0.1213 0.1207 0.1201 0.1195 0.1190 0.1184 0.1178 0.1172
0.190 0.1294 0.1289 0.1284 0.1280 0.1274 0.1269 0.1258 0.1252 0.1247 0.1241 0.1236 0.1230 0.1223 0.1218 0.1212 0.1206 0.1199 0.1193
0.195 0.1319 0.1314 0.1309 0.1304 0.1298 0.1293 0.1281 0.1276 0.1270 0.1264 0.1258 0.1252 0.1245 0.1239 0.1233 0.1227 0.1221 0.1214
0.200 0.1343 0.1338 0.1333 0.1327 0.1322 0.1316 0.1304 0.1298 0.1292 0.1286 0.1280 0.1274 0.1267 0.1261 0.1255 0.1248 0.1241 0.1235
0.205 0.1367 0.1362 0.1356 0.1350 0.1345 0.1339 0.1327 0.1321 0.1315 0.1308 0.1302 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275 0.1269 0.1262 0.1255
0.210 0.1390 0.1385 0.1379 0.1373 0.1367 0.1361 0.1349 0.1343 0.1336 0.1330 0.1323 0.1317 0.1310 0.1303 0.1296 0.1289 0.1282 0.1275
0.215 0.1413 0.1408 0.1402 0.1396 0.1390 0.1383 0.1371 0.1364 0.1358 0.1351 0.1344 0.1337 0.1330 0.1323 0.1316 0.1309 0.1302 0.1294
0.220 0.1436 0.1430 0.1424 0.1418 0.1411 0.1405 0.1392 0.1385 0.1379 0.1372 0.1365 0.1358 0.1350 0.1343 0.1336 0.1329 0.1321 0.1313
0.225 0.1458 0.1452 0.1446 0.1439 0.1433 0.1426 0.1413 0.1406 0.1399 0.1392 0.1385 0.1378 0.1370 0.1363 0.1355 0.1348 0.1340 0.1332
0.230 0.1480 0.1474 0.1467 0.1461 0.1454 0.1447 0.1434 0.1427 0.1420 0.1412 0.1405 0.1397 0.1390 0.1382 0.1375 0.1367 0.1359 0.1350
0.235 0.1502 0.1495 0.1489 0.1482 0.1475 0.1468 0.1454 0.1447 0.1440 0.1432 0.1424 0.1417 0.1409 0.1401 0.1393 0.1385 0.1377 0.1369
0.240 0.1523 0.1516 0.1509 0.1502 0.1495 0.1488 0.1474 0.1467 0.1459 0.1451 0.1443 0.1435 0.1428 0.1420 0.1412 0.1403 0.1395 0.1386
0.245 0.1544 0.1537 0.1530 0.1523 0.1515 0.1508 0.1494 0.1486 0.1478 0.1470 0.1462 0.1454 0.1447 0.1438 0.1430 0.1421 0.1413 0.1404
0.250 0.1565 0.1557 0.1550 0.1542 0.1535 0.1527 0.1513 0.1505 0.1497 0.1489 0.1481 0.1472 0.1465 0.1456 0.1448 0.1439 0.1430 0.1421
0.255 0.1585 0.1577 0.1570 0.1562 0.1554 0.1546 0.1532 0.1524 0.1516 0.1507 0.1499 0.1490 0.1483 0.1474 0.1465 0.1456 0.1447 0.1438
0.260 0.1605 0.1597 0.1589 0.1581 0.1573 0.1565 0.1551 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1517 0.1508 0.1500 0.1491 0.1482 0.1473 0.1464 0.1454
0.265 0.1624 0.1616 0.1608 0.1600 0.1592 0.1583 0.1569 0.1561 0.1552 0.1543 0.1534 0.1525 0.1518 0.1508 0.1499 0.1490 0.1480 0.1470
0.270 0.1643 0.1635 0.1627 0.1619 0.1610 0.1601 0.1587 0.1579 0.1570 0.1561 0.1551 0.1542 0.1535 0.1525 0.1516 0.1506 0.1496 0.1486
0.275 0.1662 0.1654 0.1645 0.1637 0.1628 0.1619 0.1605 0.1596 0.1587 0.1578 0.1568 0.1559 0.1551 0.1542 0.1532 0.1522 0.1512 0.1502
0.280 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1655 0.1646 0.1636 0.1622 0.1613 0.1604 0.1594 0.1585 0.1575 0.1568 0.1558 0.1548 0.1538 0.1528 0.1517
0.285 0.1699 0.1690 0.1681 0.1672 0.1663 0.1654 0.1640 0.1630 0.1621 0.1611 0.1601 0.1591 0.1584 0.1574 0.1564 0.1553 0.1543 0.1532
0.290 0.1717 0.1708 0.1699 0.1689 0.1680 0.1670 0.1656 0.1647 0.1637 0.1627 0.1617 0.1607 0.1600 0.1589 0.1579 0.1569 0.1558 0.1547
0.295 0.1734 0.1725 0.1716 0.1706 0.1697 0.1687 0.1673 0.1663 0.1653 0.1643 0.1633 0.1622 0.1615 0.1605 0.1594 0.1584 0.1573 0.1562
0.300 0.1751 0.1742 0.1733 0.1723 0.1713 0.1703 0.1689 0.1679 0.1669 0.1659 0.1648 0.1637 0.1631 0.1620 0.1609 0.1598 0.1587 0.1576
0.305 0.1768 0.1759 0.1749 0.1739 0.1729 0.1719 0.1705 0.1695 0.1685 0.1674 0.1663 0.1652 0.1646 0.1635 0.1624 0.1613 0.1601 0.1590
0.310 0.1785 0.1775 0.1765 0.1755 0.1745 0.1734 0.1721 0.1710 0.1700 0.1689 0.1678 0.1667 0.1660 0.1649 0.1638 0.1627 0.1615 0.1603
0.315 0.1801 0.1791 0.1781 0.1771 0.1760 0.1750 0.1736 0.1726 0.1715 0.1704 0.1693 0.1681 0.1675 0.1664 0.1652 0.1641 0.1629 0.1617
0.320 0.1817 0.1807 0.1797 0.1786 0.1776 0.1765 0.1751 0.1741 0.1730 0.1718 0.1707 0.1695 0.1689 0.1678 0.1666 0.1654 0.1642 0.1630
0.325 0.1833 0.1823 0.1812 0.1801 0.1791 0.1779 0.1766 0.1755 0.1744 0.1733 0.1721 0.1709 0.1703 0.1692 0.1680 0.1668 0.1656 0.1643
0.330 0.1849 0.1838 0.1827 0.1816 0.1805 0.1794 0.1781 0.1770 0.1758 0.1747 0.1735 0.1723 0.1717 0.1705 0.1693 0.1681 0.1669 0.1656
0.335 0.1864 0.1853 0.1842 0.1831 0.1820 0.1808 0.1795 0.1784 0.1772 0.1760 0.1748 0.1736 0.1731 0.1719 0.1706 0.1694 0.1681 0.1669
0.340 0.1879 0.1868 0.1856 0.1845 0.1834 0.1822 0.1809 0.1798 0.1786 0.1774 0.1762 0.1749 0.1744 0.1732 0.1719 0.1707 0.1694 0.1681
pu (max) 0.279 0.273 0.266 0.260 0.254 0.248 0.296 0.290 0.283 0.276 0.269 0.263 0.316 0.309 0.301 0.294 0.287 0.280

3.3.3 Analysis Using Strain Compatibility

The fundamental strain compatibility approach is a convenient method for analyzing fully and partially prestressed
flexural elements (see Section 3.4.3 for definitions). Example 3-5 demonstrates the use of this method of analysis.
Example 3-5 Strain compatibility analysis of a partially prestressed flanged section

Given: Section Properties:
700 x 550 inverted tee beam certified in accordance Ag = 365000 mm2
with CSA A23.4 with a 50 mm composite topping as I = 15852 x 106 mm4
shown:
yb = 309.1 mm
Concrete:
Problem:
f’c precast = 35 MPa a1 = 0.80 fcp = 0.70
Find factored flexural resistance, Mr
f’c topping = 25 MPa a1 = 0.81 fct = 0.65
Solution:
Normal density C +C +C +C =T +T
1 2 3 4 1 2
Prestressed reinforcement: C1 = 1 c fc hf b
11 – 13 mm 1860 MPa strands (low relaxation)
= (0.81)(0.65)(25)(50)(1300 300) /103
Ap = (11)(99) = 1089 mm2
Ep = 190000 MPa = 658 kN
C2 = (0.81)(0.65)(25)(100)(300) /103 = 395 kN
b=
C3 = (0.8)(0.7)(35)(300)(0.883c 100) /103
t=100
= (5.192c 588) kN
C4 = s A s fy = (0.85)(600)(400)/103 = 204 kN
= T1 = p Ap fpr
Non-prestressed reinforcement: = (0.9)(1089)(1860)(1 kpc / dp )/103

4 – 25M bottom, fy = 400 MPa = (1823)(1 kpc / dp ) kN
As = (4)(500) = 2000 mm2 T2 = = (0.85)(2000)(400)/103 = 680 kN
s A s fy
2 – 20M top, fy = 400 MPa
c/dp = p A p fpu + s A s fs s A s fs 1 c t fc t (b bw )hf 1 c t fc t tb + 1 c p fc p tb
A’s = (2)(300) = 600 mm2 + kp p Ap fpu
1 cp fcp 1bw dp
Es = 200000 MPa
fpo = 0.75 fpu
Assume f’s=f’y and fs=fy to start iteration.

Substituting terms in the equilibrium equation
above and rearranging:
Continued

= (1116)(1089) +
365,000 15,852 106
= 6.68 MPa
ce = fce /Ec = 6.68 / 28165 = 0.00025
pe+ ce = 0.00587 + 0.00025 = 0.00615

Example 3-5 Continued pr = Total strain in tendons = 0.00615 + 0.00287
= 0.0090
1823 + 680 658 395 + 588 204 From the stress -strain curve in Fig. 8.2.5 :
c/dp = = 0.545
(5.192)(550) + (1823)(0.28) fpr = 1640 MPa > 1575 MPa
fpr = (1576 + 1646)/ 2 = 1611MPa
Because c/dp > 0.5, use strain compatibility analysis.
Use the empirical equation for fpr for the first itera- T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1611)/103 = 1579 kN
tion: nd
2 iteration:
fpr = (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.545)] = 1576 MPa 1579 + 11
c = = 306 mm
3
T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1576)/10 = 1545 kN 5.192
s = (0.0035)(306 40) / 306 = 0.00304
Rearranging terms:
s = (0.0035)(600 306) / 306 = 0.00336 > 0.002
T1 + T2 = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
p = (0.0035)(550 306) / 306 = 0.00279
1545 + 680 658 395 + 588 204
c = pr = 0.00615 + 0.00279 = 0.00894
5.192
1545 + 11 From the stress -strain curve:
= = 300mm fpr = 1636 MPa > 1609 MPa
5.192
s = (0.0035)(300 40) / 300 = 0.00303 try:
y = 400 / 200,000 = 0.002 (A s has yielded) fpr = 1622 MPa
s = (0.0035)(300)/ 300 = 0.0035 (As has T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1622)/103 = 1590 kN

rd
yielded) 3 iteration:
p = (0.0035)(250)/ 300 = 0.00287 1590 + 11
c = = 308 mm
5.192
The prestressed reinforcement has an additional = (0.0035)(550 308) / 308 = 0.00275
p
prestrain corresponding to the elastic strain in the
steel when the concrete stress is zero at the level of pr = 0.00615 + 0.00275 = 0.0089
the prestress.
After a number of iterations, from the stress-strain
Assume:
curve:
fpe = 0.6fpu = (0.6)(1860) = 1116 MPa
fpr = 1629 MPa
pe = fpe /Ep = 1116/190000 = 0.00587
c = 310 mm
Concrete stress at level of tendons: This matches the trial value so that this is the correct
e = 309.1 100 = 209.1mm solution.
1 e2 a = b1c = (0.883)(310) = 274 mm
fce = Pe +
Ag I C3 = 5.192c–588=(5.192)(310)–588 = 1022kN
2
1 209.1 T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1629)/103 = 1596 kN
= (1116)(1089) +
365,000 15,852 106
Mr = [+(658)(310–25)+(395)(310–50)
= 6.68 MPa
+(1022)(310–187)+(204)(310–40)
ce = fce /Ec = 6.68 / 28165 = 0.00025
= +(1596)(550–310)
pe+ ce = 0.00587 + 0.00025 = 0.00615
= Total strain in tendons = 0.00615 + 0.00287 +680(600–310)]/103
pr
= 0.0090 = 1051 kN–m

From the stress -strain curve in Fig. 8.2.5 :
fpr = 1640 MPa > 1575 MPa
fpr = (1576 + 1646)/ 2 = 1611MPa
T1 = (0.9)(1089)(1611)/103 = 1579 kN
nd
2 iteration:
1579 + 11
3.4 FLEXURAL DESIGN AT SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

For precast concrete elements, the two distinct phases requiring design consideration are:
1. Manufacturing conditions – stripping, handling, storing, shipping and erection.
2. In-service conditions, defined as those conditions imposed upon an element after it is permanently con-
nected to the supporting structure.
The specified in-service loads may not produce the governing stress conditions. The forces imposed during
manufacturing to erection may control a design. Concrete strengths at the time of stripping are lower than
when the element is in service.
The forces imposed on an element during stripping and handling and erection are affected by:
1. The orientation of the element.
2. External restraints such as form suction and impact.
3. Location and number of handling inserts.
4. Dead load of element and of any additional items need to be lifted (such as forms which remain with the
element during stripping).
5. Location of temporary points of support during storage.
6. Condition of the transporting vehicle, road and site.
Since it is the manufacturer’s choice of the production, transportation and erection methods employed, it is
also the manufacturer’s responsibility to verify satisfactory
behaviour of the precast element during these processes. Maximum
Type of element Corresponding
value of z
and exposure value of w (mm)
3.4.2 Reinforced Element Design (N/mm)
Reinforced elements*
Non-prestressed flexural elements are normally sized and
Exterior exposure 25,000 0.33
reinforced on the basis of the procedures described in
Interior exposure 30,000 0.40
Section 3.3.
Prestressed elements*
Recommended values for the maximum crack width are Exterior exposure 15,000 0.20
given in Figure 3.4.1. A larger number of closer spaced Interior exposure 20,000 0.27
bars will lead to smaller crack widths than fewer, large Critical appearance**
diameter bars with an equivalent area. Exterior exposure 9,000 0.12
Interior exposure 18,000 0.24
The maximum recommended values of the quantity z * Mandatory A23.3 requirements
are shown in Figure 3.4.1, where z is calculated from the ** For elements where appearance is critical, it is
recommended that the Code requirement for crack control be
equation: extended to prevent the formation of unsightly cracks [2].
z = fs 3 dc A

If values of fs under service load conditions are required
to be less than 0.6 fy to satisfy crack control requirements,
reinforcement provided should be equal to:
As = M

0.9fs d
This equation is based on working stress design principles.
The above equation is derived from the Gergely-Lutz Figure 3.4.1 Values of z and corresponding crack
expression [1]: widths

6 h2 3
w = 11 10 fs dc A
h1
with h2 /h1 taken equal to 1.2
See ACI 350-06 for recommendations on the design of water retaining sanitary structures.
When it is necessary for surfaces exposed to view to remain free from discernable cracks, it is recommended
that the flexural tensile stresses during handling and under service loads not exceed two thirds of the modulus
of rupture, fr.
Example 3-6 Reinforced panel design

Given: w = 0.12 mm
A 150 mm thick architectural precast concrete panel Assuming j = 0.9 and k = 0.3, calculate:
exposed to the weather. d = 150 40= 110 mm
kd = (0.3)(110)= 33 mm
h1 = 110 33= 77 mm
h2 = 150 33= 117 mm
h2 117
= = 1.52
Concrete: h1 77
f‘c = 35 MPa dc = 40 mm
Normal Density Try a bar spacing of 150 mm:
A = 2dc b
Specified load moment M = 6.0 kN-m/m
2
= (80)(150) = 12000 mm
Problem:
w
fs =
Find the required amount of non-prestressed 400 h2 3
(11 10 6 ) d A
grade reinforcement with 40 mm cover to the centre h1 c
of the reinforcement. 0.12
= = 92 MPa
Solution: (11 10 6 )(1.52)3 (40)(12000)
For a panel with critical appearance exposed to the M (6.0)(106 )
As = = = 658 mm2 / m
weather, the recommended maximum value of w 0.9fs d (0.9)(92)(110)
from Figure 3.4.1 is:
Use 10M bars at 150 mm top and bottom
(As = 666 mm2 /m)
3.4.3 Prestressed Element Design—General

Prestressed concrete elements are classified as either fully or partially prestressed depending on the value of the
calculated tensile stresses due to the effects of specified loads. The permissible stresses for fully prestressed ele-
ments are summarized as follows:
Permissible concrete stresses:

1. At release (transfer) of prestress, before time-dependent losses:
a) Compression: 0.6f’ci
b) Compression at ends of simply supported elements: 0.67 f’ci
c) Tension (except at ends): 0.25 fci

d) Tension at ends of simply supported elements: 0.5 fci

2. Due to prestress and specified loads, after all losses:
a) Compression due to sustained loads: 0.45f’c
b) Compression due to total load: 0.6f’c
c) Tension in precompressed tensile zone (except corrosive environments): 0.5 fc
d) Tension in precompressed tensile zone exposed to corrosive environments: 0.25 fci
Prestressed elements not complying with 2(c) are defined as partially prestressed and are required to meet
the crack control criteria given in Figure 3.4.1.
Calculation of stresses at critical points follows classical straight line theory as illustrated in Figure 3.4.2. The
calculation of these stresses is illustrated in Example 3-7 at the end of this Subsection. CSA S413 gives re-
quirements for parking garages subjected to chloride exposure.
Permissible stresses in prestressing tendons

1. During jacking:
a) For post-tensioning tendons: 0.85 fpu but not greater than 0.94 fpy
b) For pretensioning tendons: 0.80 fpu
2. Tension immediately after prestress transfer:
a) Except at post-tensioning anchorages and couplers: 0.82 fpy but not greater than 0.74 fpu
b) At anchorages and couplers of post-tensioning tendons: 0.70 fpu
In accordance with ASTM 416, A421and A722, steel for prestressed concrete tendons, the specified yield
strength, fpy, of prestressing tendons is based on the following:
1. Low relaxation strand or wire: . . . . . 0.90 fpu
2. Stress relieved strand or wire: . . . . . 0.85 fpu
3. Plain bars: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.85 fpu
4. Deformed bars:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80 fpu
Figure 3.4.2 Calculation of concrete stresses due to specified loads

The maximum jacking stress given in 1(a) is based solely on the stress-strain characteristics of the tendons; this
maximum value should only be used after consultation with the manufacturer of the anchorages or the supplier of
the post-tensioning system. It is recommended that the maximum jacking stress in case 1(b) do not exceed 0.75
fpu due to anchor set loss and possible temperature corrections.
Critical sections for pretensioned elements

The most critical sections for stresses immediately after transfer are usually near the end of the element. In ele-
ments with single-point depressed tendons, the release stresses at midspan may also be critical and should be
checked. The critical end stress is at the point where the prestressing force has been completely transferred to the
concrete. The transfer length is usually assumed to be 50 strand diameters from the end of the member.
When release stresses are higher than allowed, it may be necessary to increase the specified concrete release
strength, provide supplementary tensile reinforcement or debond some strands at the ends of elements. In short-
span, heavily loaded, elements, such as beams, it is usually more practical to reinforce for the release tension. This
is illustrated in Example 3-7.
Under uniform service loads, the critical section for simple beams is at midspan for elements with straight tendons
l l
and near 0.4 from the end ( = span) for elements with tendons depressed at midpoint. For unusual loading condi-
tions, such as concentrated loads, other sections may be critical.
Straight tendons are normally used in flat deck elements and beams and either straight or depressed tendons are
used in stemmed deck elements.
Composite elements
Cast-in-place composite topping is normally cast on deck elements without shoring. The weight of the topping
must be carried by the precast element. Any additional dead and live loads are carried by the composite section.
The following example illustrates a tabular form of superimposing the stresses caused by the prestress force and
the dead and live load moments.
Sign convention
The customary sign convention used in the design of precast, prestressed concrete elements for service load
stresses is positive (+) for compression and negative (-) for tension. Bending moment diagrams are drawn on the
tension side of flexural elements. This convention is used throughout this Manual.

Example 3-7 Calculation of critical stresses—single point depressed strand
Given: Pi = (Assume 10% initial loss)

2400 x 600 double tee = (0.90)(1800) = 1620 kN
Span = 21.0 m Pe = (Assume 24% total loss)
Superimposed dead load = 0.5 kN/m2 = 1.2 kN/m = (0.76)(1800) = 1370 kN
Superimposed live load = 1.75 kN/m2 = 4.2 kN/m Service load moments:
at midspan:
Msw = (6.2)(21)2 /8 = 344 kN-m
Msd = (1.20)(21)2 /8 = 66 kN-m
M l = (4.20)(21)2 /8 = 232 kN-m
Concrete:
424
f’c = 35 MPa
314
f’ci = 25 MPa
Normal Density
Prestressed reinforcement:
Support at Midspan at 0.4 l at service
14 –13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands release release
Ap = (14) (99) = 1386 mm2 P = Pi P = Pi load
fpo = 0.7 fpu P = Pe
Section properties: fb ft fb ft fb ft
P / Ag + 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 6.2 + 5.3 + 5.3
Ag = 260000 mm2 Pe / S + 8.8 3.7 + 23.2 9.6 + 17.2 -7.1
I = 8580 x 106 mm4 Msw / S 17.0 + 7.1 16.3 + 6.7
yb = 424 mm Msd / S 3.1 + 1.3
yt = 176 mm M /S
l 11.0 + 4.6
Sb = 20200 x 103 mm3
St = 48800 x 103 mm3 Stresses + 15.0 + 2.5 + 12.4 + 3.7 7.9 + 10.8
m = 260 kg/m2 = 624 kg/m 0.6fci 0.6fci 0.6fci 0.6fci 0.5 fc 0.6fc
Allowable
w = 2.6 kN/m2 = 6.24 kN/m + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 3.0 + 21.0
stresses
e at support = 110 mm OK OK OK OK HIGH OK
e at midspan = 290 mm
at 0.4l
e at 0.4l = 254 mm
Msw = (344)(0.96) = 330 kN-m
Tendon eccentricity as shown:
Msd = (66)(0.96) = 63 kN-m
Problem:
l
M = (232)(0.96) = 223 kN-m
Find critical service load stresses.
Because the extreme fibre stress in the precom-
Solution: pressed tensile zone exceeds 0.5 fc (7.9 > 3.0), the
element is partially prestressed (see Section 3.4.8).
Prestress force:
Po = (1386)(0.70)(1860)/103 = 1800 kN

Example 3-8 Serviceability check of a stadia unit

Given: The final stresses at other points are summarized
The stadia unit and loads described in Example 3-4. above.
Problem: Release Stresses:
Check service limits, final stresses, release stresses
and cracking moment. Check stresses at 50 strand diameters from end of
unit.
Solution:
Msw = (7)(0.65/ 2)(10 0.65) = 21.3 kN- m
9 strands at 0.75 fpu initial stressing and 15% total
losses: Mx = (21.3)cos21.9o = 19.8 kN - m
My = (21.3)sin21.9o = 7.9 kN - m
(9)(99)(1860)(0.75)(0.85) Release stress at point D :
P =
1000 (1181)(103 ) (1181)(103 )(86)(260)
=
= 1057 kN 298,500 (3350)(106 )
Final Stresses : (1181)(103 )(3)(58) (19.8)(106 )(260)
+ +
ey = ( 104 85 67 37 177 158 139 (83,400)(106 ) (3350)(106 )
121 + 112)/ 9
(7.9)(106 )(58)
= 86 mm +
(83,400)(106 )
ex = ( 712 665 619 + 124 + 180 + 226 + 273
= 3.96 7.88 + 0 + 1.54 + 0.01
+319 + 899)/ 9
= 2.37 MPa < 2.5 MPa = 0.5 fc
= 3 mm
The release stresses at other points are
Mx = [(7 + 0.32 + 7.68)cos21.9° summarized
. above
Minimum Reinforcement:
+(0.3)sin21.9°](9.7)2 / 8
fr = 0.6 fc = (0.6) 35 = 3.55 MPa
= 165.0 kN m
fce = 3.54 + 7.43 = 10.97 MPa
My = [(7 + 0.32 + 7.68)sin21.9° (3350)(106 )
Mcr = (3.55 + 10.97) /106
+(0.3)cos21.9°](9.7)2 / 8 274
= 178 kN-m
= 69.1kN m
Mr = 301kN - m > (1.2)(178) = 214 kN- m OK
Final stress at point E:

Although not part of this example, the designer
P Pe y Pe x Mx My should analyze deflections and vibration to complete
= + +
A g Sx Sy Sx Sy the serviceability check.
(1057)(103 ) (1057)(103 )(86)(274)
= +
298,500 (3350)(106 )
(1057)(103 )(3)(138) (165)(106 )(274)
+
(83,400)(106 ) (3350)(106 )
(69.1)(106 )(138)
(83,400)(106 )
= 3.54 + 7.43 + 0.01 13.50 0.11
= 2.63 MPa < 2.96 MPa = 0.5 fc
Continued


3.4.4 Prestress Loss—General

Sources of prestress loss
Loss of prestress is the reduction of tensile stress in prestressing tendons. CSA A23.3 identifies the following sourc-
es of loss of prestress:
1. Anchorage seating loss,
2. Friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons,
3. Elastic shortening of concrete,
4. Creep of concrete,
5. Shrinkage of concrete, and
6. Relaxation of tendon stress
Accurate determination of losses is more important in some prestressed concrete elements than in others. Losses
have little effect on the flexural resistance of an element unless the tendons are unbonded and/or the final stress
after losses is less than 0.50 fpu. Underestimation or overestimation of losses can affect service conditions such as
camber, deflection and cracking.
Anchorage seating loss and friction:

Anchorage seating loss and friction losses are mechanical. They represent the difference between the tension
applied to the tendon by jacking and the initial tension available for application to the concrete by the tendon.
The magnitude of the losses can be determined with reasonable accuracy and, in many cases, they can be fully or
partially compensated for by increasing the jacking force.
Elastic shortening of concrete:

The concrete around the tendons immediately shortens as the prestressing force is applied. Tendons already bond-
ed to the concrete shorten with it.
Shrinkage of concrete:
Shrinkage of the concrete surrounding the tendon takes place after initial set of the concrete shortens the tendon.
Shrinkage continues for the life of a member but the rate decreases with time.
Creep of concrete and relaxation of tendons:

Creep is the increase in shortening in concrete due to sustained compressive stress. Relaxation is a reduction in
tendon stress without a change in tendon length. The rate of loss due to creep and relaxation change decrease
with time.
Range of values for total prestress loss

All loss calculations in this manual are based on low relaxation strands.
The total loss of prestress in typical elements ranges from 200 to 350 MPa for normal density concrete elements,
and from 250 to 400 MPa for semi-low density concrete.
A value of 240 MPa, corresponding to a 21% loss as recommended in the 1958 ACI-ASCE committee report, should
only be used for preliminary design. Two methods for loss calculation are:
1. The Simplified Method, and
2. The Detailed Method [3]
The Simplified Method takes into account the level of concrete stress, type of prestressed reinforcement and vol-
ume to surface ratio. The Detailed Method takes into account all the major variables affecting creep and shrinkage
and includes the effect of non-prestressed reinforcement located in the tension zone of the element. The presence
of non-prestressed reinforcement in partially prestressed elements also affects the losses in a significant way and
should not be neglected in the loss calculations.

3.4.5 Prestress Loss by Simplified Method

“Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses,” by the PCI Committee on Prestress Losses, were published
in the PCI Journal, July/August 1975. Reader’s Comments on the Recommendations were published in the PCI
Journal, March/April 1976.
Using the Simplified Method, stress loss is determined by computing the value of fco and fci and substituting them
in the appropriate empirical equations. These equations are used to compute the total loss, ifp. Total loss is the
sum of losses due to shrinkage, elastic shortening and creep of concrete plus loss due to relaxation of tendons.
For normal density concrete:
ifp = 137 MPa + 16.3 fco + 5.4 fc1
For semi-low density concrete:
ifp = 121 MPa + 20.4 fco + 4.8 fc1
The above empirical equations apply only to pretensioned elements. For typical elements the only variable not
included in the equations that could make a difference in the net result is volume/surface ratio. A correction factor
is applied for V/S:
V/S ratio (mm) 25 50 75 100

Adjustment (percent) +3.2 0 -3.8 -7.6
Example: For V/S = 75: reduce losses, eg. 21% x (100 - 3.8)% = 20.2%
The above equations are based on the initial tension of 0.75 fpu, after reduction for anchor slip. Use of a higher or
lower initial tension will result in an appreciable change in net losses.
Use of the equations requires the calculation of the stresses fco and fc1:
2
fco = Pi + Pe
i Msw e
Ag I I
Msde
fc1 =
I

Example 3-9 Loss of prestress — by the Simplified Method
Given:
2400 x 800 double tee with 50 mm composite top-
ping
wx w(0.40)
M @ 0.4 l = (l x) = (l 0.4 )
Span = 21.0 m 2 2
2
No superimposed dead load except topping = 0.12 w l
2
Msw = (0.12)(8.6)(21) = 455 kN-m
2
Msd = (0.12)(2.9)(21) = 154 kN-m
e at 0.4 l = 307 + (0.8)(441 307)
= 414 mm
3
Po = 0.75 Ap fpu = (0.75)(1188)(1860)/10
= 1660 kN
Section properties (untopped): Pi = Po - fpo or p = 7.5% assumed value
Ag = 371000 mm2 = 0.925 Po = (0.925)(1660) = 1536 kN
I = 22800 x 106 mm4 Determine fco and fci :
2
Sb = 43700 x 103 mm3 Pi Pe Msw e
fco = + i
Ag I I
yb = 523 mm
V/S = 48 mm (1536)(103 ) (1536)(414)2 (103 )
= +
w = 3.6 kN/m2 = 8.6 kN/m 371000 (22800 106 )
w of topping = 2.9 kN/m (455)(414)(106 )
Precast concrete: (22800 106 )
= 4.1+ 11.5 8.3 = 7.3 MPa
f'c = 35 MPa
f'ci = 25 MPa Msde (154)(414)(106 )
fc1 = = = 2.8 MPa
Normal Density
I (22,800 106 )
For normal density concrete and low relaxation
Topping concrete: strand:
Normal Density fp = 137 MPa + 16.3 fco + 5.4 fc1
= 137 MPa + (16.3)(7.3) + (5.4)( 2.8)
= 241 MPa
12 – 13 mm 1860 MPa Adjust for V/S ratio (interpolate between 25 and 50):
Ap = (12)(99) = 1188 mm2 (23)
Adjustment factor= 3.2 (3.20 0)
Strands depressed at mid-span: 25
ee = 307 mm = + 0.26%
(+ means additional loss)
ec = 441 mm
(0.26)
Problem: (241) = 0.6 MPa
100
Determine total prestress loss and effective prestress Final loss is 241 + 0.6 = 242 MPa or 17.3% of 1395
by the simplified method. MPa
Solution: Final prestress force after all losses:
For depressed strand, assume the critical section is (242)(1188)
Pe = 1660 = 1373 kN
at 0.4l. Determine moments, eccentricity, and pre- 103
stress force:

3.4.6 Prestress Loss by Detailed Method

Creep
If data about creep and shrinkage is not available from tests or observations on structural elements, the method of
ACI Committee 209 is used to predict the time-dependent properties. In the Detailed Method, creep is expressed
in terms of the creep coefficient Ct, defined as the ratio of creep strain ecp to initial elastic strain ei at the time of
application of prestress.
t 0.6
The following expression is applicable to normal, semi-low and low density concretes: Ct = CuQcp
10 + t 0.6
In the absence of specific creep data for local aggregates and conditions, the value suggested for Cu is 2.35.
The above equation was developed for sustained compressive stress not exceeding 50% of f’c and consists of an
expression for creep under standard conditions multiplied by the correction factor Qcp to adjust for non-standard
conditions. The standard conditions and the correcting factor Qcp are given in Figure 2.4.1.
For long term creep (t = ∞), the above equation is reduced to: C = Cu Qcp
Shrinkage
Shrinkage strains start taking place immediately after initial set of the concrete. According to ACI Committee 209,
the shrinkage strain esh is determined using the following equation, t
sh = shuPsh
which is applicable to normal, semi-low and low density concretes: Cs + t
In the absence of specific shrinkage data for local conditions, the value of esh suggested for use is 780 x 10-6. Psh is
a correction factor for conditions that are other than the standard condition specified in Figure 2.4.1.
For long term shrinkage, the above equation is reduced to: sh = shu Psh
Relaxation of prestressed reinforcement

The term relaxation signifies the loss of stress under constant strain. In lieu of detailed information from the steel
manufacturer, the relaxation of prestressing tendons may be predicted as:
logt fpi
fre(t)= 0.55 fpi
45 fpy
Assuming 100 years as the lifetime of a precast structure, the final value for the relaxation is:
fpi
fre = 0.101 0.55 fpi
fpy
These equations are valid for temperatures up to 20ºC. At higher temperatures, the relaxation increases. (See
Figure 3.4.3.) There is also a loss of prestress due to relaxation before transfer of prestress. This loss may be high
because of the elevated temperature during accelerated curing, even though the duration may be only about one
day. Figure 3.4.3 may be useful in estimating the relaxation loss at higher temperatures.
Elastic loss
At the time of transfer, the concrete stress in any fibre at a distance ytr from the centroid of the transformed section,
is determined by:
Po Pe Msw
fco = + o tr y tr
A tr Itr
At the level of the tendons, ytr is equal to etr, and the change in stress in the prestressed reinforcement at transfer
is determined by:
Po P e Msw
fpo = no + o tr etr
A tr Itr

For most pretensioned elements, unless additional non-prestressed reinforcement is present, the use of the gross
section properties is sufficiently accurate in the above equations.
The prestressing force after prestress transfer is: Pi = Po fpo Ap
The flexural stress in the concrete after the transfer of M
prestress due to the moments, M, fc = y tr
Itr
as a result of applied loads and prestressing effects, is:
M
and in the prestressed or non-prestressed reinforcement: fs = n etr
Itr
The modular ratio n is determined by the modulus of
elasticity of concrete at the time of application of M.
The moment Msd due to superimposed dead load in-
creases the stress in the prestressed reinforcement by:
Msd
fpr = n etr
Itr
Time-dependent loss
The loss of prestress for an element with one layer of
tendons and non-prestressed reinforcement at approxi-
mately the same level can be estimated from:
no fcoCt + shEp + fre
fp =
2 2
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e / r )(1 + 0.8Ct )
The 0.8 factor, applied to Ct in the denominator, is an
assumed ageing coefficient.
In the above equations, the concrete area is the net
concrete area not including the reinforcement area. The Figure 3.4.3 Relaxation of low relaxation strand
gross concrete area is normally used due to the variations
in concrete properties.
If a moment Msd due to a superimposed load is applied
at a later stage, the additional time-dependent change
in the prestressed or non-prestressed reinforcement
stress is:
2 2
fp1 = {n1fc1Ct1}/{1+n1( p+ s)(1+e / r )(1+0.8Ct1)}
The time-dependent stress ifp1 is a tensile stress

reducing the loss ifp. The modulus of elasticity of the
concrete at age t1 may be considerably higher than
the value at transfer of prestress. Therefore the creep
coefficient will be smaller than the value Ct determined
at transfer.
The creep and shrinkage of the concrete reduces the
stress in the prestress reinforcement resulting in lower
intrinsic relaxation losses. This effect may be included
in the calculations by replacing the intrinsic loss fre by a 
reduced value of ar fre. The coefficient ar is determined Figure 3.4.4 Relaxation reduction coefficient ar
from Figure 3.4.4 using the parameters b = fpi /fpu and
q = ifp / fpi. The stress fpi is the initial stress applied to
the tendon, fpu is the tensile strength and ifp is the loss
of prestress due to creep and shrinkage only:

nfc Ct + shEp
fp =
2 2
1 + n( p + s )(1 + e / r )(1 + 0.8Ct )
If a superimposed dead load is present, the stress ifp1 is subtracted from ifp.
When the centroid of the non-prestressed reinforcement is coincident with that of the prestressed reinforcement
the value ifp is also the time-dependent stress in the non-prestressed reinforcement. The total time-dependent
change in the prestressing force in the concrete is: P = fp Ap + fs As + fs1 (Ap + As)
In this equation, ifp and Dfs are compressive stresses while ifs1 is a tensile stress being less than ifs in magnitude.
The result of this stress change will be a reduction of the tensile stress in the prestressed reinforcement and a com-
pressive stress in the non-prestressed reinforcement.
Example 3-10 Loss of prestress for an element without non-prestressed reinforcement – detailed
method
Given: Po P e Msw
The 2400 x 800 double tee of Example 3-9 fpo = no fco = no + o tr etr
A tr Itr
Concrete: Ep
1.5 190000
2400 no = = = 7.6
Eco = (3300 fci + 6900) Eco 24900
2300
3
Po = fpo Ap = (1360)(1188)/10 = 1616 kN
= 24900 MPa at transfer
1.5 At 0.4 l , the transformed section properties are:
2400
Ec1 = (3300 fc + 6900) Atr = Ag + (no 1) Ap
2300
= 371000 + (7.6 1)(1188)
= 28200 MPa at 40 days
2
= 379000 mm
Section Properties: From Example 3-9:
Ic 22800 x 10 6 e = 414 mm
r = = = 248 mm
Ac 371000 dp = h yb + e
Problem: = 800 523 + 414 = 691 mm
Determine the total loss of prestress by the Detailed A g yb + (no 1)A p (h dp )
Method. ytr =
A tr
Solution:
=
It is assumed that the tendons are pretensioned
to 0.75 fpu = 1395 MPa and that the topping does (371000)(523) + (7.6 1)(1188)(800 691)
not contribute to the section properties. A relax- 379000
ation loss prior to transfer of prestress is calculated = 514 mm
assuming an average temperature of 60°C during etr = ytr (h d p)
accelerated curing for a period of 24 hours. Accord-
= 514 (800 691)
ing to Figure3.4.3, ifre = (0.025)(1395) = 35 MPa.
= 405 mm
Prestress immediately before transfer: Itr = Ig + Ag (y
2
ytr) + (no 1) Ap e
2
tr
6 2
fpo = 1395 – 35 = 1360 MPa = (22800 10 ) + (371000)(523 514)
2
Elastic loss (using transformed section properties): + (7.6 1)(1188)(405)
6 4
= 24100 10 mm
Continued

Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement Slump 50 mm l

Qs = 0.95
after transfer:
Ps = 0.97 l
Po Pe Msw
fco = + o tr etr
A tr Itr Air 7% Qv = 1.09
3 Pv = 1.01
(1616)(10 )
=
379000 Long term creep due to dead load and prestressing:
3 6
(1616)(405)(10 ) (455)(10 ) Qcp = Qa Qh Qf Qr Qs Qv l
+ 6
(405)
24100 x 10 = (1.0)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09) = 0.77
= 7.6 MPa
With the ultimate creep coefficient, Cu = 2.35
Elastic prestress loss:
C∞ = Cu Qcp = (2.35)(0.77) = 1.81
fpo = no fco
Long term creep due to superimposed dead load:
= (7.6)(7.6) = 58 MPa
Qcp1 = (0.80)(0.80)(0.98)(0.95)(0.95)(1.09)
Prestress after transfer:
fpi = fpo fpo = 0.62
= 1360 58 = 1302 MPa C∞1 = Cu Qcp1 = (2.35)(0.62) = 1.45
Pi = Ap fpi Long term shrinkage:
3
= (1188)(1302)/10 = 1547 kN
Psh = Pc Ph Pf Pr Ps Pv
The value of Pi is slightly higher than that obtained = (1.0)(0.70)(0.86)(0.96)(0.97)(1.01)
by assuming a 7.5% loss in Example 3-9.
= 0.566
Concrete stress at level of prestressed reinforcement
due to Msd: With the ultimate shrinkage strain, eshu = 780 x 10-6
Msdetr (154)(405)(106 ) eshu = eshu Psh = (780x10-6)(0.566)

fc1 = =
Itr (24100 x 106 ) = 442x10-6
= 2.6 MPa (tension) Time-dependent loss not including relaxation, pre-
cast section:
Corresponding change in tendon stress: no fcoC + shEp
fp =
Ep 190000
n1 = = = 6.7 1 + n( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
Ec1 28200
n1fc1= (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension) Ap 1188
p = = = 0.0032
Ac 371,000
Creep and shrinkage coefficients from Figure 2.4.1:
nfc Ct + shEp
fp =
1 day at prestress transfer Qa = 1.00 2 2
1 + n( p + s )(1 + e / r )(1 + 0.8Ct )
40 days when topping is applied Qs1 = 0.80
Cement content = 410 kg/m Pc = 1.00 =
(7.6)(7.6)(1.81) + (442 10 6 )(190000)
Relative humidity 70% Qh = 0.80 2
414
Ph = 0.70 1 + (7.6)(0.0032 + 0) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.81)]
248
Ratio of fine to total aggregates Qf = 0.98
= 0.40 Pf = 0.86 188.5
= = 154 MPa
V/S =48 mm Qr = 0.95 1.225
Pr = 0.96 Reduction in time-dependent loss due to application

of Msd: Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa

fp1 =
n1fc1Ct1
Elastic losses:
1 + n1( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1)
(6.7)(2.6)(1.45) - precast section only ifpo = 58
=
2 - due to Msd n1fc1 = -17
414
1 + (6.7)(0.0032 + 0) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.45)]
248 Time-dependent losses:
25.3 - creep and shrinkage ifp = 154
= = 22 MPa (tension)
1.175 - due to Msd ifp1 = -22
Intrinsic relaxation:
- relaxation ifp = 23
fpi
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi Total prestress loss: 231MPa – or 16.6% of 1395 MPa
fpy
This value is 11 MPa (5% of 231) less than that
fpi = 1360 58 + 17 = 1319 MPa
obtained by the simplified method.
1319
fre = (0.125) 0.55 (1319) Final effective prestress after all losses:
(0.9)(1860)
= 39 MPa fpe = 1395 – 231 = 1164 MPa
Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and which corresponds to a final stress of 0.62 fpu,
shrinkage: and:
fp fp1 154 22 Pe = (1164)(1188)/103 = 1382 kN
= = = 0.10
fpi 1319
fpi 1319
= = = 0.71
fpu 1860
from Figure 3.4.4:

ar = 0.73
arfre = (0.73)(39) = 29 MPa
Therefore, loss due to relaxation only:
fp = r fre
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
29
= = 23 MPa
1.225
Prestress loss summary (MPa):

Example 3-11 Loss of prestress for element with non-prestressed reinforcement—detailed method
Given: Po Po etrp Msw

Same as Example 3-9, except that two of the 13 fco = + etr
A tr Itr
mm strands are replaced by 2 – 25M bars (partially
prestressed element). (1346)(103 )
=
Concrete: 385000
Eco = 24900 MPa at transfer (1346)(398)(103 ) (455)(106 )

+ (428)
Ec1 = 28200 MPa at 40 days 25400 106
Prestressed reinforcement: = 3.5+1.4 = 4.9 MPa
2
Ap = (10)(99) = 990 mm Elastic prestress loss:
Ep = 190000 MPa fpo = no fco = (7.6)(4.9) = 37 MPa
dp = 691 mm (at 0.4 l ) Prestress after transfer:
Non-prestressed reinforcement: fpi = fpo fpo
2
As = (2)(500) = 1000 mm = 1360 37 = 1323 MPa
Es = 200000 MPa Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to
ds = 750 mm Msd:
Section Properties (including all reinforcement at M
fc1 = sd etr
0.4l ) : Itr
2
Atr = 385000 mm (154)(106 )
6 4 = (428) = 2.6 MPa (tension)
tr = 25400 10 mm 25400 106
etrps = 398 mm (prestressed reinforcement)
Corresponding change in reinforcement stress:
etrs = 457 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement)
n1fc1= (6.7)(2.6) = 17 MPa (tension)
etr = 428 mm (both reinforcements)
ytr = 507 mm Time-dependent change in stress at centroid of both
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement (with-
22800 x 10 6
r = = 248 mm out relaxation):
371000
990 1000 200 103
p + s = + = 0.0055
Problem:
371000 371000 190 103
Determine the total prestress loss and effective no fcoC + shEp
fp =
prestress by Detailed Method. 1 + no ( + 2 2
p s )(1 + e / r )(1 + 0.8C )
Solution: (7.6)(4.9)(1.81) + (442 10 6 )(190000)
Elastic loss: =
2
414
From Example 3-10, the relaxation loss prior to 1 + (7.6)(0.0055) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.81)]
248
transfer is 35 MPa.
151
Hence: = = 109 MPa
1.387
fpo = 1360 MPa n1fc1Ct1
fp1 =
2
Po = (1360)(990)/103 = 1346 kN 1 + n1( p + s )(1 + e / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1)
Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of (6.7)(2.6)(1.45)

=
2
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforce- 414
1 + (6.7)(0.0055) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.45)]
ment: 248
25.3
= = 19 MPa (tension)
1.301 Continued

Example 3-11 continued

For strands, the intrinsic relaxation: Prestress loss summary (MPa):
For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss Relaxation prior to transfer: 35 MPa
it is assumed that the superimposed dead load is Elastic losses:
applied at the time of transfer. This means that the
tendon stress due to Msd is included in fpi – precast section only ifpo = 37
fpi = 1360 37 + 17 = 1340 MPa – due to Msd n1fc1 = –17

fpi Time-dependent losses:
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi
fpy – creep and shrinkage ifp = 109
1340 – due to Msd ifp1 = –19
= 0.125 0.55 (1340)
(0.9)(1860)
– relaxation ifp = 24
= 42 MPa
Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and Prestress loss in strand 169 MPa
shrinkage: Final forces:
fp fp1 109 19
= = = 0.067 In the prestressed reinforcement without the
fpi 1340 effect of the non-prestressed reinforcement:
fpi 1340
= = = 0.72 Pe = (1395 – 169)(990)/103
fpu 1860
= 1214 kN (tension) – applied to the
from Figure 3.4.4: net transformed section
r = 0.80 In the non-prestressed reinforcement:
r fre= (0.80)(42) = 34 MPa Ps = (37 – 17 + 90)(1000)/103
Therefore, loss due to relaxation only: = 110 kN (compression)
fp = r fre In the concrete:

2
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
Pc = Pe – Ps = 1214 – 110
34
= = 24 MPa = 1104 kN (compression)
1.387

3.4.7 Prestress Losses and Deflection in Composite Elements

Analysis of time-dependent effects in composite members involves the time-dependent properties of the two
different concretes and the relaxation of the prestressing steel. In addition, non-prestressed reinforcement may be
present. The problem can be solved by the Creep Transformed Section Method developed by Dilger. [4] For sim-
plicity in the calculation of the relaxation loss, it is assumed that the superimposed dead load is applied at the time
of transfer. This means that the tendon stress due to Msd is included in fpi. The method (see Figure 3.4.5) involves
the following steps:
Step 1: Determine concrete stresses fci (see Figure 3.4.5(b)) in the precast girder Pi Msw + Pei tr
fci = + y tr
(Sect. 1) after transfer of the prestressing force. (see Section 3.4.6.) At level i: A tr Itr
(For elements without non-prestressed reinforcement, the gross properties of the section may be used.)
The following sign convention is used in this analysis: compression and shortening are positive, eccentricity e and
ordinate y above the centroid are positive.

sw
Figure 3.4.5 Prestress loss in composite elements
Step 2: Determine the creep, shrinkage and Ec of the precast girder (Section 1) and the deck (Section 2).
The following data is required:
a) Creep coefficients of girder concrete C(t∞,to), C(tca, to) and C(t∞,tca) where:
t∞ = time at infinity (days)
tc = time at transfer of prestress (days)
tca = time at the beginning of the composite action (days)
b) Creep coefficient of deck concrete Cdeck(t∞, tca – tcc) where tcc is the time at casting of topping (days).
For unshored construction, tca – tcc is usually 1 to 3 days.
c) Shrinkage of girder concrete:
esh (t∞, to ) = ultimate shrinkage
esh (tca, to) = shrinkage occurring between time, to and tca
d) Shrinkage of deck concrete:
eshdeck (t∞, tca – t∞) = ultimate shrinkage of deck concrete
e) Intrinsic relaxation of prestressing steel, fre
f) Ec(to), Ec(tca), Ecdeck (tca – tcc)
Calculate:
E*1 = Ec(t1 )/[1 + 0.8C(t∞, tca)]
E*2 = Ecdeck(tca)/[1 + 0.7Cdeck(t∞, tca )]

Step 3: Calculate prestress loss at time tca when composite action begins (see Sect. 3.4.6), neglecting relaxation of
the steel:
no fco C(tca , to ) + sh (tca , t o )Ep
fp(tca) =
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )[1 + 0.8C(t ca , t o )]
Loss of prestressing force:

iPca = ifp (tca) Ap
Step 4: Calculate stress in precast section due to iPca. f Pca Pca e3
ci = yi
Referring to Fig. 3.4.5(c), stress at level i (i = 2, ... 5): Ag I
Use properties of concrete section (not including Ap), or gross section properties.
Step 5: Calculate stresses due to weight of deck (or topping) in fibres i (i = 2, ... 5):
Msd
a) For unshored construction, the stresses are: fsdi = yi
I
M
b) For shored construction the stresses are: fsdi = sd yi
I
The prime indicates properties of the transformed composite section, determined by multiplying the width of the
deck by the ratio Ecdeck(tca – tcc)/Ec(tca).
Step 6: Calculate strains in fibre 2:
* fc2
2 = [C(t ,to ) C(tca ,t o )]
Ec (to )
f
+ sd2 C(t ,tca ) + sh (t ,t o )
Ec (tca )
sh (tca ,to )
shdeck (t ,tca tcc )
where fc2 is the sum of the stress components of steps 1 and 4 at level 2.
The strain e*2 represents the difference in free strain between the precast and deck concrete at level of fibre 2. For
shored construction the term:
fsd2
C(t ,t ca ) is replaced by:
Ec (t o )
fsd2
[C(t ,t ca ) Cdeck (t ,t ca t cc )]
Ec (tca )
In fibre 3:
* fc3
3 = [C(t ,to ) C(tca ,to )]
Ec (to )
fsd3
+ C(t ,to )+ sh (t ,tca ) sh (t ca ,t o )
Ec (tca )
For fibres 4 and 5, fc3 and fsd3 are replaced, respectively, by fc4 and fsd4, and fc5 and fsd5.
Step 7: Determine properties of creep-transformed section. Multipliers For the steel:
for the calculation of the properties of the creep-transformed section are: * * *
(n 1) where n = Ep / E1
For the deck concrete:
* *
E 2/ E 1

Step 8: Calculate normal forces and bending moments:
N*2 = * *
2E2 A deck M*2 = N*2 y*2
Adeck = Area of concrete deck (Section 2)
N3* = ( * *
* *
3E p + fre)Ap M3* = N3 y3
N*4 = M*4 = N*4 y*4
*
4EsAs4
N5* = M5* = N5* y5*

*
5EsAs5
N* = N 1 M* = N1y1*
*
The distances y* are the distances from the centroid of the creep-transformed section.
Note: The reduced relaxation may be determined as shown in Example 3-10.
Step 9: Calculate stress due to N* and M*: Concrete stress in the top fibre of the deck for unshored construction:
N* M* * E*2 N*2
ft* = + yt +
A * I* E1* A deck
A*, I* and y* are properties of the creep transformed section (see Example 3-10).
For shored construction:
f = fsd + f*
where fsd is the flexural stress in the top fibre due to the weight of the deck (see Step 4).
Time dependent stress in the bottom fibre:
N* M*
fb* = + yb*
A* I*
This stress is to be added to the stresses due to prestressing force at the time tca, and moments Msw and Msd at
the bottom fibre.
The time-dependent change due to composite action in the prestressed reinforcement:
N* M*
f3* = y3* n* *
3 Ep + fre
* *
A I
and in the non-prestressed reinforcement, if any:
N* M*
f4* = y*4 n* *
4 Es
* *
A I
The stresses f* have to be added to the stresses present at the beginning of composite action (time tca).
Step 10: Calculation of deformations:
Initial plus time-dependent curvature (starting from age to):

= (to )[1+ C(t ,to )] + p
M*
+ (tca )[1 + C(t ,t ca )]
I*E1*
Md + Po e3
(to)=
EItr
= elastic curvature of the precast girder at
transfer
Pca e3
p =
EI
= elastic curvature due to prestress loss
before composite action begins.
Msd
(tca) =
EItr
= elastic curvature due to superimposed load
for unshored construction.
or:
Msd
(tca) =
EI
= elastic curvature due to superimposed load
for shored construction.
To calculate the deflection, curvature should be established at 0.4l for draped tendons and at the supports. An
appropriate distribution is assumed for integration between these points.
Example 3-12 Prestress loss in a composite element using the detailed method
Given: At level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
The 2400 x 800 double tee of Example 3-9 but
fc3 = 7.6 MPa
assume that the topping acts compositely.
At other fibres: see Figure 3.4.6(b).
f’c precast = 35 MPa
Step 2: Creep and shrinkage properties:
f’c topping = 25 MPa
Precast section:
The topping is applied on a precast double tee at
C(t ,1) = 1.81 (see Example 3-10)
40 days. Assume that composite action begins at
43 days and that the concrete strength of the top- C(t ,43) = 1.45 (see Example 3-10)
ping after moist curing has reached 17.5 MPa at the t 0.6
C(43,1) = C
beginning of the composite action. 10 + t 0.6
Problem: (43 1)0.6
= (1.81) = 0.88
Determine the total loss of prestress using the 10 + (43 1)0.6
detailed method. 6
sh(t , 1) = 442 10 (see Example 3-10)
Solution:
t
Step 1: Concrete stress after transfer: sh(43, 1) = sh
Cs + t
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2):
(43 1)
fc2 = 1.7 MPa = (442 10 6 )
55 + (43 1)
= 191 10
6 Continued


Cast-in-place topping:
( 89)(103 ) ( 89)(103 )( 414)
Cdeck(t , 43) = 2.40 fc2 = + (287 + 25)
6
371000 (22.8)(109 )
shdeck(t , 43) = 600 10
= 0.3 MPa
Moduli of elasticity:
Ec(to) = 24900 MPa for fci = 25 MPa At the level of prestressing steel (fibre 3):
Ec(tca) = 28200 MPa for fc = 35 MPa
fc3 = - 0.9 MPa (tension)
Ecdeck(tca tcc) = 22100 MPa for fc = 17.5 MPa
For other fibres: see Figure 3.4.6(c)
3
and c = 2400 kg / m
Step 5: Stress due to superimposed dead load of
Age adjusted moduli: topping:
Ec (tca ) M
E1* = fsdi = sd yi
1 + 0.8C(t ,t ca ) I
28 200 (154)(106 )
= = 13100 MPa fsd2 = (287 + 25) = 2.0 MPa
1 + (0.8)(1.45)
24.1 109
Ecdeck (tca tcc )
E*2 = (154)(106 )
1 + 0.7Cdeck (t ,tca ) fsd3 = ( 405) = 2.6 MPa (tension)
22,100 24.1 109
= = 8200 MPa
1 + (0.7)(2.40) Increase in steel stress:
E *2 = n1 fsd3 = (6.7)(-2.6) = -17 MPa (tension)
= 8200/13100 = 0.63
E1* Steel stress at the beginning of composite action:
*
n = 190000/13100 = 14.5 fpr = 1360 - (7.6)(7.6) - 75 + 17 = 1244 MPa
no = 190000/24900 = 7.6 (at transfer)
Step 6: Strain:
n = 190000/28200 = 6.7 (at time tca) * fc2
2 = [C(t ,to ) C(tca ,t o )]
Ec (to )
Step 3: Loss of prestress at time tca (neglecting
f
relaxation): + sd2 C(t ,tca ) + sh (t ,t o )
Ec (tca )
no fc3C(tca ,to )+ sh (tca ,t o )Ep sh (tca ,to ) shdeck (t ,tca tcc )
fp(tca)=
2 2 1.7 + 0.3
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e / r )[1 + 0.8C(t ca ,t o )]
= (1.81 0.88)
(7.6)(7.6)(0.88) + (191 10 )(190000) 6 24900
= 2.0
2
414 + (1.45)
1 + (7.6)(0.0032) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(0.88)] 28200
248
+(442 191 600)(10 6 )
= 75 MPa
= 171 10 6
Pca = fp (tca) Ap * fc3
3 3 = [C(t ,to ) C(tca ,to )]
= (75)(1188)/10 = 89 kN Ec (to )
Step 4: Stresses due to P ca = 89 kN: f
+ sd3 C(t ,tca ) + sh (t ,t o ) sh (t ca ,t o )
Pca Pca e3 Ec (tca )
fci = yi
Ag I 7.6 0.9
= (1.81 0.88)
At the centre of gravity of the topping (fibre 2): 24900
2.6
+ (1.45) + (442 191)(10 6 )
28200
= 368 10 6 Continued


* * * * 2 *
Area A Ay y * = y–y A (y ) I I
Level 2 3 Multiplier 2 3 y 3 6 4 9 4 9 4 9
(mm 10 ) (mm 10 ) (mm 10 ) (mm) (mm 10 ) (mm 10 ) (mm 10 )
1 371 1.0 371.0 0 0 35 0.45 22.8 23.25
2 120 0.63 75.6 303 22.91 268 5.43 5.43
3 1.188 13.5 16.0 414 6.62 449 3.23 3.23
Total 462.6 16.29 9.11 22.8 31.9
Step 7: Properties of creep-transformed section:

N* M* * *
y3 n1 + 3*Ep
*
From Step 2, the multiplier for the deck concrete at f3 = +
A * I*
fibre 2 is:
E* ( 85.2)(103 ) ( 82.4)(106 )
= 2 = 0.63 = + ( 449) (14.5)
E1* 463 103 31.9 109
and the multiplier for the prestressing steel at fibre +(368 10 6 )(190000)
3 is: = 56 MPa
= n1* 1 = 14.5 1 = 13.5
* 3 2 Intrinsic relaxation with:
A = 463 10 mm
16.29 106 fpi = 1244 MPa
y = = 35 mm
463 10 3 fpi
fre = 0.125 0.55 fpi
I
*
= (9.11 + 22.8)(10 ) = 31.9
9 9
10 mm
4 fpy
Step 8: Normal force and bending moments: 1244

= (0.125) 0.55 (1244)
(0.9)(1860)
N*2 = * *
2E2 A 2
–6 3 3 = 30.0 MPa
= ( 171 10 )(8200)(120 10 )/10
56
= 168.3 kN = = 0.045
1244
N 3 = ( 3* Ep + fre )Ap
*
1244
= = 0.67
= (368
-6
10 )(190000)(1188)/10
3 1860
= 83.1 kN From Figure 3.4.4:
N
*
= Ni=
*
168.3 + 83.1 = 85.2 kN r = 0.86
*
M2 = N2y2
* *
r fre = (0.86)(30) = 26 MPa
3
= ( 168.3)(268)/10 = 45.1 kN-m Add forces due to reduced relaxation to above values
* * *
M3 = N3y3 of N* and M*. The new values are:
3 * 3
= (83.1)( 449)/10 = 37.3 kN-m N = 85.2 + (26)(1188)/10 = 54.3 kN
* * * * 6
M = M 2 + M 3 = 45.1 37.3 M = 82.4 + (26)(1188)( 449)/10 = 96 kN-m
= 82.4 kN-m
Reduced relaxation: Continued

Time-dependent change in prestress due to com-
posite action without relaxation:

Step 9: Stresses: Effective prestress:

Final concrete stress in top and bottom fibres of N* M* *
f3* = + y3 n1 + 3*Ep + r fre
composite section:
A * I*
* N* M* * E*2 N*2 =
ft =ft= + yt +
A * I* E1* A c2 ( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 )
+ ( 449) (14.5)
( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 ) (463 103 ) (31.9 109 )
= + (293) (0.63)
(463 103 ) (31.9 109 ) +(368 10 6 )(190000) + 26
( 168.3)(103 ) = 78 MPa
+ = 0.8 MPa (tension)
(120 103 )
3
Pe = (1244 78)(1188)/10 = 1385 kN
and from Figure 3.4.6: The distribution of the final concrete stresses is
*
fb = fb shown in Figure 3.4.6(f).
( 54.3)(103 ) ( 96)(106 )
= + ( 557) (0.63)
(463 103 ) (31.9 109 )
+8.5 1.1 3.3 = 3.1MPa (compression)
sw
Figure 3.4.6 Stress distributions for Example 3-12

3.4.8 Partially Prestressed Element Design

In many prestressed concrete structures it is not likely that the full specified load will be applied during the lifetime
of the structure. It is therefore possible to design the structural elements such that some cracking may occur under
full specified load should it ever be applied. Within the range of specified dead and live loads found in most struc-
tures, elements should be proportioned such that: Mcr > ( Msw + Msd )
This is not a Code requirement but is good design practice; it also assists the designer in the selection of pre-
stressed and non-prestressed reinforcement.
The advantages of partial prestressing are:
1. A reduction in camber.
2. A reduction in prestress force, which may allow an increase in tendon eccentricity.
3. A reduction in prestress losses due to creep and relaxation (where partial prestressing is achieved using lower
tendon stresses).
4. A reduction of cracking in the end zones of post-tensioned elements.
Partial prestressing may be achieved in two ways:
1. By providing non-prestressed reinforcement in addition to the prestressing tendons. This may provide greater
economy in long pretensioning fabrication beds when it is desirable to produce elements of dissimilar capacity.
2. By reducing the effective prestress below the maximum limit and relying on the increase in tendon stress after
decompression and cracking to resist the increase in moment. This is a useful option in pretensioned construc-
tion where there may be difficulties in placing the non-prestressed reinforcement.
The crack control criteria for partially prestressed elements, given in Figure 3.4.1, are more conservative than for
reinforced elements, due to the potential effects of corrosion on small diameter tendons.
For the calculation of z, the same equation for reinforced concrete elements is used:
z = fs 3 dc A
fs = the increase in steel stress in the non-prestressed reinforcement beyond the state of decompression
dc = concrete cover to the centre of the reinforcement (mm)
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexural tension reinforcement and having the same cen-
troid as that of the reinforcement, divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2). When the flexural reinforce-
ment consists of different bar or wire sizes, the number of bars or wires used to compute A is taken as the
total area of reinforcement divided by the area of the largest bar or wire used.
Note: This definition was developed for elements with a rectangular tension zone. For elements with a large ten-
sion flange (e.g. a box section) this definition may not be applicable and wmax should be calculated as shown in
Step 5 of the Detailed Method that follows.
The value of fs may be determined by either a simplified or a detailed method. The first method is conservative,
particularly for elements with a small reinforcement ratio. A second, more rigorous method, is given here, together
with research results concerning maximum crack widths in partially prestressed elements with different types of
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement. The detailed method follows Steel Stresses in Partially Prestressed
Concrete Members, Suri, K. M., Dilger, Walter H., PCI Journal, May/June 1986. Design aids to calculate fs presented
in this paper are used here.
The CONCISE Beam computer software program uses the detailed method and calculates crack widths directly.
Simplified method
The stress, fs, may be calculated as the stress corresponding to the difference between the moment due to speci-

fied loads, Ms, and the decompression moment, Mdc, according to:
Ms Mdc
fs =
(A p + A s )d
The decompression moment, Mdc, is the moment producing zero stress at the extreme concrete fibre of the
precompressed tensile zone. The moment does not result in complete decompression of the whole section as this
would require the removal of the bending moment due to applied loads and the application of a fictitious decom-
pression force. The above equation eliminates the complicated calculations required to compute the decompres-
sion force Pdc and facilitates a quick determination of the stresses due to specified loads
Detailed Method
The reference point for the calculation of the incremental steel stress corresponds to zero stress throughout the
concrete section. The state of zero concrete stress is achieved by applying a so-called decompression force Pdc to
the concrete section.
The step-by-step procedure is summarized as follows:
Step 1:
Determine the effective prestress Pe and the time-dependent change in stress in the non-prestressed reinforce-
ment, ifs according to the procedure given in Section 3.4.6. Note that ifs = ifp.
Step 2:
Determine the decompression force Pdc:
Pdc = Pe + Pp Ps + Ps
Pe = effective prestress (after all losses)
fc
Pp = Ep Ap
Ec
= force in tendons corresponding to the
concrete stress fc at the level of the tendon
under dead load and effective prestress
P s = A s fs
= force in the non-prestressed reinforcement
due to time-dependent strain
fc
Ps = Es As
Ec
= force in non-prestressed reinforcement
corresponding to the concrete stress fc at
the level of the non-prestressed
reinforcement under dead load and
effective prestress.
The forces iPp and iPs are normally small and are often neglected.

Figure 3.4.7(a) T-beam design coefficients

Figure 3.4.7(b) T-beam design coefficients

Figure 3.4.7(c) T-beam design coefficients

Step 3:
Determine parameters:
Ep Ap dp + Es A s ds Pdc dp ApEp + A sEs bw hf

d= p = n = b = f =
Ep Ap + Es A s Ms bdEc b h
For rectangular sections ab = af = 1.0

Step 4:
From the charts in Figure 3.4.7, find the coefficient for the appropriate parameters and use it to calculate the incre-
mental steel stress:
fs =n notation from chart

Ep Ms
n =
Ec bd2
The charts also provide the neutral axis depth coefficient k. (See Example 3-13)
Step 5:
Calculate the crack control parameter z and compare with allowable values. A designer may determine the maxi-
mum crack width using the methods given below for comparison to recommended values in Figure 3.4.1.
wmax= k1fsdc Ar / A st
k1 = 3 x 10–6 for a combination of deformed bars and strands and for strands only
k1 = 4 x 10–6 for a combination of deformed bars and wires
k1 = 5 x10–-6 for wires only
dc = concrete cover to centre of the reinforcement (mm)
Ar = concrete area in tension below the neutral axis
Ast = Ap + As Es/Ep
Unbonded tendons are not considered when calculating z.

Step 6:
Calculate compressive stress in top fibre:
1 kd
fc = fs
n d kd

Example 3-13 Crack width analysis of a partially prestressed element using the detailed method
Given: Msd = 410 kN-m
3000 x 1200 single tee. Span = 27.0 m M l = 546 kN-m
Concrete: Ms = Msw + Msd + M l
f’ci = 25 MPa = 1066 + 410 + 546 = 2022 kN-m

f’c = 35 MPa Problem:
Calculate z and check the crack width at midspan
Eci = 24900 MPa at transfer
for exterior exposure conditions.
Eci = 28200 MPa at 40 days
Solution:
Normal Density Step 1(a): Elastic loss:
Concrete stress after transfer at level of centroid of
both prestressed and non-prestressed reinforce-
ment:
P Po etrp Msw
fco = o + etr
A tr Itr
Po = fpo Ap
fpo = (0.75)(fpu)
= (0.75)(1860) = 1395 MPa
12 – 13 mm 1860 MPa, bonded strands 3
Po = (1395)(1188)/10 = 1657 kN
Ap = 1188 mm2 3
(1657)(10 )
Ep = 190000 MPa fco =
513 900
Non-prestressed reinforcement:
(1657)(699)(103 ) (1066)(106 )
4 – 25M Grade 400 bars + (731)
79 150 106
As = (4)(500) = 2000 mm2
Es = 200000 MPa = 3.2 + 0.9 = 4.1 MPa
Elastic prestress loss:
Section Properties at Midspan:
Ep 190 000
Ac = 492000 mm2 no = = = 7.6
Eci 24 900
Ig = 66300 x 106 mm4
fpo = no fco = (7.6)(4.1) = 31MPa
yb = 882 mm
ec = 731 mm Prestress after transfer:
Atr = 513900 mm2 fpi = fpo fpo
Itr = 79150 x 106 mm4 = 1395 31 = 1364 MPa
etrp = 699 mm (prestressed reinforcement) Concrete stress at level of centroid of steel due to
etrs = 749 mm (non-prestressed reinforcement) Msd:
M
etr = 731 mm (both reinforcements) fc1 = sd etr
Itr
ytr = 849 mm
r = 367 mm (410)(106 )
= (731) = 3.8 MPa (tension)
79150 106
Creep, shrinkage and relaxation:
Creep Coefficient Ct = 1.76 Corresponding change in reinforcement stress:
Ep 190000
Shrinkage esh = 430 x 10–6 n1 = = = 6.7
Ec1 28200
Intrinsic Relaxation fre = 50 MPa
Service Moments: n1fc1= (6.7)(3.8) = 25 MPa (tension)
Msw = 1066 kN-m Continued

Step 1(b): Time dependent losses: fpi = 1395 31 + 25 = 1389 MPa

Ap A s Es fp fp1 85 24
p+ s = + = = = 0.044
Ac A c Ep fpi 1389
1188 (2000)(200000) fpi 1389

= + = = = 0.75
492 10 3 3
(492 10 )(190000) fpu 1860
= 0.0024 + 0.0043 = 0.0067 From Figure 3.4.4:

r = 0.90
The time dependent change in stress at centroid of Therefore, loss due to relaxation only:
reinforcement (without relaxation): fp = r fre
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8C )
no fcoC + shEp
fp = (0.90)(50)
2 2
1 + no ( p + s )(1 + e / r )(1 + 0.8C ) = = 28 MPa
1.609
(7.6)(4.1)(1.76) + (430 10 6 )(190000)
=
2 Step 2: Decompression force:
731
1 + (7.6)(0.0067) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.76)]
367 Pdc = Pe Ps + Pp + Ps
fp = 25 + 85 24 + 28 = 64 MPa
136.5
= = 85 MPa Pe = (fpi f p) A p
1.609 3
= (1364 64)(1188)/10 = 1544 kN
Assuming the superimposed dead load is applied at fs = 31 25 + 85 24 = 67 MPa
40 days, then from Fig. 2.4.1: P s = fs A s
Qa1 = 0.80 = (67)(2000)/10 = 134 kN
3
Ct1 = 0.80 C fc = fco fc1 = 4.1 3.8 = 0.3 MPa

= (0.80)(1.76) = 1.41 fc
Pp = Ep Ap
n1fc1Ct1 Ec1
fp1 =
1 + n1( p + s )(1 + e2 / r 2 )(1 + 0.8Ct1) (0.3)(190000)(1188)
= = 2 kN
(6.7)(3.8)(1.41) (28200)(103 )
=
731
2 fc
1 + (6.7)(0.0067) 1 + [1 + (0.8)(1.41)] Ps = Es A s
367 Ec1
(0.3)(200000)(2000)
35.9 = = 4 kN
= = 24 MPa (tension) (28200)(103 )
1.475
Pdc = 1544 134 + 2 + 4 = 1416 kN
Reduced relaxation taking into account creep and
shrinkage:
For simplicity in the calculation of the relaxation
loss, it is assumed that the superimposed dead load
is applied at the time of transfer. The tendon stress
due to Msd is included in fpi. Continued

It is apparent that the terms iPp and iPs could be (200)(2)(100)

neglected. A = = 10000 mm2
4
Step 3: Parameters to find fs: dc = 32 mm
z = fs 3 dc A = (181)3 (32)(10000)
A sEs ds + ApEp dp
d = = 12380 N/ mm
A sEs + ApEp
(2000)(200000)(1100) For exterior exposure, z ≤ 15000 N/mm (Figure
=
(2000)(200000) + (1188)(190000) 3.4.1). Hence, 12 - 13 mm diameter strands plus 4
- 25M bars satisfy crack control under the specified
(1188)(190000)(1050)
+ loads.
(2000)(200000) + (1188)(190000)
= 1082 mm With concrete cover, dc = 32 mm and using the
parameters calculated in step 3 and Figure 3.4.7, by
A pEp + A sEs
n = interpolation k = 0.25.
Ec1bd
The area of concrete in tension is:
(1188)(190000) + (2000)(200000)
= At = (h kd) bw = [1200 (0.25)(1082)](200)
(28200)(3000)(1082)
2
= 185900 mm
= 0.00684
E (2000)(200000)
Pdc dp (1416)(1050)(103 ) Ast = A p + A s s = 1188 +
p = = = 0.735 Ep 190000
Ms (2022)(106 ) 2
= 3300 mm
b 200
b = w = = 0.0667 The maximum crack width is:
b 3000
h 90 Wmax = k1fs dc Ar / A st
f = f = = 0.0832
d 1082 6 185900
= (3.0 10 )(181)(32) = 0.13 mm
3300
Step 4: With these parameters, by interpolation from
Figure3.4.7: This is less than 0.20 mm which is recommended for
exterior exposure of prestressed concrete elements.
fs /na = 47 see Figure 3.4.1
Steel stress at the level of the centroid of reinforce- Step 6: Check concrete stress in top fibre (compres-
ment: sion):
47n1Ms (47)(6.7)(2022)(106 ) f kd
fs = = = 181MPa fc = s
bd2 (3000)(1082)2 n1 d kd
Step 5: Crack control parameter and crack width: 181 (0.25)(1082)
=
6.7 1082 (0.25)(1082)
Disregarding the bundled prestressed reinforcement
for the calculation of A, the effective concrete area = 9.0 MPa < 0.6fc = 21MPa OK
surrounding each bar:

Buckling of Non-Prestressed Reinforcement

In Example 3-13, a compressive stress
of 67 MPa is introduced in the non-pre-
stressed reinforcement by creep and
shrinkage. At this low stress, buckling of
bars will not occur.
For compressive stresses exceeding 100
MPa, the use of transverse reinforcement
should be considered.
The minimum shear reinforcement is
considered adequate to prevent buckling
of non-prestressed reinforcement up to
a compressive stress of 200 MPa. Experi-
ments by Hutton and Loov [6] on beams
without transverse reinforcement showed
no sign of buckling after a compres-
sive stress of about 200 MPa had been Figure 3.4.8 Variation of strand stress with distance from free end
reached in the non-prestressed reinforce-
ment.
3.4.9 Prestress Transfer and Strand Development

In a pretensioned element, the prestress force is transferred to the concrete by bond. The length required to
accomplish this transfer is called the transfer length, and is approximately 50 times the nominal diameter of the
strand.
The development length required to develop the full design strength of the strand fpr is much longer, and is speci-
fied by the Code as: l d = 0.145(fpr 0.67fpe )db
The approximate variation of strand stress along the transfer length and the maximum stress that can be devel-
oped near the end of a strand is shown in Figure 3.4.8. The development length shown in the above equation
should be doubled where bonding of strand does not extend to the end of a member, and the design includes
tension in precompressed zones at specified loads.
In short span flexural members, strands may not be developed at sections of high moment. In such cases, it is
possible that premature failure may occur in the concrete due to slip. If this is the case, the capacity of the section
should be reduced to account for this lower prestress.
When a portion of the strands is debonded, zones are created where sections through the member will contain
strands with unequal strains. In that case, calculation of nominal strength in the development region cannot be
based on strain compatibility. Conservatively, the contribution of the debonded strands can be neglected until they
are fully developed.
Failure due to slip is brittle, therefore a value of fp = 0.7 is recommended to determine flexural capacity when
slippage is possible.
Some industry researches have raised questions as to whether prestressing strands located near the upper sur-
faces of precast concrete elements may exhibit greater transfer and development lengths than may have been
assumed in design calculations. The effect was observed primarily with high flow concrete mixes (such as SCC) and
with strands located within 200mm of the upper surfaces.

Example 3-14a Debonding strands

Given: wd = 35 kN/m (not including self weight of beam)
400 x 600 rectangular beam, normal density con- wl = 26 kN/m
crete with:
Problem:
tendons jacked to 0.75 fpu Choose appropriate lengths of debonding and
initial prestress losses 5 % find stresses at critical sections to determine the
long term prestress losses 14.5 % required concrete strength at transfer, and the re-
Span = 6 m plus a 2 m cantilever quired concrete strength at service load.
Discussion:
In a cantilever beam, some of the bottom strands
will usually be debonded because they produce
tension in the top concrete fibre and increase the
deflection of the cantilever. A few strands should
continue through to the end for reinforcement and
crack control during transfer, stripping, storage,
transportation, erection and construction.
In this example, the 4 strands in the bottom lay-
er are debonded over the full 2 m length of the
cantilever. The development length of these strands
needs to be adequate so they can provide their full
flexural resistance near mid span.
Prestress: Based on CSA A23.3, a development length of

4 – 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in top approximately 2 m is required for 13 mm strands.
Debonded strands require a development length as
7 – 13 mm 1860 MPa strands in bottom
well as a transfer length twice the calculated value.
Pi = (99)(0.75)(0.95)(1860) /103
Top strands are necessary along the length of the
= 131.2 kN/strand
cantilever, but increase the bottom fibre tensile
Pe = (131.2)(0.855) = 112.2 kN/strand stresses at midspan. To alleviate this condition,
Section Properties:
Ag = 240,000 mm2
I = 7200 106 mm4
0.65
yt = 300 mm 0.65
yb = 300 mm
St = 24000 x 103 mm3
Sb = 24000 x 103 mm3
et = – (300 – 100) = – 200 mm
(for 4 top strands)
ebu = 300 - 150 = 150 mm
(for 3 upper strands in bottom)
ebl = 300 - 100 = 200 mm
(for 4 lower strands in bottom)
Loading: Figure 3.4.9 Variation of prestress force
w = (24) (400)(600)(106) = 5.76 kN/m
Continued

Example 3-14a Continued
some of the top strands should be debonded over (d) The right support
most of the span. The full flexural resistance of
Other locations that may require checking are the
these strands may be needed to resist the factored
lifting and support points used during stripping,
negative moment over the right support.
storage, transportation and erection.
In this example, 2 of the 4 top strands have been
Stresses:
debonded over a length of 3.4 m from the left end
At the transfer point, 650 mm from the left support,
of the beam. A length of 2.7 m is therefore avail-
Pti = 257.8 kN, Pbui = 386.7 kN, and Pbli = 515.6 kN.
able for development of fpr of these strands at the
The moment at this point, assuming the beam
right support.
is simply supported 100 mm from each end,
The variation of prestress force in each layer of M = 11.6 kN-m.
strands is shown in Figure 3.4.9. These forces have
The compressive stress at transfer:
been labeled as Pt, Pbu and Pbl to designate their
location in the beam. A transfer length of 650 mm sb = 8.91 MPa
is used for bonded strands. The required concrete strength at transfer is:
Solution: f'ci ≥ 8.91 / 0.60 = 14.9 MPa
To show the variation of stresses along the beam
under different loads, the stresses at the top and The maximum positive moment occurs with no live
bottom of the beam at transfer and the stresses in load on the cantilever. The left reaction under this
the beam under service loads have been plotted. condition is 186.7 kN so that zero shear and the
To compute the stresses at transfer the beam is corresponding maximum moment occur at 2.80 m
assumed to be supported at the ends. The stresses from the left support. The maximum service load
at service load are based on Pe and two loading moment at this section is 261.0 kN-m. (The use of
cases: (a) with no live load on the cantilever and (b) the centre span moment would have introduced
with no live load on the 6 m span. The following only negligible error). The forces in the different
equations with appropriate variations in P and M layers of prestressed steel are: Pt = 224.4 kN,
have been used to determine the stresses: Pbu = 336.6 kN, and Pbl = 448.8 kN.
1 et 1 ebu The maximum stresses at this section are:

t = Pt + Pbu
Ag St Ag St st = 11.11 MPa and sb = – 2.70 MPa.
1 ebl M The maximum negative moment, M = – 133.5 kN-m,
+P +
bl Ag St St occurs at the right support with the cantilever fully
loaded. The forces in the prestressed steel at this sec-
1 e 1 ebu
b = Pt + t + Pbu + tion are: Pt = 448.8 kN, Pbu = 336.6 kN, and Pbl = 0.
A g Sb A g Sb
The maximum stresses at this section are:
1 ebl M
+Pbl + st = – 0.65 MPa and sb = 7.20 MPa.
A g Sb Sb
The required concrete strength for service condi-
tions will therefore be based on the stresses from
From Figures. 3.4.10 and 3.4.11, it is apparent that the positive moment:
the sections that require checking include:
f'c ≥ 11.11 / 0.45 = 24.7 MPa
(a) The transfer point, 650 mm from each end.
and
(b) The transfer point, 1300 mm from the end of
f'c ≥ [2.70 / (0.5l)]2 = 29.1 MPa
the debonded length
A transfer strength of f’ci = 20 MPa and an
(c) The location of maximum positive moment
f’c = 30 MPa will be adequate.
near mid span

Figure 3.4.10 Stresses at release
Figure 3.4.11 Final stresses

Example 3-14b Moment capacity of a member with debonded strands.
Given: For the debonded strand, double the transfer and

3000 mm wide double tee with 10-13 mm diame- development lengths per CSA A23.3, Clause 12.9.2.
ter strands, five strands per stem.
Transfer length for debonded strand:
f'c = 35 MPa
l t = (2)(735) = 1470 mm
Ec = 28,165 MPa
Development length for debonded strand:
a1 = 0.80
l d = (2)(1959) = 3917 mm
fpu = 1860 MPa
The maximum strength the strand can develop at
fpe = 1170 MPa 3500 mm from the end, 2000 mm from the point of
Ep = 190000 MPa debonding is:
(2000 1470)(1823 1170)
fp = 1170 +
(3917 1470)
= 1311 MPa
Problem:
Strand No. 3 is debonded for 1500 mm from the
end. Find Mr at 3500 mm from the end.
Solution:
Assume fpr for fully bonded strands = 0.98 fpu
= 1823 MPa
735 1959
Transfer Length
1470 3917
fpe Distance from
l t = 0.145 db point of bonding
3
= 0.145 1170 (13)

3
= 735 mm
Development Length
l d = 0.145(f
pr 0.67fpe )db
= 0.145(1823 (0.67)(1170))(13)
= 1959 mm
Continued

Example 3-14b continued
Due to the presence of underdeveloped strand Tr =  p fp A p

adjacent to fully developed strand the assumption
= [(0.9)(1823)(8)(99)+(0.7)(1311)(2)(99)] /1000
of strain compatibility is not valid at this section.
At ultimate capacity the underdeveloped strand = 1481 kN
will slip while maintaining partial development as Tr
a =  f’ b
the fully developed strands reach the yield point. 1 c c
A reduced material resistance factor of 0.7 will be (1481)(1000)

a = = 25 mm
used for the slipped strand. (0.8)(0.7)(35)(3000)
Tensile force with all developed strands yielding 25
Mr = (1481)(500 - 2 ) /1000 = 722 kNm

3.4.10 End Stresses at Transfer

At the time prestress force is transferred, tensile stresses perpendicular to the prestressing force (sometime called
bursting or splitting stresses), develop which may cause horizontal cracks near the end of the member. These
forces can be resisted by vertical reinforcement, Avt, uniformly distributed over a length =h/5 and calculated by the
following equation.
Avt = (2.1x 10–2 Po h) / (fs lt)
3.5 CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

Deflection
Type of Element Deflection to be Considered
limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to l
n (1)
Immediate deflection due to specified
non-structural elements likely to be 180
live load L, or snow load, S
damaged by large deflections
Floors not supporting or attached to
Immediate deflection due to specified l
n
non-structural elements likely to be
live load, L 360
damaged by large deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting or
That part of the total deflection l
n (3)
attached to non-structural elements
likely to be damaged by large
occurring after attachment of the non- 480
structural elements ( the sum of the
deflections
Long-Term deflection due to all
Roof or floor construction supporting or
sustained loads and the immediate l
n (4)
attached to non-structural elements not
deflection due to any additional live 240
likely to be damaged by large (2)
load)
deflections
(1) This limit is not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection including the
added deflection due to ponded water, and considering long-time effects of all sustained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and
reliability of provisions for drainage.
(2) the Long-Term deflection shall be determined in accordance with CSA A23.3, Clause 9.8.2.5 or 9.8.4.4, but may be reduced by the amount of
deflection which occurs before attachment of the non-structural elements.
(3) This limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
(4) This limit shall not be greater than the tolerance provided for the non-structural elements. This limit may be exceeded if camber is
provided so that the total deflection minus the camber does not exceed the limitation.
Figure 3.5.1 Maximum allowable computed deflections
The emphasis in this section is on prestressed floor and roof elements. The same principles are applicable to the
design of non-prestressed concrete elements and wall panels.
The deflection of precast elements under the application of dead and live loads is an important design consider-
ation. For floor and roof elements, excessive deflection can lead to damage to interior finishes and equipment.
Excessive deflection of roof elements can lead to water ponding problems. Inadequate stiffness of wall panels may
lead to sealant failure.
Most precast, prestressed concrete flexural elements will have a net positive (upward) camber after the transfer of
prestress, caused by the eccentricity of the prestressing force. This camber may increase or decrease with time, de-
pending on the stress distribution across the element under sustained loads.
There are many inherent variables that affect camber and deflection, such as concrete mix, concrete strength at re-
lease of prestress, method and duration of storage, placement of superimposed loads, relative humidity, etc. Calcu-
lated short and long-term values should not be considered better than estimates. Non-structural components at-
tached to elements that could be affected by camber variations, such as partitions or folding doors, should be placed
with adequate allowance for these variations. Calculation of topping quantities should also recognize the imprecision
of camber calculations. Roof slopes should be large enough to overcome the camber in roof elements.

Limitations on instantaneous and time-dependent deflections are specified in the code, and are referenced in
Figure 3.5.1.
3.5.1 Initial Camber

Initial camber can be calculated using conventional moment-area equations.
Figures 8.1.3 and 8.1.4 provide deflection equations for typical loading conditions while camber equations for com-
mon tendon profiles are given in Figure 8.1.6.
Example 3-15 Calculation of initial camber

Given: Problem:
2400 x 600 double tee of Example 3-7 but with Find the initial camber at time of transfer of pre-
225 eccentricity stress.
Solution:
The prestress force immediately after transfer and
strand eccentricities is calculated in Example 3-7.
Calculate the upward component:
2
Pe
i el Pe l 2
= + i c
8EciI 12EciI
(1620)(110)(21)2 (109 )
=
(8)(24900)(8580 106 )
(1620)(225)(21)2 (109 )
+
(12)(24900)(8580 106 )
= 46 + 63 = 109 mm
l
Deduct the deflection caused by the self weight of the

Section properties: element:
Ag = 260000 mm2 5w l 4
=
I = 8580 x 106 mm4 384Eci I
yb = 424 mm (5)(6.2)(21)4 (1012 )
= = 73 mm
yt = 176 mm (384)(24900)(8580 106 )

Sb = 20200 x 103 mm3 Net camber at release = 109 73 = 36 mm
St = 48800 x 103 mm3
w = 2.6 kN/m2 = 6.2 kN/m
Concrete:
fc = 35 MPa
Normal Density
1.5
c
Ec = (3300 fc + 6900)
2300
1.5
2400
= (3300 35 + 6900) = 28200 MPa
2300
fci = 25 MPa
1.5
2400
Eci = (3300 25 + 6900) = 24900 MPa
2300

3.5.2 Elastic Deflections

Calculation of instantaneous deflections caused by
superimposed service loads follows classical methods
of mechanics. Design equations for various load condi-
tions are given in Chapter 8 of this Manual. If the bottom
tension in a simple span element does not exceed the
modulus of rupture, the deflection is calculated using the
uncracked moment of inertia of the section. The modu-
lus of rupture of concrete is defined in the code as:
fr = 0.6 fc
Bilinear behaviour
It is normal practice to use bilinear moment-deflection
relationships to calculate instantaneous deflections when
the bottom tension exceeds the modulus of rupture, fr.
The deflection before the element has cracked is cal-
culated using the gross moment of inertia, Ig, and the
additional deflection after cracking is calculated using
the moment of inertia of the cracked section, Icr. This is
illustrated graphically in Figure 3.5.2.
The following equations are exact for rectangular sec-
tions and approximate for other cross sections.
3
Icr = n bd (1 k)(1 k/3)
3
= C bd
A sEs d + A pEp dp = fr
d =
A sEs + A pEp
k = (n )2 + 2n n
A sEs + A pEp
n =
Ec bd Figure 3.5.2 Bilinear and effective moment of
inertiamoment-deflection relationship
For elements in which there is only prestressed rein-
forcement and the concrete tensile stress is less than
1.0 fc , the above expression may be simplified to:
Icr = nApdp2 (1 1.67 n p )
Another procedure for calculating Icr, that includes the effect of the prestressing force, is given in Section 3.5.6.
Effective moment of inertia

An effective moment of inertia, Ie, can be determined and the deflection calculated by substituting Ie for I in the
deflection calculation.
3 3
Mcr Mcr
le = Ig + 1 Icr
Ma Ma
3
Mcr
= Icr + (Ig Icr ) Ig
Ma

The difference between the bilinear method and the Ie method is illustrated in Figure 3.5.2.
The use of Ie with prestressed concrete elements is described in a paper by Branson [7]. The value of Mcr/Ma for
use in determining live load deflections can be expressed as:

Mcr ft fr
=1 l
Ma f l
ft l
= final calculated total stress in the element
f l
= calculated stress due to live load
A more accurate application of the Ie method is described in a paper by Branson and Trost [8].
Example 3-16 Deflection calculation using bilinear moment-deflection relationships
Given: Determine the portion of the live load that would

2400 x 600 double tee of Example 3-7. result in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa:
Problem: 5.4 – 3.6 = 1.8 MPa
Determine the total instantaneous deflection caused
The tension caused by live load alone is 11.0 MPa,
by the specified uniform live load.
therefore, the portion of the live load that would
Solution: result in a bottom tension of 3.6 MPa is:
fr = 0.6 fc = 3.6 MPa 11.0 1.8
(4.2) = 3.5 kN/ m
From Example 3-7, the final tensile stress is 5.4 MPa, 11.0
which is more than 3.6 MPa, so bilinear behaviour 5w 4
l
must be considered. g =
384EcIg
3
Icr = n bd (1 k)(1 k/3)
(5)(3.5)(21)4 (1012 )
= C bd
3 = = 37 mm
2
(384)(28200)(8580 106 )
Ap = 1386 mm
(5)(0.7)(21)4 (1012 )
dp at midspan = ec + yt = 225 + 176 = 401 mm cr = = 30 mm
A p Ep (384)(28200)(2082 106 )
n =
Ec bdp Total instantaneous deflection, l = 37 + 30 = 67 mm
(1386)(190000)
= = 0.0096
(28200)(2400)(401)
k = (n )2 + 2n n
= (0.0096)2 + 2(0.0096) 0.0096
= 0.1292
C = (0.0096)(1 0.1292)(1 0.1292/3)
= 0.0072
lcr = Cbdp3
3 6 4
= (0.0072)(2400)(401) = 1114 x 10 mm

Example 3-17 Deflection calculation using effective moment of inertia
Given: From example 3-7, Icr2082

= 208210 6 6 mm
x 10 4 4
3-7, Icr = mm
Same section and loading conditions of Example 3
3-7 M
le = Icr + (Ig Icr ) cr
Ma
Problem:
Determine the instantaneous deflection caused by = [2082 + (8580 2082)(0.57)](10 6)
live load using the Ie method. = 5786 106 mm4
Solution: 5w l 4
=
From the table of stresses in Example 3-7: l
384Ec Ie
ft = 5.4 MPa (tension)
l
(5)(4.2)(21)4 (1012 )
f = 11.0 MPa (tension) = = 65 mm
l
(384)(28200)(5786 106 )
fr = 0.6 fc = 3.6 MPa
Mcr 5.4 3.6
= 1 = 0.83
Ma 11.0
3
Mcr
= (0.83)3 = 0.57
Ma
3.5.3 Long-Term Camber/Deflection

The code provides a convenient multiplier for estimating the additional long-term deflection of reinforced concrete
elements due to sustained loads:
S
= 1+
1 + 50
where r’ is A’s/bd at midspan for simple and continuous spans and at the support for cantilevers.
The time-dependent factor, S, may be taken equal to:
5 years or more: 2.0
12 months: 1.4
6 months: 1.2
3 months: 1.0
The determination of long-term cambers and deflections in precast, prestressed elements is somewhat more com-
plex due to:
(1) effects of prestress and the loss of prestress over time,
(2) strength gain of concrete after release of prestress,
(3) camber or deflection is important not only at the initial and final stages, but also at erection, and
(4) deflection, camber and bowing due to thermal effects, see Section 2.4.3. See Section 3.5.4 regarding use of
multipliers for determining long-term camber and deflection.

3.5.4 Use of Multipliers for Determining Long-

Term Camber and Deflection
It has been customary in the design of precast, pre-
stressed concrete elements to estimate the camber after
a period of time by multiplying the initial calculated
camber by factors, usually based on the experience of
designers. To properly use these multipliers, the upward
and downward components of the initial calculated cam-
ber should be separated to take into account the effects
of loss of prestress, that only affect the upward compo-
nent.
Figure 3.5.3 provides suggested multipliers to be used
for estimating long-term cambers and deflections for typ-
ical elements, i.e., elements within the span-depth ratios
recommended in this Manual. The derivation of these
multipliers is explained in a paper by Martin. [9]
Long-term effects can be reduced by adding non-pre-
stressed reinforcement to prestressed concrete elements.
An equation to account for non-prestressed reinforce-
ment as proposed by Shaikh and Branson [10] can be
applied as follows:
C1 + A s / A p
C2 =
1 + A s / Ap
C1 = multiplier from Figure 3.5.3 Figure 3.5.4 Moment of inertia of cracked
C2 = revised multiplier transformed section
Without With
composite composite
topping topping
At erection – member assumed to be 40 days old:

(1) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element weight at release of prestress 1.85 1.85
(2) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress 1.80 1.80
Final:
(3) Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic deflection due to the
element mass at release of prestress 2.70 2.40
(4) Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber due to prestress at the
time of release of prestress 2.45 2.20
(5) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection due to superimposed dead load
only 3.00 3.00
(6) Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection caused by the composite topping) 2.30
Figure 3.5.3 Suggested multipliers to be used for typical precast elements, C1

Example 3-18 Use of multipliers for determination of long-term cambers and deflections
Given:
2400 x 600 double tee of Example 3-7, and Exam- For convenience, a tabular format is shown below.
ples 3-15, 3-16 and 3-17. The estimated cambers are:
Non-structural elements are attached, but are
At erection of the element = 60 mm
not likely to be damaged by deflections (light
fixtures, etc.). After superimposed dead load is applied = 48 mm
Problem: Final long-term camber = 32 mm

Estimate the camber and deflection and determine
The deflection limitation of Fig. 3.5.1 for the above
condition is l /240:
if they meet the requirements of NBCC.
Solution: (21)(1000)/240 = 88 mm
Calculate the instantaneous deflections caused by
the superimposed dead and live loads: Total deflection occurring after the attachment of
non-structural elements:
(5)(1.2)(21)4 (1012 )
sd = = 13 mm tl = (48 32) + 65 = 81 mm < 88 OK
(384)(28200)(8580 106 )
l
= 65 mm - see Example 3-17
Example—Use of multipliers for determining Long-Term cambers and deflections

(1) Release Multiplier (2) Erection Multiplier (3) Final
Prestress 108 1.80 (1) 195 2.45 (1) 265
Self weight 73 1.85 (1) 135 2.70 (1) 197
Resultant 35 60 68
Superimposed dead load 13 3.00 (2) 39
Resultant 47 29
Live load 65
Resultant 36
3.5.5 Detailed Method for Determining Long-Term Camber and Deflection—Fully Prestressed
Elements
As discussed in Sections 3.5.1 and 3.5.2, the elastic cambers and deflections for uncracked elements are calculated
by conventional methods of analysis; the downward deflection due to gravity load is reduced by the upward deflec-
tion due to prestressing. The initial deflection due to prestressing is calculated with P = Po, the initial prestressing
force.
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked elements due to prestressing can be determined by:
p p P
t = i Ct (1 + 0.8Ct )
Po
The factor 0.8 is the aging coefficient [11] which can be used for practical creep computations.
The time-dependent deflections of uncracked elements due to sustained loads can be obtained from the following
expression:
su su
t = i Ct
su
i = Initial deflection

The values obtained from the above expressions are

additive to the elastic values.
3.5.6 Detailed Calculation of Live Load De-

flection of Partially Prestressed Elements
As discussed in Section 3.5.2, the deflection of
partially prestressed (cracked) elements may be
calculated using an effective moment of inertia, Ie, or
bilinear moment-deflection relationships.
The cracked section properties for a given section
are dependent on the decompression load, Pdc, and Ycr =Kc Kpd
the moment due to specified loads, Ms.
The calculation of the cracked section properties in-
volves the determination of the depth to the neutral
axis, c, the centroidal depth, ycr, the area, Acr, and
the moment of inertia, Icr.
The following parameters are required to determine
the neutral axis depth, c:
b = bw /b
f = hf /d
p = Pdc dp/Ms
A sEs + ApEp
n =
Ec bd
A sEs ds + ApEp dp
d = Figure 3.5.5 Centroidal axis depth of cracked
A sEs + ApEp
transformed section
Having determined k from Figure 3.4.7:
c = kd
The properties of the cracked section can be calculated using the following equations:
Centroidal depth:
0.5bh2f + 0.5bw (c 2 h2f ) + np A p dp + ns A sds

ycr =
bhf + b w (c hf ) + np A p + ns A s
Transformed area:
Acr = bhf + bw (c hf ) + np Ap + ns As
Moment of inertia:
2
1 3 hf 1
lcr = bhf + bhf ycr + b w (c hf )3
12 2 12
2
c + hf
+b w (c hf ) ycr + np A p (dp y cr )2
2
+ns A s (d ycr )2

Alternatively, Icr and ycr may be determined according to Tadros et al. [13] from Figures 3.5.4 and 3.5.5, respectively.
According to a study presented in [14], the most reliable predictions for live load deflections of partially pre-
stressed members are obtained by the method proposed by Tadros et al. [13] which takes into account the eccen-
tricity of the tendons relative to the centroid of the cracked section.
For calculating deflections, determine curvatures at selected locations (normally at midspan for beams with straight
strands and an additional location of 0.4l for draped strands). The effective moment of inertia for calculating curva-
tures is:
4
Mcr
Ic = Icr + (Ig Icr )
Ms Mdc
After cracking, the effective eccentricity of the tendons is (dp – ye), where:
4
Mcr
y e = ycr + (y t ycr )
Ms Mdc
In this equation, yt and ycr are the distance between the centroid and the top fibre of the uncracked section and
the cracked section respectively.
Example 3-19 Deflection calculation using Detailed Method

Given: With these parameters:
Same section and loading condition as in Example kcr = 0.085, kpr = 1.21 from Fig. 3.5.4
3-16
kc = 0.125, kp = 1.39 from Fig. 3.5.5
Problem: 1
Icr = k cr kpr bd3
Determine instantaneous deflection caused by live 12
load using the detailed method. 1
= (0.085)(1.21)(2400)(466)3
Solution: 12
6 4
Determine Icr and ycr using Figures 3.5.4 and 3.5.5 = 2082 10 mm
(or using Equations): ycr = kc kp d = (0.125)(1.39)(466) = 81 mm
At x = 0.4 l : frIg (3.6)(8580 106 )
Mcr = = = 72 kN m
As =0 y (424)(106 )
Pdc = Pe = 1370 kN fpeIg (24.9)(8580 106 )
d = dp = e 0.4 + yt = 290 + 176 = 466 mm Mdc = = = 504 kN - m
l yt (424)(10 6)
Pdc dp 3
(1370)(466)(10 ) Pe Pe e
p = = = 1.04 fce = + y
Ms (616)(106 ) A I
A s Es + A p Ep (1386)(190000) (1370)(103 ) (1370)(103 )(290)
n = = = + (424)
Ec bd (28200)(2400)(466) 260000 8580 106
= 0.00835 = 24.9 MPa
100 + 155 .
bw /b = = 0.11
2400
ht /d = 50/466 = 0.107
Continued

Effective I for curvature: Repeating the same procedure for midspan:

4 -6 –1
Mcr = 0.96 10 mm
le = Icr + (Ig Icr )
l
Ms Mdc
Deflection due to live load:
= (2082 106 ) 0.5 0.4
5 +
l l
2
4 = l
72 6
l
48 2
l
+(8580 2082)(10 )
616 504
5 0.96 + 1.25
= 3192 106 mm4 = (10 6 )(21000)2 = 51mm
48 2
Effective distance of centroid from top fibre:
4
72
ye = 81 + (176 81) = 97 mm
616 504
Curvature due to live load at 0.4l:

Ms Pe (dp ye )
e =
EcIe
(616)(106 ) (1370)(466 97)(103 )
=
(28200)(3192 106 )
= 1.23 10 6 mm 1
Msw + Msd Pe e
= e
EcIg
l
6
= 1.23 10
(330 + 63)(106 ) (1370)(103 )(290)
(28200)(8580 106 )
= 1.25 10 6 mm 1
3.5.7 Camber and Deflection of Composite Elements

For camber and deflection of composite elements, refer to Section 3.4.7 (Step 10).
3.6 SHEAR
CSA A23.3, Clause 11 contains a single approach for the design of structural concrete elements for both shear and
torsion. This approach is a sectional procedure used in flexural regions where it is reasonable to assume that plane
sections remain plane and that the shear stresses are uniform over the depth of the member.
Using this approach, the shear resistance of a member can be determined using one of two methods, the choice
of which is determined by the depth of the member, the magnitude of axial tension and the degree of accuracy
desired.
In regions near discontinuities, where the assumptions of the above approach are not satisfied, the strut-and-tie
model in CSA A23.3, Clause 11.4 is used. The strut-and-tie model, which considers the flow of forces in a structural

element, can also be used in the flexural regions of a member. The strut-and-tie model is discussed in Chapter 4 of
this Manual.
3.6.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance

The shear resistance of structural concrete elements must meet the requirement:
Vr Vf
Vr = Vc + Vs + Vp but shall not be greater than
0.25 c fcbwdv + Vp
Sections located within a distance, dv, from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear, Vf, as
computed at distance, dv, provided that:
(a) the reaction force in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the member;
(b) no concentrated load that causes a shear force greater than 0.3 c fc b wd v is applied within the distance dv
from the face of support.
(c) loads applied within distance dv from the face of the support do not increase the absolute values of the shear at
the face by more than 20%.
3.6.2.1 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance of the Concrete

The shear resistance, Vc, shall be computed as Vc = fc bw dv , where the term fc shall not be taken greater
c
than 8 MPa.
The distance, dv is the effective shear depth taken as the greater of 0.9d or 0.72h.
Clause 11.3.6 provides two methods, the Simplified Method and the General Method, for the determination of b.
A. The Simplified Method:

1. If the section has at least minimum transverse reinforcement in accordance with Clause 11.2.8.2, b shall be
taken as 0.18.
2. If the section contains no transverse reinforcement, and 230
specified nominal maximum aggregate size is not less than 20mm, =
1000 + dv
Alternatively b can be calculated for any aggregate size by replacing dv above with sze where
sze =
35s z
0.85s z
15 + ag
The crack spacing sz, shall be taken as dv or as the maximum distance between layers of distributed longitudinal
reinforcement, whichever is less. Each layer shall have an area at least equal to 0.003bwsz.
B. The General Method:

0.40 1300
=
1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
For sections containing at least minimum transverse reinforcement in the equation above, sze shall be taken as
300mm. If f’c exceeds 70MPa, take ag as zero.
Mf / dv + Vf Vp + 0.5Nf A p fpo
x =
2(Es A s + Ep A p )
Refer to Clause 11.3.6.4 for other conditions

3.6.2.2 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance due to Prestressing

The shear resistance, Vp, shall be computed as the vertical component of the effective prestress force multiplied by
the performance factor fp.
3.6.2.3 Determination of the Factored Shear Resistance of the Shear Reinforcement

For shear reinforcement inclined at an angle a to longitudinal axis, the nominal shear resistance, Vs, shall be com-
puted as:
Vs = [fsAvfydv (cotθ +cota) sina] / s
For shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of an element:
A f d cot
Vs = s v y v
s
where θ can be determined using the following two methods:
A. Simplified Method:
θ = 42° as per conditions outlined in Clause 11.3.6.2, or;
θ = 35° as per conditions outlined in Clause 11.3.6.3
B. General Method:
θ = 29+7000(ex)
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so that at all sections the factored resistance of the tension rein-
forcement, taking account of the stress that can be developed in that reinforcement, shall be greater than or equal
to:
Flt = Mf / dv + 0.5Nf + (Vf – Vp – 0.5Vs)cot θ
Nf taken positive for axial tension
3.6.2.3.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement

A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided:
1. In regions of flexural members where the factored shear force, Vf, exceeds Vc + Vp
2. In regions of beams with an overall thickness greater than 750 mm
3. In regions of flexural members where the factored torsion, Tf, exceeds 0.25 Tcr, and
4. Unless shown not to be required by test
For stirrups, normal to the axis of reinforced and prestressed elements, the minimum area Av required is:
bw s
Av = 0.06 fc
fy
3.6.2.3.2 Spacing
The maximum spacing of stirrups permitted is: 600 mm or 0.7dv
Spacing is reduced to one-half this amount if: Vf > 0.125lfcf'cbwdv + Vp
3.6.3 Shear Resistance Calculations and Shear Diagrams

It is helpful to construct a shear resistance and factored shear force diagram in order to determine the amount and
location of shear reinforcement. This is described below and illustrated in Figure 3.6.1.
Steps for constructing the diagram using the General Method are as follows:
1. Calculate the factored shear and moment, Vf and Mf.
2. Use these values to calculate the longitudinal strain, ex.

3. Use ex and calculate b and θ at different points along the member.

4. Calculate the shear resistance of the concrete.
5. Add any resistance provided by prestressing to determine the amount of shear reinforcement required.
Example 3-20 Construction of a shear diagram following the above steps

Given: Solution:
2400 x 1000 single tee with 50 mm composite 1. Determine factored loads:
topping
Uniform dead = (1.25)(4.3 + 11.7) = 20.0 kN/m
Span = 24.0 m
Uniform live = (1.5)(12.0) = 18.0 kN/m
Self weight and topping = 11.7 kN/m
Superimposed dead load = 4.3 kN/m 2. Determine Vf and Mf
Superimposed live load = 12.0 kN/m (Shown in Table)
Example calculations shown below are for a sec-
tion 8 m from the support
3. Determine dv = 0.72 h or 0.9d
dv = 0.72(1050) or 0.9(848)=763 mm (Governs)
4. Determine Vp = fp Pe (e1 –e2) / (0.5l )
Vp = (0.9) 961 622 (1994)
Section properties: 12000
(a) without topping = 50.7 kN

5. Determine shear stress at dv:
Ag = 376000 mm2
Vf Vp (427 50.7)(103 )
Ig = 36300x106 mm4 vf = = = 2.5 MPa
b w dv (200)(763)
yb = 714 mm
vf 2.5
(b) with topping =
f
c c (0.7)(35)
Ig = 44200x106 mm4 = 0.102 < 0.25 the concrete cross-
yb = 782 mm sectional area is adequate.
d = 848 mm 6. Determine ex at all designated locations
Example at x = 8 m:
Concrete: Mf / dv + Vf Vp + .5Nf Ap fpo
x =
Precast: f'c = 35 MPa, normal density 2(Es A s + Ep Ap )
Maximum aggregate size, ag = 19 mm. 2432(106 )

+ (152 50.7)103 + (0.5)(0) (1939)(0.7)(1860)
Topping: = 30 MPa, normal density = 763 =
2(190000)(1939)
Prestressed reinforcement: 0.0010037 less than 0.003, therefore OK
18 -13 mm (Super) 1860 MPa strands stressed to 70%
2
Ap = (18)(107.7) = 1939 mm
If the value, ex, calculated above, is negative, it
Pe = (18)(107.7)(0.79)(0.70)(1860) = 1994 kN
103 shall be recalculated with a revised denomina-
tor of 2(EsAs + EpAp + EcAct) or taken as zero if
(Assuming 21% total prestress losses)
further calculations are not warranted. In any case
Single point depression. ex shall not be taken less than – 0.0002, or greater
Shear reinforcement: than 0.003.
fy = 400 MPa Continued

7. Determine θ and b 8. Determine Vc

= 29 + 7000( x ) Vc = c fc bw dv
= 29 + 7000(0.001037) = (0.7)(1.0)(0.157)( 35)(200)(763)
= 36.3o = 99 kN
0.40 1300
=
1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze See Figure 3.6.1.
sze = 35S z = (35)(763)/(15+19) = 785
15 + a g
= 300 mm with minimum stirrups
= 0.40 1300
1 + (1500)(0.0010037) 1000 + 300
= 0.157
X Vf Mf x x Sze 0.72h 0.9d dv Vp Vc Vc+Vp Required

(m) (kN) (kN*m) as per Eq. Used (deg.) (m) (m) (m) (kN) (kN) (kN) Vs
11-13 (kN)
0 427 0 -0.00031 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 559 756 0 358 358 69
0.50 427 223 -0.00028 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 573 756 50.7 358 408 19
0.750 427 332 -0.00026 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 579 756 50.7 358 408 19
1 418 437 -0.00024 -0.0002 27.6 300 0.571 756 585 756 50.7 358 408 10
2 380 836 -0.00016 -0.00016 27.9 300 0.526 756 611 756 50.7 329 379 1.0
4 304 1520 -0.000035 -0.000035 28.8 300 0.424 756 661 756 50.7 265 315 0
6 228 2052 0.00049 0.00049 32.5 300 0.23 756 712 756 50.7 144 195 33
8 152 2432 0.0010036 0.0010036 36.3 300 0.159 756 763 763 50.7 100 151 1.0
10 76 2660 0.001042 0.001042 36.3 300 0.156 756 814 814 50.7 105 155 0
12 0 2737 0.00087 0.00087 35.1 300 0.173 756 865 856 50.7 122 122 0
Figure 3.6.1 Solution of Example 3-20
Figure 3.6.2 Solution of Example 3-20

Example 3-21a Design of shear reinforcement

Given: Determine maximum spacing
Single tee of Example 3-20.
s ≤ 600 mm
Stirrups: ≤ 0.7(dv) = 0.7(756) = 529 mm Governs
10M, 2 legs Space stirrups at 500 mm.
Av = (2)(100) = 200 mm2 Check longitudinal reinforcement for additional
fy = 400 MPa tension force caused by shear such that Fr > Fit
Problem: Fr = A p fpu = 3245 kN .
Determine the required shear reinforcement spac- Flt = Mf / dv + (Vf Vp 0.5Vs )cot + 0.5Nf
ing. (0.85)(200)(400)(763)(cot 36.3o )(10 3 )
Vs provided =
Solution: 500
= 141.3 kN
From Figure 3.6.1, Vsmax is 69 kN,
The calculations shown are for a section 8 m from
Av
Vs = s fy dv cot the support.
s
o
Flt = 2432 106 / 763.2
= 27.6
Av 69 103 +(152 50.7 (0.5)(141.3)) 103 (cot 36.3o ) + 0.0
s (0.85)(400)(756)(cot 27.6o ) = 3228 kN < 3245 kN
0.140 mm2 / mm x(m) Flt (kN) Fr (kN)
0 0.0 0.0
For double legged stirrups 1 1093 2189
2 1545 3245
200 mm2 4 2302 3245
s 6 2866 3245
0.14 mm 2 / mm 8 3228 3245
10 3200 3245
1429 mm - the area provided is adequate. 12 2966 3245
No additional longitudinal steel is required.
Example 3-21b 203 mm hollow core slab
Problem: fp = 0.9
Determine the shear capacity of the following hol- l = 1.0
low core slab.
ag = 14 mm
Ep = 196 500 MPa
Strands pulled to 70% fpu
41 mm
Total losses = 17%
Act = 67 500 mm2
Total factored load = 35.2 kN/m
Given:
Reinforcement: 7-13 mm strands, Solution:
1. Determine bw
L = 5.0 m
bw = (58)(2) + 5(35)= 291 mm
fpu = 1860 MPa
f'c = 35 MPa
Continued
fc = 0.70

Example 3-21b Continued
2. Determine dv 5. Determine values of ex:

0.9 d = (0.9)(203 - 41) = 146 mm [(Mf / dv ) + Vf Vp + 0.5 N Apfpo ]
0.72 h = (0.72)(203) = 146 mm x =
2A sEs + 2A pEp + 2A ctEc
dv = 146 mm = sz
(Mf / dv) + Vf A p fpo
3. Determine sze =
35 s z
2A pEp + 2A ctEc
(35)(146)
sze = =
15 + ag 15 + 14
6. Calculate Vc
= 176mm > 0.85s z O.K. Vc = c fc b w dv

4. Formulate b Although results show a very small overstressing at
(0.4) (1300) support region, it is worth mentioning that recent
= x
(1 + 1500 x ) (1000 + Sze ) research by Truderung (68) has indicated that Vc for
hollowcore slabs were consistently higher than the
= 0.442 theoretical values obtained by CSA A23.3-14. A new
(1 + 1500 x ) code review of this issue is recommended.
Solution of Example 3-21b

Solution of Example 3-21b 3.6.4 Longitudinal Shear Transfer in

Composite Elements
x Vf Mf fP0 Vc The following elements with structural topping need not be
(m) (kN) (kN m) (MPa) x (kN) checked by this section in the absence of high concentrated loads:
0.0 88.0 0.0 52 -0.000017 0.454 80.0 1. Hollowcore slabs having standard rough surfaces.
2. Double tees with raked surface of 5mm amplitude or more.
0.170 82.0 14.45 341 -0.000017 0.454 80.0
In order for a precast, prestressed element with topping to exhibit
0.526 69.5 41.4 1044 -0.000095 0.515 90.7 composite behaviour, transfer of the longitudinal force carried by
the topping must be achieved at the interface of the precast ele-
0.656 64.9 50.15 1302 -0.000125 0.504 95.7
ment and the cast-in-place topping. The procedure recommended
1.02 52.1 71.4 1302 -0.000091 0.512 90.0 in this section is based on Clause 17.4.4 of CSA A23.3.
1.41 38.4 89.1 1302 -0.000064 0.489 85.5

The longitudinal force, Vfl, which must be resisted, is the total force
in the topping. This force is one of compression in the positive mo-
1.64 30.3 96.9 1302 -0.000053 0.480 84.6 ment regions and tension in negative moment regions, as shown in
Figure 3.6.3.
1.94 19.7 103.1 1302 -0.000042 0.472 83.2
2.23 9.5 108.7 1302 -0.000037 0.468 82.3 When the contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance, and inten-
tionally roughened (but without ties), the calculated factored lon-
gitudinal shear resistance is Vr1 = 0.7 fcbvlv, where bv is the width
2.50 0.0 110.0 1302 -0.000037 0.468 82.3
of the interface surface and lv is the longitudinal shear length as

defined in Figure 3.6.4.
Figure 3.6.3 Longitudinal shear in composite section

When minimum ties are provided but the interface is not intentionally roughened, the same limit applies.
Where Vf exceeds 0.7fcbvl v, the design for longitudinal shear shall be based on the interface shear transfer provi-
l
sions of Clause 11.5 of CSA A23.3.

For concrete placed against hardened concrete with the surface clean and intentionally roughened to a full ampli-
tude of at least 5 mm, the factored shear resistance may be computed using Equation 11-26 with k = 0.5. For other
situations, Equation 11-25 must be used.
The stirrups are almost invariably placed with af = 90º therefore sin af = 1 and cos af = 0. The permanent load per-
pendicular to the shear plane is generally negligible. For these circumstances Equation 11-26 simplifies to:
vr = 0.5 c fc
A vf fy
=
A cv
For uniformly spaced ties: = A v fy

bv s
2
A v fy fc 0.5
The required tie spacing is: s c
bv vr
The shear stress is also limited to: vr 0.25 c fc

In this equations: fc = 0.65 (topping is cast-in-place)
When ties are required, their spacing must
be not greater than four times the thickness of the A v fy
s
topping nor more than 600 mm, and from Equation 11-1: 0.06 fc b v
Figure 3.6.4 Longitudinal shear length

Example 3-22 Horizontal shear design for a composite beam

Given: Maximum tie spacing:
Inverted tee beam with 50 mm composite topping, s 600 mm
100 mm over web, see Example 3-5. s 4hf = (4)(100) = 400 mm
Span length = 6.0 m A v fy (200)(400)
s = = 890 mm
bv = 300 mm 0.06 fc bv (0.06) 25(300)
Concrete: Vfl 1257 103
Precast: f'c = 35 MPa vf = = = 1.40 MPa
b v l v (300)(3000)
l
Topping: f'c = 25 MPa
2
Prestressed reinforcement: (200)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
s =359 mm
11 – 13 mm 1860 MPa strands 300 1.40
Ap = (11)(99) = 1089 mm2 The spacing based on shear friction governs. Use
Tie reinforcement: 10M ties @ 350 mm.
10M ties (Av = 200 mm2) Check shear on a vertical plane through the flange
fy = 400 MPa at the face of the web.
Problem: bv = 50 mm
Determine the tie requirements to transfer horizon- l
Vf = C1/2 = 658/2 = 329 kN
tal shear force. Note that this force must include
the force in the compression steel which is located Check maximum interface shear with ties:
in the topping. Vr ≤ 0.25fcf'cbvl v
l
= (0.25)(0.65)(25)(50)(3000)/103
l
Vf = C1 + C2 + C4 = 658 + 395 + 204 = 1257 kN
= 609 kN>329 kN
Solution:
Check maximum interface shear without ties: Maximum tie spacing:
s 600 mm
d = 550 mm
s 4hf = (4)(50) = 200 mm
Vr = 0.7fcbvd = (0.7)(0.65)(300)(550)/103
l
= 75 kN (100)(400)
s = 2670 mm
This is less than the factored shear, therefore ties (0.06) 25(50)
are necessary. Vfl (329)(103 )
vf = = = 2.19 MPa
b v v (50)(3000)
l
Check maximum interface shear with ties: l
Vr ≤ 0.25 fcf’c bvl v

l
s
= (0.25)(0.65)(25)(300)(3000)/103 (100)(400)(25) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
2
= 3385 kN > 1257 kN = 440 mm
50 2.19
The shear force can be resisted by providing suffi- Use 10M bars @ 200 mm governed by 4 times the
cient ties across the interface. topping thickness.

Example 3-23 Horizontal shear design for composite inverted T-beam

Solution:
To determine the horizontal shear force to be trans-
ferred, the size of the compression block must be
determined. (See Figure 3.6.5.B).
C1 + C2 + C3 +C4 = T1
C1 = (0.80)(0.65)(35)(0.5)(900)(50)(2) /103
= 819 kN
3
C2 = (0.8)(0.65)(35)(1200)(75)(2) /10 = 3276 kN
Figure 3.6.5.A C3 = (0.80)(0.65)(35)(500)(150) /103 = 1365 kN
C4 = (0.80)(0.70)(35)(500)(0.88c 150) /103
= (8.62c 1470) kN
c
T1 = p Ap fpu 1 kp
dp
c
= (0.9)(3168)(1860) 1 0.28
dp
Figure 3.6.5.B c
T1 = (5303) 1 0.28
dp
c 5303 819 3276 1365 + 1470
=
dp (8.62)(750) + (0.28)(5303)
1313
= = 0.165
7950
c = (0.165)(750) = 124 mm
a = 1c = (0.88)(124) = 108 mm
Figure 3.6.5.C This is slightly less than the flange thickness.

Given: Redesign as a rectangular flange with the triangular
Inverted T-beam produced in a certified plant with part removed (See Figure 3.6.5.C):
composite topping as shown: C6 = T1 + T2
Span length = 10.0 m T2 = C1 = 819 kN
bv = 500 mm
C6 = 1 c fc b 1c
Concrete:
3
Precast: f’c = 35 MPa = (0.80)(0.65)(35)(2900)(0.88)c /10 = 46.4c
Topping: f’c = 35 MPA c 5303 + 819
= = 0.169
Prestressed reinforcement: dp (46.4)(750) + (0.28)(5303)
32 - 13 mm 1860 MPa strands c = (0.169)(750) = 127 mm
Ap = (32)(99) = 3168m2
a = (0.883)(127) = 112 mm
dp = 750 mm
fpr = (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.169)] = 1772 MPa
Tie reinforcement:
10 M ties (Av = 200 mm2) T1 = (0.9)(3168)(1772) /103 = 5053 kN
fy = 400 MPa The total horizontal shear force to be transferred
Problem: across beam topping interface:
Determine the tie requirements to transfer the hori- = 5053 kN
zontal shear force.
Continued


Check maximum interface shear without ties: Check the interface shear in a vertical section
bv = 500 mm through the flange at the face of the web. The
d = l/2 = 10000/2 = 5000 mm 25 mm deep tooled joint at this location creates
Vr = 0.7fcbvl v = (0.7)(0.65)(500)(5000)/103
l
a crack control joint and also reduces the shear
= 1138 kN < 5053 kN area.
Therefore, ties are necessary. bv = 75+50–25=100 mm
Check the maximum interface shear with ties: Vf = C6(1200/2900)–T2=1610 kN
l
Vr ≤ 0.25fcf’cbvl v = (0.25)(0.65)(35)(500)(5000)/103
l
Check the maximum interface shear with ties:
= 14219 kN Vr ≤ (0.25)(0.65)(100)(5000)(35)/103
l
This is greater than Vf , so compute tie spacing.

l
f'c = 35 MPa
= 2844 kN > 1610 kN OK
Maximum tie spacing:
s 600 mm Maximum tie spacing:
s 600 mm
s (4)(150) = 600 mm
s (4)(100) = 400 mm
A v fy (200)(400)
s = = 450 mm A v fy (100)(400)
0.06 fc bv (0.06) 35(500) s = = 1127 mm
0.06 fc bv (0.06) 35(100)
3
vfl = (5053)(10 ) = 2.02 MPa
(500)(5000) (1610)(103 )
vf = = 3.22 MPa
(100)(5000)
l
2
(200)(400)(35) (0.5)(1.0)(0.65)
s
500 2.02
Because the concrete is monolithic across this
= 145 mm joint, use k = 0.6.
2
This spacing governs. Consideration might be given (100)(400)(35) (0.6)(1.0)(0.65)
s
to the use of 15M ties at 250 mm but caution is neces- 100 3.22
sary because of the short anchorage length available = 205 mm
[17].
Use 10M bars at 200 mm. These bars may also be
Use 10M ties @ 145 mm. used to resist moment.
3.7 DESIGN FOR SHEAR AND TORSION

Introduction
CSA A23.3 contains general provisions for shear and torsion design based on the modified compression field the-
ory. The approach is based on a variable angle truss model with a rational concrete contribution. The same general
procedure is used for prestressed and reinforced members
This approach accounts for the fact that the critical diagonal crack may be inclined at angles other than 45°. For
example, a member with significant prestressing will usually have diagonal cracks considerably flatter than 45°,
while in a member subjected to axial tension, or in the flexure dominated regions of a beam, the diagonal cracks
will tend to be steeper than 45°. The effect of variables influencing the crack inclination such as the amount of
prestressing, the magnitude of the applied axial load and bending moment, and the stiffness of the longitudinal
reinforcement are quantified in terms of the axial strain ex of the tension cord of the member as defined in Section
3.6.
The concrete contribution, Vc, is the shear that can be transmitted across diagonal cracks by concrete stresses
(e.g., shear stress transferred by aggregate interlock). The ability of a diagonal crack to resist shear stress is con-

trolled mostly by the width of the crack, and the width of the diagonal cracks is strongly influenced by the axial
strain ex.
Considerations for torsion

1. If the magnitude of the torsion, Tf, determined as specified in an analysis using stiffness based on uncracked
sections exceeds 0.25Tcr, torsional effects shall be considered. Otherwise, torsional effects may be neglected. In
lieu of more detailed calculations, Tcr may be taken as:
2 p fcp
Tcr = (A c / pc )0.38 c fc 1 +
0.38 c fc

2. For a hollow section, Ac in Equation 11.2 of CSA A23.3, Clause 11.2.9.1 shall be replaced by 1.5Ag if the wall
thickness is less than 0.75 Ac /pc.
3. In a statically indeterminate structure where reduction of torsional moment in a member can occur because of
redistribution of internal forces, the maximum factored torsion, Tf, at the face of the support may be reduced
to 0.67Tcr provided that the corresponding adjustments to torsions, moments, and shears are made in the
member and in adjoining members to account for the redistribution. For a spandrel beam where the torsion is
caused by a slab, the factored torsion in the spandrel can be assumed to vary linearly from zero at midspan to
0.67Tcr at the face of the support.
Reinforcement for sections subjected to combined shear and torsion

The transverse reinforcement for combined shear and torsion shall be at least equal to the sum of that required for
shear and that required for the coexisting torsion.
The amount of transverse reinforcement required for torsion shall be such that Tr shall be computed from:
s A t fy
Tr = 2Ao cot
s
Where Ao = 0.85Aoh
The cross-sectional dimensions to avoid crushing shall be as follows:
(a) for box sections:
Vf Vp Tf ph
+ 2
0.25 c fc
b w dv 1.7A oh
If the wall thickness of the box section is less than Aoh /Ph, the second term of the above equation shall be re-
placed by Tf/(1.7Aoht) where t is the wall thickness at the location where the stresses are being checked.
(b) for other sections:
2 2
Vf Vp Tf ph
+ 2
0.25 c fc
b w dv 1.7A oh
To determine ex for sections subjected to shear and torsion, replace the term (Vf – Vp) in Equation (11-13) in Clause
11.3.6.4 with the expression:
2
0.9p hTf
(Vf Vp )2 +
2A o
The longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned to satisfy the requirements of Clause 11.3.10, except that the
term (Vf – 0.5Vs – Vp) shall be replaced by the following expression:
2
0.45phTf
(Vf 0.5Vs Vp )2 +
2A o

Figure 3.7.1 Structural framing for Example 3-24
Example 3-24 Prestressed concrete spandrel beam

Given: Prestressed reinforcement:
Typical prestressed spandrel panel beam shown in
Figure 3.7.1 supporting an 18 m span double tee 4 – 13 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation straight
parking deck. strands
Ap = (4)(99) = 396 mm2
D.L. of deck = 4.4 kN/m2
L.L. of deck = 2.4 kN/m2 dp = 1725 mm
e = 677 mm
Beam properties:
fpe = 1030 MPa
Ac = 435000 mm2
Non prestressed reinforcement:
pc = 4550 mm
4 – 20M bars
wd = 10.2 kN/m
As = (4)(300) = 1200 mm2
f'c = 35 MPa, Normal Density
Compression reinforcement
fy = 400 MPa
yb = 827 mm 2 – 15M bars
I = 141 x 109 mm4 A's = (2)(200) = 400 mm2
Sb = 170 x 106 mm3
Continued
Cover to stirrups = 25 mm

c p A p fpu + s A s fy s A s fy
=
dp 1 c fc 1b w dp + kp p A p fpu
(0.9)(396)(1860) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
=
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(0.88)(200)(1725) + (0.28)(0.9)(396)(1860)
= 0.152
Problem: fpr = fpu (1 kpc / dp )
Find the required torsion reinforcement for the
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.152)]
spandrel.
= 1781MPa
Solution:
1. Determine factored loads on spandrel: p A p fpr + s A s fy s A s fy
a =
1 c fc b w
D.L. of Beam = (1.25)(10.2)
= 12.75 kN/m (0.9)(396)(1781) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)
=
D.L. of deck = (1.25)(4.4)(1.2)(18)/2 (0.8)(0.70)(35)(200)
= 231mm
= 59.4 kN/stem
L.L. = (1.5)(2.4)(1.2)(18)/2 At centreline:
a a
= 38.9 kN/stem
Mr = p A p fpr dp
2
+ s ( As ( )
A s ) fy d
2
Concentrated load:
+ s A s fy ( d d )
Pf = 59.4 + 38.9 = 98.3 kN/stem
= 0.9 ( 396 )(1781)(1725 231/ 2 ) 10 6
The loads and the resulting values of Mf, Vf and Tf
are shown in Fig. 3.7.2. + 0.85 (1200 400)( 400)(1830 231/ 2)
6 6
2. Minimum reinforcement requirements: 10 + 0.85(400)(400)(1830 40) 10
= 1730.9 kN m > 1.2 Mcr
Check minimum flexural reinforcement:
Pe = Ap fpe = (396)(1030)/103 = 408 kN At prestress transfer point (650 mm from end):
Pe Pe e 1030
fce = + Mr (1021.6) + 466.3 + 243.0
Ac Sb 1781
(408)(103 ) (408)(677)(103 ) = 1300.1 kN m > 1.2 Mcr
= + = 2.56 MPa
435000 170 106 (b) Minimum shear reinforcement:
Mcr = Sb (0.6 fc + fce ) Av b
= 0.06 fc w
6 s fy
170 10
= [(0.6)(1.0) 35 + 2.56]
106 200
= 0.06 35 = 0.177 mm2 / mm
= 1039 kN- m 400
1.2Mcr = 1246.8 kN- m
Using 10M closed stirrups (A = 100 mm2), the spac-
ing is:
Check the flexural resistance:
(2)(100)
s = = 1130 mm
1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(35) = 0.80 0.177
1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(35) = 0.88 3. Determine need for torsional reinforcement:
c p A p fpu + s A s fy s A s fy
=
dp 1 c fc 1b w dp + kp p A p fpu
(0.9)(396)(1860) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)

=
(0.8)(0.70)(35)(0.88)(200)(1725) + (0.28)(0.9)(396)(1860)
= 0.152
fpr = fpu (1 kpc / dp ) Continued
= (1860)[1 (0.28)(0.152)]
= 1781MPa
p A p fpr + s A s fy s A s fy
a =
3-90 1 c fc b w CPCI Design Manual 5
(0.9)(396)(1781) + (0.85)(1200)(400) (0.85)(400)(400)

=
2(Ep Ap + Es A s )
( )
2
6
0.9 ( 4302) 29.5 106
3 2
439.7 10 CHAPTER
(174.7x10 ) + 3 Design of Elements
1553
+ 2 ( 252500 )
(396)(0.7)(1860)
Example 3-24 Continued =
2((190000)(396) + (200000)(1200))
Tf = 49.2 kN - m = 0.000902
3
(408)(10 ) = 29+7000
fcp = = 0.94 MPa x
435 000
= 35.3°
pc = 1875 + 200 + 1575 + 200 + 300 + 400 35Sz
sze =
= 4550 mm 15 + ag
0.38A c2 c fc p fcp assume ag = 20 mm
Tcr = 1+
pc 0.38 c fc (35)(1553)
sze = = 1553 mm , use sze = 300mm
(0.38)(435000)2 (1.0)(0.70) 35 15 + 20
=
(4550)(106 ) 0.4 1300
=
(0.9)(0.94) 1 + 1500 x 1000 + sze
1+ = 81.2 kN - m
(0.38)(1.0)(0.70) 35 0.4 1300
=
0.25 Tcr = 20.3 kN- m < Tf 1 + (1500)(0.000902) 1000 + 300
Torsion reinforcement is required in zone A. = 0.170
4. Determine section parameters: Vc = c fc bw dv

dv = 0.72 h = (0.72)(1875) = 1350 mm = (0.7)(1)(0.170)( 35)(200)(1553)x10 3
or = 0.9 d = (0.9)(1725) = 1553 mm

dv = 1553 mm = 218.7 kN
Aoh = (138)[1875 (2)(31)] + (200)(238) = Vc > Vf
2
= 297000 mm
Only minimum stirrups are required.
ph = (138 + 1813)(2) + (200)(2) = 4302 mm
At Tr
Ao = 0.85Aoh =
s 2A o s fy cot
= (0.85)(297000) = 252500 mm2
(29.5)(tan35.3°)(106 )
5. Design shear and torsion reinforcement: =
(2)(252600)(0.85)(400)
Zone A, at a distance 1600 mm from face of sup- 2
= 0.122 mm /mm
port:
Note: For precast framing, the face of the support Use 10M closed stirrups (As = 100 mm2)
is taken to be the centreline of the support. s = (100)/(0.122) = 820 mm
Vf = 174.7 kN
Check need to halve spacing:
Tf = 29.5 kN-m
0.125 c fc bwdv + Vp
Mf = 439.7 kN-m
2
= (0.125)(1.0)(0.7)(35)(200)(1553) + 0.0
Mf 0.9ph Tf
+ (Vf Vp )2 + A p fpo = 951.2 kN > Vf OK.
dv 2A o
x = smin = 0.7dv
2(Ep Ap + Es A s )
= (0.7)(1553)
( )
2
0.9 ( 4302) 29.5 106 = 1087 mm > 600 mm
6 3 2
439.7 10 (174.7x10 ) +
1553
+ 2 ( 252500 ) However, Tf > 0.25 Tcr, stirrup spacing must be
halved to 300 mm.
(396)(0.7)(1860)
=
2((190000)(396) + (200000)(1200)) Use 10M Stirrups at 300 mm O.C.
Continued
= 0.000902
= 29+7000
CPCI Design Manual 5 x 3-91
= 35.3°
35Sz

Vf Vp
vf =
Check web crushing: b w dv
Vf Vp
2 2 (65)(103 )
Tf ph = = 0.203 MPa
= + 0.25 c fc (200)(1600)
b w dv 1.7A oh2
vf 0.203
2 2 = = 0.0083 < 0.25 OK.
(174.7)(103 ) ((29.5)(106 ))(4302) c fc (1.0)(0.70)(35)
= +
(200)(1553) (1.7)(297000)2 Mf
+ (Vf Vp ) A p fpo
dv
= 1.016 0.25(0.7)(35) = 6.1MPa x =
2(Es A s + Ep A p )
Calculate actual Vs (based on stirrups provided): 602 106
Vs = s
Av
fy dv cot = 1553
(
+ 65 103 0 (396)(0.7)(1860) )
S 2((200000)(1200) + (190000)(396))
200 = – 0.00010 < – 0.0002
= (0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 35.3°)(10 3 )
300 = 0.0
x
= 497 kN = 29 + 7000 x
Longitudinal reinforcement: = 29.0°

0.40 1300
2 =
M 0.45ph Tf
2 1 + 1500 1000 + sze
Ft = f + (Vf 0.5Vs Vp ) + cot x
dv 2A o
= 0.40
(439.7)(106 ) Vc = c fc bw dv
=
1553 = (1.0)(0.70)(0.40) 35(200)(1553) /103
= 514 kN > Vf
(174.7(103 ) - 0.5(497)(103 ) - 0)2
2 (cot 35.3°)
+ (0.45)(4302)(29.5)(106 ) Minimum stirrups are required for zone B, the re-
+ quirements for hanger steel and ledge reinforcement
2(252500)2
-3
at point loads will govern, so that this type of mem-
= (283129+104231)(10 ) (cot 35.3°) ber will still have transverse reinforcement.
= 387 kN With minimum shear reinforcement:
sA sf y + pApfpr = [(0.85)(1200)(400)
-3 s = 1130 mm for 10M stirrups.
+(0.9)(396)(1781)] 10
Use s = 600 mm o.c. Tf < 0.25 Tcr
= 1043 kN > 593.5 kN
Av
Vs = s fy dv cot
No additional longitudinal reinforcement is required. s
Zone B: (Figure 3.7.2) at 2675 mm from support. (200)
= (0.85) (400)(1553)(cot 35.3o )
600
No torsion design is required since Tf < 0.25 Tcr.
= 248.6 kN
Check crushing:
Continued

Note: Potential torsion due

to the end point load must
be carefully examined with
respect to bearing and end
torsion connection locations.
Also, shear and torsion
caused by loads applied
within a distance dv from the
face of the support needs to
be considered for bottom
loaded beams.
cot
Figure 3.7.2 Force diagrams for Example 3-24

The reinforcement required for shear and torsion is (e) longitudinal reinforcement
summarized in Figure 3.7.3. Additional reinforcing
(f) anchorage of longitudinal bars at ends
may be required using the Strut-and-Tie modeling
method for the following: Note: In Fig. 3.7.3, the stirrup spacing of 215 mm
and 600 mm would require longitudinal corner 15M
(a) end bearing reactions
bars. Some adjustment is required of either or both
(b) end torsional equilibrium reactions the longitudinal reinforcement and the transverse
reinforcement after reinforcement for (a) to (f) have
(c) ledge point loads
been considered.
(d) hanger steel at ledge point loads
135o standard stirrup

hooks are required to
anchor transverse tension
Figure 3.7.3 Reinforcement for Example 3-24
3.8 COMPRESSION
Precast and prestressed concrete columns and load-bearing wall panels are proportioned to resist factored loads.
Stresses during handling, erection and service conditions must be considered. This section is based on CSA A23.3
and on the recommendations of the PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete Columns [18] referred to in this sec-
tion as recommended practice.
3.8.1 Factored Resistance

The factored resistance of a reinforced concrete compression element with eccentric loads is usually determined
by interaction curves. Points on this curve are calculated using strain compatibility and equations of equilibrium as
prescribed in the CSA A23.3. The solution of these equations is shown in Figure 3.8.1.
Interaction curves for typical prestressed square columns and wall panels are provided in Chapter 7.
Construction of an interaction curve usually follows these steps:
Step 1:
Determine Pro for Mr = 0 (see Figure 3.8.1(c)).

Step 2:
Determine Mro for Pr = 0. This is normally done by neglecting the reinforcement above the neutral axis and deter-
mining the moment capacity by one of the methods described in Section 3.3.
Step 3:
For reinforced columns, determine Prb and Mrb at the balance point, see Figure 3.8.1(d). For prestressed columns,
the yield point of the prestressed reinforcement is not well defined and the stress strain relationship is non-linear
over a broad range, see Figure 8.2.4.
Step 4:
Proceed as follows for each additional point on the interaction curve:
a) Select a value of “c” and calculate a = b1c.
b) Determine the value and the centroid of Acomp from the geometry of the section, that being the shaded por-
tion in Figure 3.8.1(a).
c) Determine the strain in the reinforcement assuming that e = 0.0035 at the compression face of the column. For
prestressed reinforcement, add the strain due to the prestress corresponding to zero strain in the concrete:
fpe fcp
pe ce =
Ep Ec
Tensile strain is positive.
d) Determine the stress in the reinforcement. For non-prestressed reinforcement, fs = es Es < ffy. For prestressed
reinforcement, the stress is determined by stress-strain relationship, see Figure 8.2.4. The prestress force adds
axial load to the section and should not be reduced, therefore fp = 1.0. If the maximum factored moment
occurs near the end of a prestressed element, where the strand is not fully developed, an appropriate reduction
in the value of fpr can be made as described in Section 3.8.2, Figure 3.8.2.
e) Calculate Pr and Mr by statics.
Step 5:
Calculate the maximum factored axial resistance, specified by CSA A23.3, as 0.80 Pro for tied columns and 0.85 Pro
for spiral reinforced columns.
3.8.2 Development Length

The factored flexural resistance is reduced for prestressed elements at locations within a distance equal to the
strand development length from each end as noted in Step 4(d) above. The factored flexural resistance in this
zone can be supplemented by non-prestressed reinforcement anchored to top or bottom plates, or otherwise
developed.
The interaction curves for prestressed columns are based on a maximum value of fpr = fpe, that is valid at a
development length equal to the assumed transfer length from the end of the element. The required area of
end reinforcement can be determined by matching interaction curves, or can be approximated by the following
equation, if the bar locations approximately match the strand locations:
Ap fpe
As =
fy
The effects of adding end reinforcement to a 600 x 600 mm prestressed concrete column to improve flexural
resistance in the end 600 mm are shown in Figure 3.8.2.

Figure 3.8.1 Design relationships for prestressed and reinforced compression elements

Figure 3.8.2 End reinforcement in a precast, prestressed concrete column
Example 3-25 Construction of interaction curve for a reinforced column produced in a plant certified in
accordance with CSA A23.4.
Given: Problem:
300 x 500 column cross section as shown. Construct an interaction curve for bending about
x-x axis.
Concrete:
f'c = 35 MPa a1 = 0.80 b1 = 0.88 fc = 0.70 Solution:
Determine the following parameters:
Normal Density
d = 500–60=440 mm
Reinforcement: d' = 60 mm
fy = 400 MPa
yt = 250 mm
Es = 200 000 MPa Ag = (300)(500) = 150000 mm2
As = A's = (2)(700) = 1400 mm2
Step 1:
Determine Pro from Figure 3.8.1(c):
Pro = ( 1 c fc )(A As As ) + s (As + As )fy
= [(0.8)(0.70)(35)(150000 2800)
+(0.85)(2800)(400)] /103
= 3837 kN
Continued


Step 2:
Determine Mro—use a conservative solution by ne- 150
a) Set a = 150 mm, c = = 170 mm
glecting the compression reinforcement: 0.88
b) Acomp = (150)(300) = 45000 mm2
s A s fy (0.85)(1400)(400)
a = = = 81mm c) Use Figure 3.8.1(a):
1 c fc b (0.8)(0.70)(35)(300)
(0.0035)(170 60)
a = = 0.0023
Mro = s A s fy d
s
2 170
(0.0035)(440 170)
81 = = 0.0056
= (0.85)(1400)(400) 440 /10 6 s
170
2
d) fs = (0.0023)(200000) = 460 MPa > fy
= 190 kN - m
fs = (0.0056)(200000) = 1120 MPa > fy
Step 3:
Use fs = fs = fy = 400 MPa
Determine Prb and Mrb from Figure 3.8.1(d):
e) Pr = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(45 000) /103
(0.0035)(440) +[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /103
c = = 280 mm
0.0035 + 400 / 200,000
(0.85)(1400)(400) /103
(0.0035)
fs = (200000) (280 60) = 855 kN
280
= 550 MPa > fy Mr = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(45000)(250 75) /106
fs = fy = 400 MPa +[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)]
Acomp = ab = 1cb = (0.88)(280)(300) (1400)(250 60) /106
= 73920 mm2 +(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /106

a (0.88)(280) = 330 kN- m
y = = = 123 mm
2 2
Step 4 can be repeated for as many points as
Prb = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920) /103
desired. A plot of such points is shown in Figure
+[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)](1400) /103 3.8.3.
(0.85)(1400)(400) /103 Step 5:
= 1421kN Maximum axial load:
Mrb = (0.8)(0.70)(35)(73 920)(250 123) /106 = 0.8Pro = (0.8)(3837) = 3070 kN
+[(0.85)(400) (0.8)(0.70)(35)]
(1400)(250 60) /106
+(0.85)(1400)(400)(440 250) /106
= 360 kN m
Step 4:
To determine intermediate points on the curve:
Figure 3.8.3 Interaction curve for Example 3-25

Example 3-26 Calculation of interaction points for a prestressed concrete compression element
Given:
R2 y1
1220 x 203 hollow core wall panel shown. A = y1 R2 y12 R2 sin 1
2 R
( )(76)2 51
= 51 762 512 762 sin 1
2 76
= 1950 mm2
_ 2(R2 y12 )3 / 2 (2)(762 512 )3 / 2
y = = = 61mm
Concrete: 3A (3)(1950)
fc = 40 MPa = 0.79 = 0.87 =0.70 Acomp= (1220)(50) (6)(1950) = 49300 mm2

1 1 c
Normal Density
(1220)(502 / 2) (6)(1950)(41)
y =
2 49300
Ag = 138700 mm
= 22 mm from top
Ec = 29600 MPa
Prestressed reinforcement: Step 3:
fpu = 1860 MPa Prestrain at zero concrete stress:
Ep = 190000 MPa 1030 3.7
fpe = 1030 MPa
= + = 0.00555
190000 29600
5-13 mm 1860 MPa strands From Figure 3.8.1(a):
Ap = (3)(99) = 297 mm2 (0.0035)(58 45)
p = 0.00555 = 0.00477
A p = (2)(99) = 198 mm 2 58
(1030)(297 + 198) (0.0035)(158 58)
fcp = p = 0.00555 + = 0.01158
138700 58
3.7 MPa (not quite uniform) Step 4:
From Figure 8.2.3, e'p is on the linear portion of
Problem:
the curve and ep is on the non-linear portion:
Calculate a point on the interaction curve for a = 50
mm. f'pr = epEp = (0.00477)(190000) = 906 MPa
Solution: fpr = 1703 MPa
Step 1: Step 5:
a = 50 mm From Fig. 3.8.1(a):
50 Pr = (0.79)(0.70)(40)(49 300) /103
c = = 58 mm
0.87 (198)(906) /103 (297)(1703) /103
Step 2: = 1090 179 506 = 406 kN
From Figure 8.3, calculate area and centroid of the The concrete area displaced by the compres-
hollow core voids excluded from the compression sion-side tendons is ignored here.
zone—Figure 3.8.11 can be used: Mr = (1090)(102 22) /103
(179)(102 45) /103
+(506)(158 102) /103
= 88 10 + 28 = 106 kN - m
Continued


Since no lateral ties are used in this element, the
Pr = (0.85)[1095 179 (297)(1030) /103 ]
values are multiplied by 0.85:
= 519 kN
Pr = (0.85)(410) = 349 kN
Mr = (0.85)[88 10
Mr = (0.85)(106) = 89 kN- m
+(297)(1030)(158 102) /106 ]
These values are for fully developed strands. If the
capacity at a point near the end of the transfer = 81kN - m
zone is desired, then fpr ≤ fpe = 1030 MPa. Take
fpr = 1030 and adjust the prestress contribution In prestressed wall panels, the effects of unsym-
accordingly: metrical prestress should be investigated.
3.8.3 Slenderness Effects

25 10(M1 / M2 )
For compression elements braced against sideway, kl u /r <
effects of slenderness may be neglected when: Pf /(fc A g )
M1/M2 is positive if the element is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature and shall not be
taken less than 0.5. M2 is the larger and M1 is the smaller end moment.
The radius of gyration, r, may be taken as:
0.3 times the overall dimension in the direction that stability is being considered for rectangular elements,
0.25 times the diameter for circular elements, or computed r = I
from the gross concrete section for other shapes. Ag
CSA A23.3 contains provisions for evaluating slenderness effects of compression elements, such as buckling, based
on the following three approaches:
1. The approximate magnified moment approach.
2. Empirical design for certain rectangular load bearing walls.
3. A rigorous P-i approach as described in Chapter 2, where the first order lateral storey deflection is computed
using an elastic first order frame analysis. Section properties are calculated taking into account the influence of
axial loads, the presence of cracked regions along the length of the member, the member curvature and effects
of duration of the loads.
Moment of inertia for P-i approach:
Type of element Moment of inertia
Beams 0.35Ig
Columns 0.70Ig
Walls
- Uncracked 0.70Ig
- Cracked 0.35Ig
Flat plates and flat slabs 0.25Ig
3.8.3.1 Magnified moment approach

The principles of the magnified moment approach are illustrated in Figure 3.8.5 and are valid for compression
members with klu / r not greater than 100.
The approximate evaluation of slenderness effects involves:

Notation
lu = unsupported length of compression element
k = effective length factor
M1 = smaller factored end moment, positive if bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature
M2 = larger factored end moment always positive (if less than minimum Code values, use Code values)
Mc = moment to be used in design = bM2
Ig = gross moment of inertia
Pc = critical load
Values of kp for Pc
kpIg Ec
*
For other concretes, Pc = , Ec = modulus of elasticity, MPa
2 28200
k
Figure 3.8.4 Slenderness effects

1. The determination of the effective length factor, k, and end moments, M1 and M2.
2. The calculation of the moment magnifier, db, as shown in Example 3-27
3. The magnified moment in combination with the factored axial load is compared with the resistance of the ele-
ment as determined by an interaction diagram in accordance with Section 3.8.1.
Hinged compression members and compression members in braced frames

The magnified moment is taken as:
CmM2
Mc = bM2 =
Pf
1
mPc
where fm and CmM2 shall not be taken as less than Pf(15 + 0.03 h) about each axis separately.
For members without transverse loads between supports, Cm shall be taken as:
M
Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 1 0.4
M2
When there are transverse loads between supports, Cm = 1.0.
Pf is the factored axial load, and Pc is the critical buckling load, calculated as:
2
Pc = EI
(kl u )2
The effective length factor, k, for pin connected, lateral-

ly restrained elements with various edge conditions can
be determined from Figure 3.8.6 as follows:
1. For columns or panels braced against sidesway and
free along both vertical edges:
For all values of lu/b, k = 1.0
2. For panels braced against sidesway and restrained
along both vertical edges:
l
u / b < 1/ 2 , k = 1.0
1/ 2 l
u /b 1, k = 1.5 l
u /b
2
l
u / b > 1, k = 1.0 /[1 + (l u / b) ]
3. For panels braced against sidesway and restrained
along one vertical edge:
M1 = value of smaller design end moment on the com- < 1, k = 1.0
l u /b
pression member calculated from a conventional
elastic analysis—positive if member is bent in 1/ 2 l u /b 2 , k = 1.0 0.423[(l u / b) 1]
single curvature, otherwise negative
l u /b > 2 , k = 1.0 / 1 + (l u / b)2 / 2
M2 = value of larger design end moment, always posi-
tive The value EI may be determined from the following:
Mo = first order bending moment at critical section of 1. For columns or panels with a double layer of rein-
compression members as obtained from elastic forcement, the value of EI may be taken as:
analysis 0.2EcIg + EsIs
EI =
1+ d
Figure 3.8.5 Slenderness effects

An approximate value for lightly reinforced ele-

ments is:
0.4EcIg
EI =
1+ d
2. For wall panels with a single layer of reinforcement
centred in the panel, the value of El may be taken
as:
EcIg e 0.10EcIg
EI = 0.5
d h d
The above equations were developed for reinforced

concrete columns with at least 1% reinforcement. Mod-
ified equations for EI are recommended as prestressed
compression elements and precast load bearing wall
panels have less than 1% reinforcement. Figure 3.8.7
presents one set of such equations. Such approxima-
tions are necessarily conservative, and therefore second
order analysis procedures are strongly recommended
for slender prestressed elements.
For non-sway frames and for stability checks of sway
frames as defined in CSA A23.3, bd is the ratio of the
maximum factored dead load to the total factored axial
load.
For sway frames, except as noted above, bd is the ratio
of the maximum factored sustained shear within a sto-
rey, to the maximum total factored shear in that storey.
Figure 3.8.6 Effective length factor k for different
bd is a factor that takes into account creep due to
edge conditions
sustained loads. When the moment to be magnified is
caused by short-term loads, such as wind or seismic, bd may be taken as zero. However, if the more conservative,
simplified expression for EI is used, an allowance for bd is required.
The maximum moment can occur at a section away from the end of elements subjected to transverse loading. The
largest calculated moment occurring anywhere along the element is used for the value of M2. Cm is taken as 1.0 in
this case.
If computations show that there is no moment at either end of a compression element or computed end eccen-
tricities are less than 15 + 0.03h (mm), M2 should be based on a minimum eccentricity of 15 + 0.03h, where h is the
thickness of the panel or column. The ratio M1/M2 should be determined by either of the following:
1. Computed end moments may be used to evaluate M1/M2 when computed end eccentricities are less than 15 +
0.03h.
2. The ratio M1/M2 may be taken equal to one if computations show that there is essentially no moment at either
end of a compression element.
For elements with kl u/r > 100, the design of compression elements shall be based on the factored forces and
moments from a second order analysis. This should consider material nonlinearity, cracking, the effects of member
curvature, lateral drift, duration of the loads, shrinkage, creep and interaction with the supporting foundation.
Columns in sway frames

Storeys in structures shall be designated as sway frames if: Q Pf o
= > 0.05
Vf l c

SPf is the total factored vertical load at the storey in question.

Vf is the factored storey shear in the storey in question.
io is the first order relative deflection of the top and bottom of that storey due to Vf.
The moments from a first order analysis are divided into two parts:
1. Mns due to gravity loads, which do not contribute to sway, and
2. Ms, the moments associated with sway.
Gravity load moments causing deflections greater than lu / 1500, due to lack of symmetry, should be classed as Ms
moments. 1
s =
The Ms moments are magnified by ds, given by: Pf
1
m Pc
SPf is the summations of all axial loads at a storey.
SPc is the summation of the critical loads at a storey based on the unbraced effective length.
Pc shall be determined from equation (10-18; CSA A23.3) and the EI values in equation (10-19) or equation (10-20;
CSA A23.3).
bd is defined above for moments associated with sway.
1
If the stability index of a storey, Q, is less than 1/3, then ds can be computed as: s =
1 Q
The final end moments are then computed from: Mns + dsMs
and the design moment is: Mc = M2
where M2 is the value of (Mns + ds Ms) at the top or bottom of the column, whichever is greater.
In addition to the above requirements for compression members in sway frames, individual compression members
having l u > 35 shall also be designed for: Mc = CmM2
r Pf /(fc A g ) Pf
1
mPc
Pc is calculated using bd for non-sway frames and k ≤ 1.0.

M2 = M2ns + dsM2s
In addition to load cases involving lateral loads, the strength and stability of the structure as a whole should be
considered as per CSA A23.3 Clause 10.16.5.
3.8.3.2 Empirical design of rectangular wall panels

If the resultant of all factored axial loads including moment and sway effects of lateral loads is located within the
middle third of the thickness of a panel, the strength of the wall may be approximated as:
2
2 khu
Pr = 1 c fc A g 1
3 32t
1 = 0.85 - (0.0015)f c 0.67

k = 0.8 for walls restrained against at top,
bottom or both
= 1.0 for walls restrained against rotation at
both ends
For panels with irregular cross-sections, an 12Ig

t = 3
equivalent t may be determined from: b

CSA A23.3 waives the lateral reinforcement requirement for walls if the concrete is prestressed to at least an aver-
age of 1.5 MPa after all losses per Clause 18.11.2.1 with minimum reinforcement to follow Clauses 7.6 and 10.9 for
columns and 14.1.8 for walls. In addition, PCI recommended practice permits the elimination of lateral reinforce-
ment in flat walls if the factored resistance is multiplied by 0.85.
Ec lg /
El = (For Pc Equation)
1+ d
= 3.2
1.6
= 2.5 +
Pu / Po
6 70
And is given below
(A) Compression Flange
35
= 0.09
k u /r
l
(B) No Compression Flange
35
= 0.05
k l
u /r
Figure 3.8.7 Coefficients, l, for modified EI

Figure 3.8.8 Effective width of wall panels
Example 3-27 Magnified moment approach for a column in a braced frame
Given: Slenderness may be neglected when k u/r is less l
Pin ended column in a braced frame in single curva- than:

ture: 25 10(M1 / M2 ) 25 (10)(0.1)
=
Column size = 350 x 350 mm Pf /(fc A g ) (1800)(103 ) /(35)(122500)
Pf dead load = 1200 kN
= 37.0
Pf live load = 600 kN
Eccentricity at top = 350 mm Therefore slenderness must be considered.
Eccentricity at base = 35 mm factored dead load 1200
d = = = 0.67
lu = 4800 mm factored total load 1200 + 600
f'c = 35 MPa 0.4EcIg (0.4)(28200)(350) 4 /12
El = =
Ec = 28200 MPa 1+ d 1 + 0.67
Problem: = 8.45 1012 N mm2

2 2
Determine non-sway moment magnifier db. EI ( )(8.45 1012 )
Pc = = = 3618 kN
Solution: (kl u )2 [(1.0)(4800)]2 (103 )
(1200 + 600)(35) Cm = 0.6 + 0.4M1 /M2 = 0.6 + (0.4)(0.1) = 0.64
M1 = = +63 kN - m
103 Cm 0.64
= = = 1.90
(1200 + 600)(350) b
Pf (1200 + 600)
M2 = = +630 kN - m 1 1
103 mPc (0.75)(3618)
M1 +63
= = 0.10 Figure 3.8.4 could also be used for this example.
M2 +630
This ratio is positive because the element is in single

curvature.
r = (0.3)(350) = 105 mm
kl u (1.0)(4800)
= = 45.7
r 105

3.8.4 Effective Width of Wall Panels

Concentrated compressive loads shall be distributed
over an effective width of a wall panel in accordance
with CSA A23.3 Clause 14.1.3.1.
For a wall subjected to more than one concentrated
load, the design shall take into account the overlap-
ping of uniformly distributed loads from each of the
concentrated loads.
3.8.5 Load-bearing Insulated Wall Panels

Insulated wall panels of the type shown in Figure
3.8.9, may be designed assuming one or both wythes
carry the vertical loads. To use both wythes as load
bearing, it must be shown by experience, test, or
calculation that the wythes are fully or partially com-
posite. The method of transferring superimposed
loads to the panel, should be detailed to assure a
non-structural wythe does not carry these loads. See
Section 3.11. Figure 3.8.9 Typical precast concrete load-bearing
insulated wall panels
3.8.6 Non-uniform Moment of Inertia
An equivalent moment of inertia, Iequiv may be used
when analyzing non-uniform cross-sectional, com-
pression elements. This equivalent moment of inertia is calculated to generate the same mid-height deflection as
the actual, non-prismatic, simply supported element subjected to a uniformly distributed lateral load.
Pc is calculated using Iequiv to determine the magnified moment. The effective length factor, k, can be taken as 1
in most designs for slenderness about the weak axis. In some cases, slenderness design about the strong axis may
control. The following design example illustrates a typical calculation for slenderness effects in the centre mullion
of a load-bearing panel.
Example 3-28 Varying I for slenderness design
Given:
The load bearing panel is shown in Figure 3.8.10. Pt = (1.25)(1200 + 200) + (1.5)(400 + 50)
Concrete: = 2425 kN
M1 = 0
fc = 35 MPa
M2 = [(1.25)(200) + (1.5)(50)](0.3) = 97.5 kN m
Normal Density
emin = 15 + (0.03)(350) = 25.5 mm
Ec = 28200 MPa
Mmin = (2425)(0.026) = 63.0 kN - m
Problem:
Calculate magnified moment for design. Find an equivalent moment of inertia, Iequiv, by ap-
plying a 1.0 kN/m uniform lateral load to the centre
Solution:
mullion. Construct the M/EI diagram and calculate
Calculate factored loads and moments:
the mid-height deflection using the moment-area
method:
Continued


By taking the first-moment of area at centreline of
the virtual beam showing the M/EI as virtual load, we
can calculate the deflection at centreline of mullion.
i = 0.09 mm
Substituting into the deflection equation for a simply
supported beam gives:
5wl 4 (5)(1.0)(4200)4
Iequiv = =
384Ec (384)(28 200)(0.09)
= 1596 106 mm4
Determine if slenderness must be considered. As-
sume k = 1 (braced against sidesway) and calculate
the equivalent radius of gyration:
147500 + 207500
Aavg = = 177500 mm2
2
1596 106
r = = 94.8 mm
177500
25 10(M1 / M2 ) 25
=
Pf /(fc A g ) 3
2425 10 /(35)(177500)
= 40.0
kl u (1.0)(4200)
= = 44.3 > 40
r 94.8
Therefore slenderness effects must be considered.
For (1.25)(1000 + 200)

d = = 0.62
2425
l u = 4.2 m , from Figure 3.8.4, find:
6
kp = 3.9 10 kN/ mm4
k pIg
Pc ==
k2
(3.9 10 6 )(1596 106 )
= 6224 kN
(1.0)2
Cm = 0.6 + (0.4)(0) = 0.6
CmM2 = (0.6)(98) = 58.8 kN - m
Pf (15 + 0.03h) = (2425 103 )[15 + (0.03)(350)](10 6 )
= 61.8 kN m > 58.8
61.8
Mf = = 129 kN - m
2425
1
(0.75)(6224)
The short column interaction diagram for this mul-
lion cross section should now be checked for the
following axial load and magnified moment:
Pf = 2425 kN Figure 3.8.10 Varying I Example 3–28
Mf = 129 kN-m

3.8.7 Piles
General
This section refers to the design of piles. It is assumed that the capacity to transfer load to the soil has been estab-
lished by geotechnical engineers.
The design of piles for factored load conditions follows the procedures outlined above for columns. The necessary
investigation of load conditions during transporting, handling and driving follows standard procedures based on
first principles. Transportation and handling stresses are discussed in Section 3.9. The tensile stresses induced by
driving can cause severe cracking as discussed below. The seismic response of piles can involve different condi-
tions from other structural elements. References are given for complete discussion of the design procedures.
Driving stresses
As the hammer strikes a pile, a compression wave travels down the length of the pile, moving at the speed of
sound—between 3600 m/s and 4000 m/s in the concrete.
The length, and therefore the intensity, of this stress wave depends upon:
1. the ratio of the hammer mass to the pile mass
2. the velocity of the hammer at impact
3. the stiffness of the cushion block
4. the stiffness of the pile
5. the driving resistance of the soil
When the compression wave reaches the tip of the pile, it may be transmitted to the soil. If the tip has encoun-
tered hard material, the wave may be reflected back up the pile as a compression wave. The reflected wave may
be tensile in easy driving conditions. In either case, the reflected wave passes up through the trailing end of the
downward traveling wave and the stresses are momentarily superimposed. If the reflected wave is compressive due
to hard-driving conditions, the stresses are additive, and compression failure may occur near the pile tip. Cracking
may occur further up the pile in piles longer than about 15 m when the reflected wave clears the end of the down-
ward-traveling compression wave in easy-driving conditions.
Stress waves are dissipated by friction, damping and tip resistance. In hard-driving conditions, a significant com-
pression wave may travel back up to the pile head. This wave will be reflected as a tension wave and cracking may
occur near the pile head.
The most controllable parameters are the ratio of hammer mass to pile mass, the stiffness of the cushion block,
and the capacity of the pile to resist the imposed stresses. The parameters are selected to increase the length of
the traveling wave thereby reducing the stress intensity.
Detailed discussions of driving stresses and required prestress levels may be found in References [20] and [21].
Piles tend to rotate slightly as they are driven. Restraint by driving leads or by tightly fitting helmets may induce
torsional stresses leading to additional tensile stresses. Spalling of concrete at a pile head may be caused by high
or irregular compressive stress concentrations during driving. These points are discussed in Reference [20].
Seismic response of piles

Piles reduce the rocking motions of structures during earthquakes, but not the lateral motion. Battered piles have
little effect in reducing lateral motion. Piles follow the horizontal motion of the surrounding soil, which undergoes
horizontal shear deformation as seismic waves travel upward from bedrock. Piles may be subjected to significant
curvature causing large stresses. This may occur just below the pile cap, at the interface between hard and soft-soil
layers, and at any point within the pile length where the shear force is zero. Thus, the ideal pile from the seismic
point of view is flexible and ductile.
A discussion of the expected curvatures is found in Reference [22]. Designing for this curvature is a matter of
achieving the correct quantity and distribution of spiral reinforcement as discussed in References [23] and [24].

For further information on the response of hollow piles in seismic regions. [25]
Example 3-29 Interaction curve for an octagonal hollow bearing pile

Given: To determine points on the interaction curve, se-
A 500 mm octagonal pile with a 275 mm diameter lect values of neutral axis depth. Compute corre-
circular core. sponding strains, stresses, and forces. Calculations
for a depth of 400 mm are as follows:
3
c = 2400 kg/m
c = 400 mm
f’c = 50 MPa
a = b1c = (0.85)(400) = 340 mm
fpu = 1860 MPa
a/D for the octagon = 340/500 = 0.680
8 - 13 mm strands
a/D for the core = (340–112.5)/275
= 0.827
Problem:
Construct the factored resistance interaction dia- From Figure 3.8.11:
gram. Determine the service load moment capacity
Positive concrete area of the octagon:
at a load of 800 kN. Limit the concrete stresses to
22.5 MPa (compression) and 3.5 MPa (tension). = (0.6)(500)2 = 150000 mm2
Solution: Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis:

1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(50) = 0.78 = (0.12)(500) = 60 mm
1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(50) = 0.85 Negative concrete area circular core:
c = 0.70 = (0.70)(275)2 = 52938 mm2
Ec = 32200 MPa
Centroidal distance from mid-depth axis:
Ac = (0.8284)(500)2 ( )(275)2 / 4
= (0.045)(275) = 12.4
= 147000 mm2
Concrete strain at steel levels:
Ap = (8)(99) = 792 mm2
(400 77)
1. (0.0035) = 0.00283
Assume f pe = 1100 MPa: 400
(1100)(792) (400 178)
fcp = = 5.9 MPa 2. (0.0035) = 0.00194
147000 400
Prestrain in strand at zero concrete strain: (400 322)
1100 5.9 3. (0.0035) = 0.00068
= + = 0.00597 400
190000 32200
(400 423)
Stress in strand at maximum concrete compression: 4. (0.0035) = 0.00020
400
= (190000)(0.00597 0.002) = 754 MPa
Total strain of steel = prestrain minus concrete
Pro = 1 c fc (Ac Ap ) fpr Ap
strain:
= [(0.78)(0.70)(50)(147000 792) 1. 0.00597 0.00283 = 0.00314
(754)(792)] /103 2. 0.00597 0.00194 = 0.00403
= 3395 kN 3. 0.00597 0.00068 = 0.00529
Factored axial load resistance: 4. 0.00597 ( 0.0002) = 0.00616
= 0.85Pro (0.85)(3395) 2886 kN
Continued


Steel stresses from Figure. 8.2.3: Total factored axial resistance:
= 3650 124 160 209 243
1. 628 MPa
= 1914 kN (compression)
2. 806 MPa
Concrete moment:
3. 1057 MPa
[(4095)(0.06)-(1445(0.012)]
4. 1227 MPa
= 228.4 kN-m
Concrete force = (0.78)(0.70)(50)(150000)
(0.78)(0.70)(50)(52 938)/10
3 Steel moments:
1. (124)( 0.173) = 21.5
= 4095 - 1445 = 3650 kN
2. (160)( 0.072) = 11.5
Steel forces = fpAp:
3 3. (209)(0.072)= +15.1
1. (628)(198)/10 = 124 kN
3 4. (243)(0.173)= + 42.0
2. (806)(198)/10 = 160 kN
3
Total factored resisting moment:
3. (1057)(198)/10 = 209 kN 228.4 – 21.5 – 11.5 + 15.1 + 42.0
3
4. (1227)(198)/10 = 243 kN = 252.5 kN-m
Continued
Figure 3.8.11 Area and centroid coefficients for octagonal and circular piles

Values for other depths of neutral axis are: Str = transformed section modulus (see Figure
3.8.11)
c Pr(kN) Mr(kN·m)
( )(275)4
≥ 509 2643 0 to 120 = (0.05474)(500)4
500 2834 145 64
400 1914 252 (190000)(396) (722 + 1732 )
+ / 250
300 1298 296 32200
250 882 285
= 12.9 106 mm3
200 580 273
The error introduced by using the area and sec-
These values are plotted in Figure 3.8.12. The value
tion modulus of the gross concrete area may be
of Mro for prestressed elements is easily found by
acceptable.
extending the plot or investigating further values of
c until values of Pr on either side of zero are ob- Equate the extreme fibre stresses to the allowable
tained. values and solve for the smaller value of M:
P F M
To check service conditions, determine the moment + + = 22.5 MPa
capacity, M, at a service axial load P of 800 kN: A tr A tr Str
F = prestress force at zero concrete strain (800)(103 ) (898)(103 ) M
+ + = 22.5
= pEp Ap (152400) (152400) (12.9 106 )
3
= (0.00597)(190000)(792)/10 M = 146 kN- m
= 898 kN P F M
+ = 3.5 MPa
Atr = transformed area (see Figure 3.8.11) A tr A tr Str
( )(275)2 (800)(103 ) (898)(103 ) M
= (0.8284)(500)2 + = 3.5
4 (152400) (152400) (12.9 106 )
(190000)(792)
+ = 152400 mm2 M = 189 kN- m
32200
The service load moment capacity at an axial load
of 800 kN is 146 kN·m.
A plot of the complete curve of P vs. M at these
service load conditions is shown on Figure 3.8.12.
Figure 3.8.12 Interaction curve for bearing pile

example

3.9 HANDLING CONSIDERATIONS

Prefabrication requires careful attention to loads and stresses during all the handling stages from fabrication to
erection. The design and layout of lifting devices, handling and erection are usually the sole responsibility of the
precast manufacturer and/or erector.
3.9.1 Form Suction and Impact Factors

Elements are subject to forces during stripping in addition to the mass of the element. These forces, such as suc-
tion forces due to form conditions as that shown in Figure 3.9.1, depend on methods of forming, surface treatment,
and element geometry. During handling, elements may be subjected to dynamic forces. For purposes of determin-
ing concrete stresses and reinforcement, it is common practice to factor up the panel mass and apply the resulting
Stripping
Finish
Exposed Smooth
aggregate form
Element type (form oil
with
only)
retarder
Flat, with removable side
forms, no false joints or 1.2 1.3
reveals
Flat, with false joints and/or

1.3 1.4
reveals
Fixed forms with proper

(4) 1.4 1.6
draft
Sculptured 1.5 1.7

(2) (3)
Yard handling and erection
All elements 1.2

Transportation(2)
All elements 1.5

Figure 3.9.1 Panel draft (1)
Factors used in the flexural design of elements. At
stripping, suction between product and form introduces
force as an equivalent static dead load. Values used are forces, that are treated here by introducing a multiplier on
based on the experience of the manufacturer. Figure product weight
3.9.2 provides multipliers that may be used to determine (2)
Unfavourable conditions due to road surface, equipment,
equivalent static loads. etc. may require the use of higher values. See Section
3.9.5.
3.9.2 Flexure (3)
Under certain circumstances may be higher.
(4)
The arrangement of lifting devices is designed to suit the For example, double tees, channels and fluted panels.
manufacturing process, the strength of concrete at time
of stripping and the erection method. Stresses are eval- Figure 3.9.2 Equivalent static load multipliers(1) to
uated based on the gross section properties when the determine stripping and dynamic forces
maximum moments at the time of stripping have been
determined. Embedded devices used for stripping may
be used again for erection. Additional devices may be required to rotate the panel from the stripped and handled
position to the final position in a structure.

Flat panels
Figures 3.9.3 and 3.9.4 contain methods and formulae for calculating stripping stresses. Ribbed panels must be
stripped by lifting vertically from the form.
Lift lines that are inclined to the plane of a panel will induce in-plane compression. This can increase the flexural
stresses in a panel, see Figures 3.9.6 and 3.9.7. Even though the effects of non-vertical lifting lines should be ac-
counted for, it is not recommended that this effect be allowed to dominate design moments. When this condition
exists, consideration could be given to using spreader beams, two cranes or other mechanisms to reduce the lifting
angle and thus the effect of lateral forces.
Two point pick-up

Maximum moments (approximate)
2
Mx+ = Mx = 0.0107 wa b
2
Mz = Mz+ = 0.0107 wab
b
Mx acting over a section of width 15t or , Two point pick-up
2
whichever is less Maximum moments (approximate)
a 2
Mz acting over a section of width Mx = wa /8 per unit width
2 2
Mz = Mz+ = 0.0125 wab
Four point pick-up a
Mz acting over a section of width
Maximum moments (approximate) 2
2 Four point pick-up
Mx+ = Mx = 0.0054 wa b
Mz = Mz+ = 0.0027 wab
2 Maximum moments (approximate)
b 2
Mx = wa /8 per unit width
Mx acting over a section of width 15t or ,
4 Mz = Mz+ = 0.0031 wab
2
whichever is less a
Mz acting over a section of width
Mz acting over a section of width a/2 2
Figure 3.9.3 Moments developed in panels stripped flat Figure 3.9.4 Moments developed in panels stripped
on one edge

Figure 3.9.5 Stripping from a tilt table
When available, the use of a tilt table will significantly

reduce stripping stresses. The slight inclination of the
panel as it is lifted from the tilted position to the vertical
may be neglected when determining stripping forces
and stresses (Figure 3.9.5).
Elements of constant cross section Figure 3.9.6 Pick-up points for equal stresses of a
The section modulii of top and bottom fibres may not ribbed element
be identical. The designer must determine which face is
controlling when choosing the position and number of
lift points.
Controlling design limitations:
1. Tensile stresses on both faces shall be less than that
causing cracking (Section 3.4.2),
2. Tensile stress on one face shall be less than that
causing cracking, with controlled cracking permitted
on the other face, or
3. Controlled cracking permitted on both faces.
Elements of varying cross section

The design guidelines listed under the previous sec-
tion are only applicable for elements of constant cross
section. A trial and error process will determine the
location of lift points to result in acceptable stresses.
Rolling blocks may be employed to handle and erect
long elements of varying cross section—refer to Figure
3.9.8. The forces in the lifting lines will be equal. The
stress analysis can proceed by considering a beam with
varying load supported by equal reactions.
The force in inclined lift lines can be determined from
Figure 3.9.9.
Figure 3.9.7 Moments caused by eccentric lifting

Figure 3.9.8 Arrangement for equalizing lifting loads
Figure 3.9.9 Determination of force in inclined lift

Handling and lifting devices lines
Lifting devices may be strand, cable loops, threaded
inserts or other proprietary devices. Lifting devices
require ductility as they are subjected to dynamic
loads. Deformed reinforcing bars should not be used
for lifting loops as the deformations result in stress
concentrations from shackle pins. Looped aircraft
cable is used for stripping, edge lifting and erecting
panels. Precast manufacturers have developed safe
capacity values for strand and wire rope lifting loops
through tests. A swivel plate as shown in Figure 3.9.10
can be used to ensure that an embedded insert acts
primarily in tension.
Industry practice is to design handling and erection
devices for a capacity of four times the anticipated
load.
Connection hardware should be used for lifting only
when designed for such purposes. The drawings
should clearly indicate which devices are intended to
be used for lifting and handling.
Figure 3.9.10 Swivel plate

Example 3-30 Design for handling
Given:
A window unit of exposed aggregate is to be cast
face down.
Wd = (5.0)(11.5) + (2.19)(42.1) = 150 kN
Lifting loops are placed symmetrically about the cen-

tre of gravity of the element. Assume critical cracking
stress will occur in the narrow sections of the unit.
For equal stresses on each face:
ft = fb
M yt M+ yb
=
I I
yb + 369 +
M = M = M = 1.60M+
yt 231
Fy 150
Fx = = = 43.3 kN
tan 2 tan60o
yc = yt + 70 = 301mm
(301)
M = (43.3) = 13.0 kN - m
103
Section properties:
Ag = 149000 mm2
I = 4291 106 mm4
yb = 369 mm
St = 18600 103 mm3
Sb = 11600 103 mm3
Problem:
Locate the pick-up points to minimize tension stress
in the concrete, and design handling reinforcement.
Solution:
Dead load of element assuming 1.6 multiplier (Figure
3.9.2): Continued


required. For illustrative purposes, determine
the reinforcing required for controlled cracking,
assuming a permissible crack width = 0.12 mm:
35.2
M = = 18.7 kN m per mullion
2
26.5
M+ = = 13.3 kN m
2
+
Reinforcement for M :
d = 560 mm
Assume:
jd = 0.9d = 504 mm
2 kd = 0.3d = 168 mm
+ (3100 x) (11.5) 2500
M = (75) h1 = 560 168 = 392 mm
103 2 103
h2 = 600 168 = 432 mm
600 2800
(42.1) + 13.0 h2/h1 = 1.10
103 103
= 139 75.0x
For a crack width of 0.12 mm, from Section 3.4.2:

M
–
= h
w = 11 10 6 2 fs 3 dc A
2 h1
600 (x 300) (11.5) x 600
(42.1) + 0.12
103 103 2 103 fs = = 135 MPa
6
(11 10 )(1.10)3 (40)(80)(125)
= 5.8x 2 + 18.4x 5.5
M = 1.60M+ M+ (13.3)(106 )
Approx. As = = = 196 mm2
0.9dfs (0.9)(560)(135)
5.8x2 + 18.4x 5.5 = (1.60)(139 75.0x)
0.2 fc 0.2 35
5.8x 2 + 138.4x 227.9 = 0 As,min = bt h = (125)(600)
fy 400
x = 1540 mm
use: x = 1500 mm = 1.5 m = 222 mm2 (controls)
M+ = 139 (75)(1.5) = 26.5 kN- m Use: 3 - 10M bars (As = 300 mm2) at the bottom of
2 the section.
M = (5.8)(1.5) + (18.4)(1.5) 5.5 = 35.2 kN-m
M (35.2)(106 ) Reinforcement for M– :

ft = = = 0.9 MPa 0.12
St (2)(18,600 103 ) fs = = 111MPa
6
+ 6
(11 10 )(1.10)3 (40)(80)(222)
M (26.5)(10 )
fb = = = 1.1MPa (17.6)(106 )
Sb (2)(11,600 103 ) Approx. As = = 315 mm2
(0.9)(560)(111)
This stress will allow stripping at f’ci as low as 15
Use: 4 – 10M bars (As = 400 mm2) at the top of the
MPa without cracking the section. Reinforcing is not
section.

3.9.3 Lateral Stability

Consideration must be given to long elements with narrow compression flanges during handling, transportation
and erection. Unlike the classical buckling of steel I beams, the lateral stability of long precast members is depen-
dent on the roll stiffness of the supports (i.e. lifting loops, truck, or bearing pads). The issue of lateral stability is
actually an analysis of lateral bending and equilibrium, in which lateral stresses can be significant.
A theory for evaluating the lateral stability of prestressed I-beams developed in [26] is summarized below.
For a hanging beam or a beam supported from below, an equilibrium diagram is used to derive a factor of safety
against cracking (FS) and a factor of safety against failure or roll-over (FS’), where in general:
resisting moment
factor of safety =
applied moment
For a hanging beam, see Figure 3.9.11,
1
FS =
Zo / Yr + i / max
Yr max
FS =
Zo max + ei
For a beam supported from below, see Figure 3.9.12,
r( max )
FS =
Zo max + ei + Y max
r( max )
FS =
Zo max + ei + Y max
It is recommended to use FS ≥ 1.0 and FS’ ≥ 1.5. The factor of safety against failure or roll-over, FS’, is based on a
cracked section and therefore need not be taken less than the calculated factor of safety against cracking, FS.
The factor of safety is a function of beam geometry and support location. For a beam with curvature due to lateral
sweep and vertical camber the centroid is moved away from the roll axis, see Figure 3.9.13.
Reducing the distance between supports will reduce the offset of the beam centroid from the roll axis and improve
stability. The distance to the centroid can be calculated using the midspan offset for the full member length multi-
plied by the offset factor where: offset factor = (l 1 /l )2 1/ 3
The deflection of the centroid of a beam under its own weight is calculated by:
w
Zo = [0.1l 15 a 2l 13 + 3a 4l 1 + (6 / 5)a 5 ]
12Ec I y l
This deflection can be adjusted for a cracked section at the tilt angle under consideration where: Zo = Zo (1+ 2.5 max )
The tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety against failure or roll-over is calculated as follows:
For a hanging beam:
ei
max =
2.5Zo
for a beam supported from below:
zmax hr
max = +
r
The initial stresses at the time of handling significantly affect the factor of safety against cracking. The top flange
is very lightly stressed in compression or is in tension prior to applying the design loads. Very little lateral bending
may be tolerated before cracking begins. The factor of safety against cracking may need to be improved by adding
compression to the top flange. Similarly, if the distance between supports is reduced to improve stability, the top
flange compression due to self weight is reduced and additional compression may be required.

Figure 3.9.11 Equilibrium of hanging beam

Figure 3.9.12 Equilibrium of beam on elastic supports

Figure 3.9.13 Offset of centroid at a curved arc
For beams supported from below the factor of safety can be improved by increasing the rotational stiffness of the
supports. A method of determining the stiffness of vehicles, and guidelines for bearing pads are detailed in Refer-
ence [26].
For safe handling of long elements, lateral stability can be improved by the following methods:
1. Move the support points inward. Decreasing the distance between supports by a small amount can signifi-
cantly increase the factor of safety against failure or roll-over. Temporary post-tensioning can be used to
improve the factor of safety against cracking.
2. Increase the distance yr for hanging beams by using a rigid yoke at the lifting points. Decrease the distance
y for beams supported from below by using lower vehicles for transportation.
3. Increase the roll stiffness of vehicles used for transportation.
4. Attach temporary lateral stiffening in the form of strongbacks, stiffening trusses or pipe frames. Sometimes
two or more units can be transported together, side by side, and tied together to provide the necessary
lateral strength.
5. Increase the member’s lateral stiffness by revising the shape to increase Iy or increase the concrete strength
and thus Ec.
Example 3-31 Lateral stability

Given:
A 40 m long CPCI 1900 girder supported 2 m from Loads:
w = 12.80kN/m
each end.
W = 512 kN
l = 40 m
a = 2m Section Properties:
yb = 940 mm
l1 = 36 m
yt = 960 mm
Concrete: 6 4
fci = 35 MPa Iy = 14900 10 mm
bt = 900 mm
Eci = 28200 MPa
fc = 45 MPa Stresses at harp point (x = 16000 mm):
Ec = 31000 MPa
Continued

ftpres= 6.50 MPa (at transfer) 6) Tilt angle at failure

= 6.00 MPa (at 40 days) = 16
max = 0.1312 rad
ftself = + 7.00 MPa for gravity moment: (2.5)(372)
Mg = 1950 kN-m 7) Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle
Zo = (372)[1 + (2.5)(0.1312)] = 494 mm
Problem:
8) Factor of safety against cracking
Evaluate the lateral stability of this beam during
1
handling and transporting. FS = = 1.55 > 1.0 OK
(372 / 936 + 0.0170 / 0.0688)
Solution:
9) Factor of safety against failure
(A) Handling for a hanging beam
(936)(0.1312)
1) Initial eccentricity offset factor FS = = 1.52 < 1.55
(494)(0.1312) + 16
= (36000/40000)2 – 1/3 Therefore, FS = FS = 1.55 > 1.5 OK
= 0.477 Note: If the girder was supported 0.5 m from
each end then FS = 1.15 and FS = 1.15 < 1.5
lateral sweep = 20 mm
(B) Transporting when supported from below
lift loop placement offset = 6 mm
1) Radius of stability
ei = (20)(0.477) + 6 = 16 mm
rotational stiffness of vehicle = KO = 4250 kN-m
2) Height of roll axis above C.G. of beam 4250 106
r = = 8300 mm
camber = 50 mm 512 103
Yr = 960 – 50(0.477) = 936 mm 2) Initial eccentricity
3) Initial roll angle placing offset on truck = 25 mm
ei = (20)(0.477)+25 = 35 mm
θi = 16 / 936 = 0.0170 rad
3) Height of C.G. beam above roll axis
4) Theoretical lateral deflection
camber = 50 mm
12.8
Zo = height of C.G. beam above road
(12)(28200)(14900 106 )(40000) = 1800 + 100 + 940 = 2840 mm
[(0.1)(36000)5 (2000)2 (36000)3 height of roll axis above road
+(3)(2000)4 (36000) + (6 / 5)(2000)5 ] = 700 mm
Y = 2840 + 5(50)(0.477)–600 = 2264 mm
= 372 mm
4) Theoretical lateral deflection
5) Tilt angle at cracking
12.8
fr = 0.6 35 = 3.55 MPa Zo =
(12)(31000)(14900 106 )(40000)
(ftpres + ftself + fr )Iy
Mlat = [(0.1)(36000)5 (2000)2 (36000)3
(b t / 2) + (3)(2000) (36000) + (6 / 5)(2000)5 ]
4
( 6.50 + 7.00 + 3.55)(14900 106 ) /106 = 338 mm

=
(900 / 2) 5) Tilt angle at cracking
= 134 kN - m
=
Mlat 134
max = = 0.0688 rad
Mg 1950
Continued

fr = 0.6 45 = 4.02 MPa 8) Factor of safety against cracking

(8300)(0.0852 0.0800)
FS =
( 6.00 + 7.00 + 4.02)(14900 10 6 ) /10 6 (338)(0.0852) + 35 + (2264)(0.0852)
Mlat =
(900 / 2)
= 0.17 < 1.0 NG
= 166 kN - m
9) Factor of safety against rollover
166 (8300)(0.1827 0.0800)
max = = 0.0852 rad FS =
1950 (492)(0.1827) + 35 + (2264)(0.1827)
6) Tilt angle at maximum FS’ = 1.58 > 1.5 OK

roadway superelevation of vehicle Note:
= 0.0800 rad If the girder was supported 0.5 m from each end then
FS = 0.37 < 1.0 and FS = 1.44 < 1.5
distance from centre of truck to centre of tire
If the girder was supported 3.5 m from each end then
= 900 mm
FS = 0.07 < 1.0 and FS = 1.71
900 (600)(0.0800) The support location does not sufficiently improve
max = + 0.0800
8300 the factor of safety against cracking. Temporary
= 0.1827 rad post-tensioning or lateral stiffening can be provided
7) Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle θ’max for the top flange for transporting the girder with sup-
ports at 2m from each end. If ftpost = 2.70 MPa due to
Zo = (338)[1+ (2.5)(0.1827)] = 492 mm
post-tension then FS = 1.13 and FS’ = 1.58 are OK.
3.9.4 Storage
Stored elements should be supported at two points locat-
ed at or near those used for stripping and handling. Check
the member capacity when points other than those used
for stripping or handling are used for storage.
When more than two support points are required, the sup-
port system should be designed to preclude the bridging
of elements over supports. The equalization of stresses on
both faces will help to minimize deformations in storage.
Storage conditions should be provided to minimize warp-
ing. Warping may result from differential temperatures,
differential shrinkage and creep.
Bowing due to differential strain can be calculated using
Figure 3.9.14.
Warping in both directions can occur due to the support
conditions shown in Figure 3.9.15. The maximum deflec-
tion, Dmax, due to warping can be calculated using:
Figure 3.9.14 Bowing due to differential strain
5w d sin a4 b4
max = +
384Ec Ix Iz
a = panel support height
b = horizontal distance between supports

Creep, shrinkage and amount of reinforcement will

affect the amount of warping. The time dependent
displacement, D, at any time can be estimated as:
= i (1 + )
i = instantaneous displacement
= amplification due to creep and shrinkage –
see Figure 3.9.16
= A s /b d
3.9.5 Transportation
Weight and size limitations
Provincial and municipal governments regulate the size
and weight of shipping loads. Additional restrictions
may be imposed by climatic conditions, e.g. spring load
limits.
The location of supports is an important factor when
transporting elements. Panel supports should be cho-
sen such that the imposed tensile stresses do not ex-
ceed the value of 0.4l f’c with due consideration given
to the effect of dynamic loading. If the tensile stresses
exceed the above limit, auxiliary bracing, strong-backs,
space frames or rocker supports may be used.
3.9.6 Erection
The stress limitations and multipliers previously dis-
cussed for stripping and handling are applicable during
Figure 3.9.15 Panel warping in storage
erection.
The centre of gravity of the element should be comput-
ed and the lifting points located to ensure the element
will hang level during erection.
Walls with openings should be checked for erection
stresses and braced for handling when necessary.
Available erection equipment may influence the size of
precast elements, e.g. tower cranes.
The designer must consider site access to ensure suf-
ficient space to allow erection to proceed as contem-
plated. This may require coordination with other trades
to assure that there will be no interference with crane
access.
Each element must be stable after erection and offer
resistance to wind, accidental impact, and loads that
may be imposed due to other construction operations.
The arrangement of temporary bracing should not
interfere with adjacent erection and other construction
processes. Bracing must be maintained until permanent Figure 3.9.16 Effect of compression
connections are complete. reinforcement on creep

3.10 SPECIAL DESIGN SITUATIONS

3.10.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads
Floors and roofs may be subjected to line loads and concentrated loads.
The ability of hollow core systems to distribute loads through grouted shear keys has been demonstrated by tests.
[27] The PCI Hollow Core Committee recommends that line and concentrated loads can be resisted by an effective
section as described in Figure 3.10.1. If the total deck width, perpendicular to the span, is less than the span, modi-
fication may be required. Contact local CPCI member producers for recommendations.
Load distribution of stemmed elements may not necessarily follow the same pattern, because of their lower tor-
sional resistance.
Once the moments and shears are determined, the slabs are designed as described in Section 3.4.3.
The procedure can be simplified by investigating only critical sections. For example, shear may be determined by
dividing all distributable loads by 1.2 m and flexure at midspan can be checked by dividing the distributable loads
by 0.5l.
Figure 3.10.1 Assumed load distribution

Shears and moments

Distance from support 0 h/2 300 600 900 1200 1500 2250 3000 3810
1. Non-distributable Vf 26.7 26.0 24.6 22.5 20.4 18.3 16.2 11.0 5.7 0
loads Mf 0 2.6 7.7 14.7 21.2 27.0 32.1 42.3 48.5 50.8
2. Distributable Vf 135.4 132.0 125.0 114.6 104.2 93.8 83.4 48.0 0 0
loads Mf 0 13.4 39.1 75.0 107.8 137.5 164.1 211.4 235.2 235.2
3. Effective width (mm) 1220 1358 1628 2036 2444 2852 3259 3810 3810 3810
4. Distributed Vf 111.0 97.2 76.8 56.3 42.6 32.9 25.6 12.6 0 0
shear & Mf 0 9.9 24.0 36.8 44.1 48.2 50.4 55.5 61.7 61.7
moments
5. Design shears Vf 137.7 123.2 101.4 78.8 63.0 51.2 41.8 23.6 5.7 0
and moments Mf 0 12.5 31.7 51.5 65.3 75.2 82.5 97.8 110.2 112.5
Vf in kN/m; Mf in kN-m/m
Figure 3.10.2 Example 3-32 Load distribution in hollow core slabs
Example 3-32 Load distribution

Given: 3. Calculate the effective width along the span:
An untopped hollow core floor with 1220 mm wide
At the support: width = 1220 mm
slabs support a load bearing wall and concentrated
loads as shown in Figure 3.10.2. At 0.25 l (1905 mm): width = 0.5 l = 3810 mm
Problem: Between x = 0 and x = 1905 mm:

Determine the design loads for the slab supporting width= 1220 + (x/1905)(3810 1220)
the wall and concentrated loads. = 1220 + 1.36x

Solution:
Each step corresponds to a line number in the table 4. Divide the distributable shears and moments
in Figure 3.10.2: from step 2 by the effective widths from Step 3.
1. Calculate the shears and moments for the uniform 5. Add the distributed shears and moments to the
loads: shears and moments from Step 1.
wf = (1.25)(2.7 + 0.5) + (1.5)(2.0) = 7.0 kN/ m2

2. Calculate the shears and moments for the concen-
trated and line loads:
wf = (1.25)(9.5) + (1.5)(15.2) = 34.7 kN/m
P1f = (1.25)(2.2) + (1.5)(4.4) = 9.4 kN
P2f = (1.25)(4.4) + (1.5)(13.3) = 25.4 kN


3.10.2 Effects of Openings

Openings may be provided in precast decks by:
(1) saw cutting after the deck is installed and grouted,
(2) forming, blocking out or sawing in the plant, or
(3) using short units with steel headers or other connections.
In hollow core or solid slabs, structural capacity is least affected by orienting the longest dimension of an open-
ing parallel to the span, aligning several openings parallel to the span, or by coring small holes to cut the fewest
strands. Angle headers can frame large openings.
Smaller openings, up to about 200 mm, are usually field drilled.
Openings through the flanges of double tee elements should be limited to the flat portion of the underside of the
flange.
Guidelines for the design of hollow core slabs around openings:

1. Openings located near the end of the span and extending into the span less than the lesser of 0.125l or 1.2 m
may be neglected when designing for flexure in the midspan region.
2. Strand development must be considered at both ends of an opening that cuts strand. (see Section 3.4.9)
3. Slabs adjacent to long openings (l /4 or more), or occur near the midspan, may be considered to have a free
edge for flexural design.
4. Slabs adjacent to openings closer to the end than 3l /8 may be considered to have a free edge for shear design.
Requirements for stemmed members with web openings:

1. Web openings should be located outside the strand development area
2. Vertical stirrups should be placed on each side of the opening to control cracking
3. Opening should be in areas of low shear and below the compression block
4. Member should be subjected to primarily uniformly distributed loading. If concentrated loads exist they have to
be acting at solid sections outside the opening
5. Minimum distance between openings should be at least equal to the opening height or 250 mm whichever is
greater
6. Member should be designed such that the tensile stresses do not exceed the modulus of rupture
3.10.3 Composite Topping with Hollow Core and Double Tee Slabs
Many precast floor and roof systems are untopped. A composite, cast-in-place concrete topping is sometimes used
for floor construction to add stiffness and strength for gravity loads and as a diaphragm to transfer lateral loads.
Tests have shown that the normal finished surface of hollow core and double tee decks will develop the interface
surface specified in CSA A23.3 when the precast surface is thoroughly cleaned and dampened before topping is
placed. Section 3.6.4 describes design procedures for horizontal shear transfer. In most cases, the allowable 0.42
MPa is enough to develop the full strength of the topping on precast decks.
The strength of the topping may be determined from the design requirements for the deck.
3.10.4 Cantilevers
The most effective way to design cantilevered elements will depend on the type of member, method of produc-
tion, span conditions and section properties of the element. The designer is advised to consult with CPCI members
to determine the most effective method.
Many producers prefer to design cantilevers as reinforced concrete elements using deformed reinforcing bars or
short pieces of unstressed strand to provide the negative moment resistance. When using unstressed strands, the
stress under factored loads should be limited to 400 MPa. Pretensioned strands are sometimes used to improve the
performance characteristics of cantilevers.

It is suggested that concrete tensile stresses due to specified loads be limited to 0.7 MPa when prestressed strands
are used and the cracking tension limited to 0.6 fc when non-prestressed reinforcement is used for negative
moment resistance.
Strand development may be a problem in cantilevers; it is suggested that when prestressed strand is used, the
design stress, fps, be limited to one-half that indicated by Figure 3.4.8.
3.11 MULTI-WYTHE PANEL DESIGN

3.11.1 General Double Wythe
Non-composite double wythe panels carry loads on the interior wythe. Composite sandwich panels are usually
prestressed with loads carried by both wythes. See Chapter 5 for more information.
The flexural design of two wythe sandwich panels for stripping, handling and service loads follows the same princi-
ples as those for single wythe panels as described in Sections 3.3 and 3.4. The flexural resistance, flexural stiffness
and axial resistance will depend upon the degree of interaction between the two wythes.
If the wythes are connected so full shear transfer can be achieved, the resistance and stiffness can be calculated
using the composite section and gross moment of inertia.
In a non-composite panel, the resistance and stiffness
are computed as a single structural wythe with the
structural wythe designed to carry the loads from the
non-structural wythe.
Semi-composite panels, with partial shear transfer
between wythes, behave between the above types. The
effective moment of inertia should be determined by
test or experience.
3.11.2 Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement shall comply with the require-
ments of CSA A23.3 Clause 16.4.3.
Prestressed reinforcement should provide an average
prestress after all losses of not less than 1.0 MPa. Pre-
stressing can be located and stressed to minimize unde-
sirable bowing.
3.11.3 Non-load Bearing Panel Design

Non-load bearing panels are wall elements resisting only
their self weight and lateral forces from wind and earth-
quake loads.
Unintended load transfer from or to adjacent panels
should be avoided. Joints should be detailed with suffi-
cient space to accommodate anticipated deformations
of the supporting structure and the panel.
The effect of the eccentricity of the non-load bearing
wythe upon the forces and moments developed in the
structural wythe should be considered for non-compos-
ite sandwich panels. If the total load of the non-load
bearing wythe, W, is transferred through a series of shear Figure 3.11.1 Effective beam widths for panel design

connectors, a beam portion equal to the spacing between connectors, but not greater than 8t, may be assumed,
see Figure 3.11.1(b).
3.11.4 Load Bearing Panel Design

Load bearing panels are those elements that, in addition to their own weight, support or transfer loads originating
at other locations of a structure. Panels continuously supported along their bottom edge will uniformly transfer the
superimposed loads to the foundation or other components. Shear walls and bearing walls can be designed to
provide lateral load resistance for a structure.
The vertical load resistance of load bearing panels can be determined using the design methods in Section 2.7.
Connection design for vertical and lateral load transfer is covered in Chapter 4.
Example 3-33 Non-composite, reinforced, non-load bearing panel
Given: Assuming that the exterior non-load bearing wythe

3500 x 2500 non-composite flat panel has a retarded exposed aggregate finish cast face
down, the load multiplier from Figure 3.9.1 is 1.2.
Concrete:
fc = 35 MPa
fci = 15 MPa
Normal Density
Section properties of structural wythe:
Ag = 100000 mm2 / m
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width is
I = 83 106 mm4 / m half the total panel width = 1750 mm. Extrapolating
S = 1667 103 mm3 / m from Figure 3.9.3, the effective flexural width is the
2 lesser of:
Wind service load = 1.0 kN/m
(2500 700)/2 = 900 mm (controls)
Problem:
10t = (10)(100) = 1000 mm
Determine the flexural stresses and required rein-
forcement for stripping and for service conditions. 3500/2 = 1750 mm
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(0.7)2
Solution: Mx = = 2.29 kN - m / m
(2)(0.9)
1. Determine the moments during stripping:
(4.0)(1.75)(1.2)(1.8)2 2.29
Calculate the weight of the panel per unit area: M+x = 2.64 kN - m / m
3
(8)(0.9) 2
Exterior wythe: (0.065)(2400)(9.8)/10 = 1.5
3 For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width
Interior wythe: (0.100)(2400)(9.8)/10 = 2.4
3 for loading on the stripping inserts is determined
Insulation: (7)(9.8)/10 = 0.1
2 from statics to be 1450 mm and the effective flexural
Total = 4.0 (kN/m )
width is the lesser of: Continued


2000/2 = 1000 mm (controls) W1 = (1.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 13.2 kN
10t = 1000 mm W2 = (2.5)(3.5)(2.5) = 21.9 kN
(700)(2) = 1400 mm Assuming the support points for the panel con-
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(0.75)2 nections are 50 mm from the inside face of the
Mz = = 1.96 kN - m / m panel:
(2)(1.0)
e1 = 208 mm
(4.0)(1.45)(1.2)(2.0)2
M+z = 1.96 = 1.53 kN - m / m e2 = 100 mm
(8.0)(1.0)
(13.2)(0.208) + (21.9)(0.1)
T =C= = 2.6 kN
The maximum moment at stripping is 1.9
M+x = 2.64 kN×m/m. 8t = (8)(100) = 800 mm
Ta (2.6)(1.9)
2. Determine moments due to wind: M+x = = = 3.09 kN - m/ m
2 (2)(0.8)
For bending about the x-x axis, the tributary width
Tb (2.6)(2.0)
is 1750 mm and the effective width is 950 mm: M+z = = = 1.63 kN - m/ m
4 (4)(0.8)
4. Determine the combined moments due to
wind and load eccentricity:
M+x = 0.83 + 3.09 = 3.92 kN- m/ m (controls)
M+z = 0.73 + 1.63 = 2.36 kN- m/ m
5. Calculate flexural stresses:
At stripping:
(2.64)(106 )
f = = 1.6 MPa
(1667 103 )
0.4 fci = (0.4)(1.0) 15 = 1.5 MPa < 1.6
At service load:
(3.92)(106 )
f = = 2.4 MPa
(1.0)(1.75)(0.45)2 (1667 103 )
Mx = = 0.19 kN - m / m
(2)(0.95) 0.4 fc = (0.4)(1.0) 35 = 2.3 MPa < 2.4
2
(1.0)(1.75)(1.9)
M+x = = 0.83 kN - m / m 6. Determine reinforcement requirements:
(8)(0.95)
Assume a single layer of mesh with a wire spacing
For bending about the z-z axis, the tributary width is
of 100 mm at mid-depth of the structural wythe:
1450 mm and the effective width is 1000 mm:
d = 50 mm
(1.0)(1.45)(0.75)2 jd = (0.9)(50) = 45 mm
Mz = = 0.41kN - m / m
(2)(1.0) kd = (0.3)(50) = 15 mm
(1.0)(1.45)(2.0)2 h1 = 50 15 = 35 mm
M+z = = 0.73 kN - m / m
(8)(1.0) h2 = 100 15 = 85 mm
3. Determine moments due to the eccentricity of h2 85
= = 2.42
the loads: h1 35
From Figure 3.11.1, assuming that the outside
Since the interior structural wythe is not exposed
wythe is supported by two shear connectors spaced
to view or to the weather, use the maximum
equally on the panel:
w = 0.40 mm:
Continued


w 7. Shear connector and tie design:
fs =
h2 3 The shear connectors are designed to carry the
(11 10 6 ) dA c
h1 entire weight of the non-structural wythe:
0.40 Vf = (1.25)(1.5)(2.5)(3.5) = 16.4 kN
= = 213 MPa
6
(11 10 )(2.42)3 (50)(100)(70) If tension ties are provided on 600 mm centres in
The controlling moment is M+x under
combined ser- each direction:
vice wind load and eccentricity of the dead loads: Tf = (1.25)(1.2)(1.5)(0.6)(0.6) = 0.8 kN
M (3.92)(10 6 ) See Section 5.6.8 for further information on wythe
As = = = 410 mm2 / m
0.9dfs (0.9)(50)(213) connector design.
For the non-structural wythe, use the minimum
reinforcement of (0.001)(65)(1000) = 65 mm2/m with a
maximum wire spacing of 150 mm.
Example 3-34 Composite, prestressed, non-load bearing flat panel
Given:
2400 x 6000 composite prestressed flat panel
Problem:
Determine the required prestressed reinforcement and
check the horizontal shear capacity between wythes.
Solution:
1. Stripping stresses:
Concrete:
fci = 35 MPa
fci = 25 MPa
Normal Density
From Figure 3.9.1, use a load multiplier of 1.2 at strip-
Section properties of composite section: ping. Stresses due to dead load of element are:
2
Ag = 420000 mm (10.0)(1.2)(5.7)2
6 4 M = = 48.7 kN - m
I = 2230 10 mm 8
yb = 116 mm (48.7)(106 )
fb = = 2.5 MPa
yt = 109mm (19200 103 )
3 3
Sb = 19200 10 mm (48.7)(106 )
3 3 ft = = 2.4 MPa
St = 20500 10 mm (20500 103 )
= 1020 kg/m
2. Storage stresses:
= 10.0 kN/m
2 Continued
Wind service load = 1.2 kN/m


6. Check total stresses at stripping:
Wythe Stripping Prestress Total

100 mm + 2.4 + 1.5 + 3.9 OK
75 mm 2.5 + 2.0 0.5 OK
By inspection, stresses are not critical.
7. Check the horizontal shear resistance:
3. Transportation stresses:
Factored moment at stripping:
Assume that the element is supported as shown
Mf = (1.25)(48.7) = 60.9 kN-m
during transportation. Use a load multiplier of 1.5:
Assume a moment arm of 130 m between tension
and compression forces:
60.9
T =C= = 468 kN
0.13
Or, alternatively, calculate the shear flow per unit
(10.0)(1.5)(1.2)2
M = = 10.8 kN - m width at a section right at the underside of the
2 top wythe
(10.0)(1.5)(4.5)2 10.8 qu/mm = ( Vu Q)/ Ix
M+ = 32.6 kN - m
8 2 Y = { (100)(175) + (75)(75)/2}/ (100+75)
4. Service wind stresses: = 116 mm
(1.2)(2.4)(1.0)2 Ix
3 2 3
= (100) /12 + (100)(59) + (75) /12 + (75)(78.5)
2
M = = 1.5 kN - m
2 = 928758 mm /mm
4
(1.2)(2.4)(5.0)2
M+ = = 9.0 kN - m Vu = (1.0)(1.2)(5.7)/2 = 34.2 kN
8 2
Q = (100)(59) = 5900 mm /mm
5. Select prestressed reinforcement:
qu = (34.2)(5900)(2400) / (928758)
The critical loading condition is stripping. = 521.4 KN > 468 kN
It is good practice to increase the stress in the
The shear ties must be designed to resist this
exterior wythe above that in the interior wythe to
force.
counteract the usual tendency of a panel to bow
outward. By applying the same prestress force to Total shear force in half span to be resisted by
both the interior and the thinner exterior wythe, shear ties = (qu)(l)/ 4
the desired effect will be achieved. Try providing
qu (per half span) = (521)(5.7)/4 = 742 KN
1.5 MPa prestress in the 100 mm wythe:
Area of shear ties in half a span
P = (1.5)(100)(2400)/103 = 360 kN
As = (qu)/ ( fy)
Stress in 75 mm wythe: = (742)(1000)/ ((.85)(400))
(360)(103 ) = 2182 mm
2
f = = 2.0 MPa
(75)(2400)
Use 5 – 11 mm 1860 MPa strands in each wythe.

3.12 DESIGN OF POST-TENSIONED ELEMENTS

3.12.1 General
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing where ten-
dons are stressed after the concrete has reached a pre-
determined strength. Post-tensioning is used primarily
in continuous cast-in-place construction, but has useful
application in precast structures for continuity connec-
tions in segmental construction and in heavily loaded
members such as transfer girders. This section applies to
post-tensioned flexural elements used in buildings.
The use of post-tensioning allows designers to con-
trol the behaviour of a structure within a broad range
of loading conditions. Post-tensioning forces can be
applied at various stages during construction to offset
permanent loads and can be applied in increments.
Both bonded or unbonded post-tensioning tendons
may be used.
3.12.2 Methods of Analysis

It is necessary in a post-tensioned design to determine
the required prestressing force and the number, size,
and profile of the tendons required to resist the service
loads. The flexural resistance of an element must be
checked at all the critical points.
Elastic analysis procedures are used to determine both
the strength and serviceability characteristics of indeter-
minate post-tensioned structures. The serviceability of
a structure is assessed by determining the stresses and Figure 3.12.1 Primary and secondary moments
deflections, both initial elastic and long term.
In simple span post-tensioned beams, the moments in-
duced by the post-tensioning are directly proportional to the eccentricity of the tendons in the beam cross-section.
The moments due to post-tensioning are not directly proportional to the tendon eccentricity in continuous or inde-
terminate post-tensioned structures. Deformations imposed by post-tensioning a continuous element are resisted
at points of restraint by other elements in a structure. The restraint to post-tensioning deformations modifies the
reactions and, affects the elastic moments and shears resulting from the post-tensioning. The moments resulting
from the restraints to the prestressing deformations are called secondary moments, a term used because moments
are induced by the primary post-tensioning moment, Pe, and not because the secondary moments are negligible
nor smaller than the primary moment.
Primary and secondary moments due to post-tensioning are illustrated for a two-span continuous beam in Figure
3.12.1. This beam has a post-tensioning force, P, acting at a constant eccentricity, e. The primary moment in the
beam has a magnitude, Pe, as shown in Figure 3.12.1(b) that will causes a theoretical upward deflection at the cen-
tre support of Pel 2/(2EI). The reactions required to restrain the beam on the supports A, B and C are shown in Fig-
ure 3.12.1(c). Note that the algebraic sum of the secondary reactions is zero and that, the secondary moment at the
interior support for this case is 150 percent of the primary moment and of opposite sign. The secondary moment
always varies linearly between the supports since the secondary moment is caused by the induced reactions.
Any method of elastic analysis may be applied to indeterminate post-tensioned structures. Many simple structures
can be analyzed with a hand calculator using the equivalent load method or the load balancing method.

Equivalent load method of analysis

The effect of a prestressing force on an element
can be determined by considering the prestressing
force to be replaced by equivalent external loads. In
the simple-span beam shown in Figure 3.12.2(a), the
horizontal forces P1 and P2, are exerted at the ends
of the element along with a vertical force equal to P2
tana, that may be neglected in the design of the beam
for flexure because the force occurs directly over the
support. In addition to these loads, the curved tendon
(assumed parabolic) exerts a continuous upward force
on the beam along its entire length. If friction between
the tendon and the concrete is neglected, the force
exerted on the concrete by the tendon is normal to
the plane of contact and the tension in the tendon is
constant. The normal force, wp, exerted by the tendon
is equal to the tension in the tendon divided by its
radius of curvature, as shown in Figure 3.12.2(b).
Most post-tensioned beams are shallow, therefore the
horizontal component of the tension in the tendon
may be assumed equal to the tension. Given this
assumption, the horizontal component of the tendon
force may be assumed constant. This maintains the
tendon in equilibrium with the uniform vertical load,
wp, as shown in Figure 3.12.2(c).
The magnitude of the vertical load exerted by the
element to hold the tendon in equilibrium may be
derived in various ways. Taking one-half of the ten-
don as a free body, the forces are as shown in Figure
3.12.2(d). Summing moments about the support A and
solving for the load, wp, provides:
8P2 e
wp =
2
l
The load exerted by the tendon on the element is Figure 3.12.2 Equivalent load analysis
equal but opposite to this load:
8P2 e
wp =
2
l
The sign convention considers wp to be positive when it acts downward.
Summing the loads exerted by the tendons on the simple span beam of Figure 3.12.2(a) results in the loads shown
in Figure 3.12.2(e). Calculating equivalent loads is probably not justified for simple span beams where the moments
induced by the tendons are directly proportional to the tendon eccentricity. However, for continuous beams, the
use of equivalent load method permits analysis for the total moment effects of post-tensioning by considering a
single additional loading case.
Equivalent load equations are given in Figure 8.1.6. Various combinations of equivalent loads may be superim-
posed. For example, the moments due to end eccentricity can be added to the equivalent load moments caused
by the tendon profile.

Using the equivalent load procedure, the total post-tensioning moments at supports may be obtained using meth-
ods of indeterminate structural analysis. Determine the post-tensioning moments at the supports. Post-tensioning
moments between supports may be obtained as shown in Figure 3.12.3 by superimposing the simple beam mo-
ment diagram due to the post-tensioning loads on the base line provided by connecting the total post-tensioning
moments at the supports.
It is simpler to obtain interior post-tensioning moments using x x
M = Pe + MAB + (M BA MAB ) P e A +(eB eA )
the tendon profile. The interior moments may be expressed as: l l
where MAB and MBA are the total post-tensioning moments at two adjacent supports, P is the tendon force, and
eA, eB, and e are the eccentricities of the tendon at A, B and x, respectively. Eccentricity is taken as negative when
the tendon is below the centroid and positive when above the centroid of the cross-section. For the tendon profile
in Figure 3.12.3, the moment at x is the algebraic sum of the end moments at the point and the moment of the
tendon force, P, times the distance from the tendon to the straight line connecting the ends of the tendon over the
supports
Load balancing method of analysis:

The prestressing force and eccentricity are selected to balance or counteract the dead load of the structure and
often some portion of the live load. Figure 3.12.4 illustrates the load-balancing method. The moment diagram of
the prestressing effects is chosen to be similar to that of the applied loads but opposite in sign. The goal is to have
the net stress in the beam equal to the axial compressive stress from the post-tensioning, P/Ag since the moment
induced by the tendon and the load offset one another. This concept allows a designer to visualize the behaviour
of statically indeterminate structures. It simplifies design calculations since only the total prestressing moment
induced by the post-tensioning needs to be considered rather than separate considerations of primary and sec-
ondary moments.
The net moment in a structure at any point is that resulting from the load not balanced by the post-tensioning. The
l l
net stress on the section may be calculated from P/Ag + Mn /S where Mn is the net (unbalanced) bending moment
on the section. For continuous designs, the tendon geometry can be as shown in Figure 3.12.4(b).
Some qualifications are necessary when using this technique:
1. It is not practical to install tendons with a sharp break in curvature at the supports due to the stiffness of the ten-
dons. Therefore it is not possible to duplicate the exact moment curve resulting in some unbalanced moments.
Figure 3.12.4 Load balancing
Figure 3.12.3 Interior post-tensioning moments

2. The load-balancing technique should be adjusted to consider

friction losses and the resulting variation of the force in a ten- One way slab 48
don along its length. Two way slab 45
3. Load-balancing does not account directly for moments in- Two way slab with drop panel
(minimum drop panel L/6 each way) 50
duced by tendons anchored eccentrically at ends free to
rotate. Two way slab with 2-way beams 55
Waffle slab (1500 x 1500 grid) 35
3.12.3 Design for Service Loads Beams b P h/3 20
Flexural design for service loads is covered in Section 3.4, as well as Beams b P 3h 30
in Examples 3-35, 3-36, and 3-37 of this section. These examples il- *These values are appropriate for elements
lustrate a continuous beam, a one way slab, and a flat plate respec- whose live load is less than the dead load.
tively. Calculation of camber and deflection is given in Section 3.5.
Fig. 3.12.5 Typical span-depth ratios*
Preliminary sizing of elements
There are no code recommendations for the span-depth ratios
of post-tensioned elements. The values shown in Figure 3.12.5 are provided as a guide for preliminary sizing of
elements. These ratios may be increased if calculations verify that deflection, camber, vibrations are acceptable.
Concrete cover must also be considered when sizing elements. CSA A23.4, Table 1 gives the required cover to
reinforcement.
Type and Placement of Tendons

Post-tensioned tendons may consist of high-strength strand, wire or bars. Sizes and capacities are listed in Section
8.2 Tendon profiles are usually parabolic. Straight-line profiles are used in segmental construction and for strength-
ening existing structures.
In two way post-tensioned cast-in-place slabs, it is common practice to band post-tensioning tendons over the
supports in one direction, while evenly distributing the tendons in the other direction. This reduces the expense of
placing the tendons by removing the need to weave tendons over and under each other to achieve draped profiles
in both directions. This method is useful in applications with irregular column spacings. Experience has shown that
a post-tensioned flat plate behaves as a flat plate regardless of where the tendons are placed. The load balancing
concept, described above, is useful in understanding the banding and distribution of tendons.
In the banded direction, the high points of the banded tendons are placed at the column locations. In the dis-
tributed direction, the high points of the tendons are placed at the column gridlines. The drape of the tendons
provides an upward force along the column gridline, except for a small area on either side of the column caused by
the reversed curvature of the tendon. This can be ignored. Low points are placed at or near midspan of the slab in
both directions.
The distributed tendons carry the loads to the column gridlines that, in turn, carry loads to the columns. The bal-
anced portion of the gravity loads is carried to the columns.
3.12.4 Prestress Losses

Post-tensioned elements are subject to a loss of prestress due to elastic shortening, creep, shrinkage, and stress re-
laxation as described in Section 3.4.4. In addition, post-tensioned tendons are subject to losses caused by friction
and anchorage set.
Friction losses
The stress loss due to friction is equal to fpo – fpx and may be determined using the following:
fpx = fp e (Kx +µ )
e = base of natural logarithm
= total angular change in radians between the tangents to the tendon
at the jacking end at a distance x from the jacking end

For values of (Kx + µa) less than 0.3, the above expression can be written in the form: fpx = fpo /(1+ Kx + µ )
Approximate values of the coefficients, K and µ, are given in Figure 3.12.6. Actual values may be obtained from the
tendon manufacturer.
Anchorage set loss is due to the slip that occurs in the
anchor at the jacking end. Figure 3.12.7 shows the variation Ep
y =
in the tendon force near the jacking end after the anchorage
has been set. The value fpi is the stress at the jacking end of the
= anchorage set
tendon after anchorage set loss. The length, y, of the tendon
affected by the anchorage set is given by: = slope shown in Figure 3.12.7
The quantity, i, is characteristic of a post-tensioning system and has a minimum value of 6 mm for prestressing
strands.
If i is known, y and fpp, the tendon stress at a distance y, can be computed and the level of prestress along the
tendon can be determined. Alternatively, the anchorage set loss can be calculated from the shaded area in Figure
3.12.7 divided by Ep.
The maximum values shown in Figure 3.12.7 for fpo, fpi and fpp are given in CSA A23.3, Clause 18.4.
fpo may not be greater than:
0.85 fpu
maximum value specified by strand manufacturer
0.94fpy
fpi may not be greater than:
0.82fpy
0.74fpu
These values apply immediately after transfer and before long term losses. The values of jacking stress, fpo, can be
adjusted to ensure that these constraints are met.
Wobble coefficient, K Curvature coefficient, µ

Type of tendon and sheath
per metre of length per radian
Tendons in flexible metal sheathing

-3
Wire tendons (3.3 to 5.0) 10 0.15 to 0.25
-3
7 wire strand (1.6 to 6.5) 10 0.15 to 0.25
High strength bars (0.3 to 2.0) 10
-3 0.08 to 0.30
Tendons in rigid metal sheath

-3
7 wire strand 0.7 10 0.15 to 0.25
Pre-greased tendons in extruded plastic sheath

-3
Wire tendons and 7 wire strand (1.0 to 6.5) 10 0.05 to 0.15
Figure 3.12.6 Approximate friction coefficients for post-tensioned tendons

A value fpp is determined from the design requirements

and fpi is calculated as shown in Figure 3.12.7.
Anchorage set loss can have a significant effect in a
short tendon. In practice, the loss is usually compensat-
ed for by temporary overtensioning or shimming of the
anchor head.
The elongation of the tendon during jacking is given
by:
l
fpx
= dx .
0
E p .
The computed elongation must be compared with
elongations measured during the actual jacking opera-
tion.
Long term losses

The calculation of losses in post-tensioned tendons
due to shrinkage, creep and relaxation are an important
part of the design process. Long term losses reduce the
effective stress in a tendon that affects the service load Figure 3.12.7 Anchorage set prestress loss
stresses in structural elements. Refer to Section 3.4.4 for
information on calculating these values.
3.12.5 Design for Factored Loads

Factored resistance
The applicable load factors should be applied to the
moments and shears obtained by elastic service load
analysis when checking the critical sections for flexural
and shear resistance. A load factor of 1.0 is applied to
secondary moments. Designs for flexure and shear for
factored loads are outlined in Section 3.3 and Section
3.6 and are illustrated in examples 3-35, 3-36 and 3-37.
In continuous post-tensioned elements, attention
should be paid to the distribution of shear imposed
by the post-tensioned tendons. This is illustrated in
Figure 3.12.8. Shear resulting from secondary reac-
tions should also be included for statically indetermi-
nate structures.
Figure 3.12.8 Shear in post-tensioned element with

reverse curvature in tendon

Example 3-35 Two span continuous T-beam

Given: For this beam, the effective flange width is the
Two span cast-in-place post-tensioned T-beams, lesser of:
spaced 8 m on centres and supported by 500 x 600
1. Not applicable
mm columns, 3000 mm long, at 17 m spacing as
shown. 2. 1/10l + bw = 1/10 (17000)(2) + 350 = 3750 mm
(governs)
3. (2)(12)t + bw = (2)(12)(150) +350 = 3950 mm
4. 0.5l 2 = (0.5)(8000) = 4000 mm
Loads:
Dead Load (including full slab) = 35.1 kN/m
Concrete:
fci = 25 MPa Live Load = (2.5)(8.0) = 20.0 kN/m
fc = 35 MPa 1 = 0.798 1 = 0.883 Problem:
Normal Density Design bonded post-tensioned flexural reinforce-
ment.
15 mm 1860 MPa low relaxation strands Service load moments:
2 The dead and live load moments, with two live load
Ap = 140 mm /strand
patterns considered, namely: full live load covering
fpy = 1675 MPa two spans and line load covering only one span,
are determined by any analytical method to solve
statically indeterminate structures such as moment
distribution, and are shown in the table on page
3-120.
Tendon profile:
The effects of the post-tensioning are treated
separately from the effects of the loads, and are
dependent on frame action and the magnitude and
positioning of the post-tensioning tendons.
Section properties:
Conservatively the provisions of Clause 10.3.3 of
CSA A23.3 were used to determine the effective
flange width even though not strictly required by
Clause 18.1.3. The overall prestress level of the
beam and the slab are checked to ensure they
meet code minimums at the end of this example.
In accordance with Clause 10.3.3, the overhang Assume one end stressing and bonded strands. A
width on either side of the web is calculated as parabolic tendon profile is selected as shown:
the lesser of:
Friction losses:
1. 1/5 the span length for simply supported
Calculate friction losses using:
beams,
fpx = fpo e (Kx +µ )
2. 1/10 the span length for continuous beams
3. 12 times the slab thickness K = 0.0023 / m
4. One-half the clear distance to the next web. µ = 0.18 / rad Continued


Assume a prestress loss of 230 MPa in addition to
the loss due to the anchor set of 14 mm, with one
end stressing at support 1. To find the point of
contraflexure, equate the slopes of two parabolas at
distance x:
(2)(113) (2)(612)
=
x 8500 x
x = 1325mm
(1860)(0.800 0.705)
=
(17)(1000)
The
3
angles a1 and a2 are determined to be: = 10.39 10 MPa / mm
1 (2)(612)
1 = tan = 0.143 rad Ep
8500 y =
1 (2)(612)
2 = tan = 0.169 rad
7180 (190000)(14)
= = 16000 mm
Assuming a maximum temporary jacking stress of 10.39 10 3
0.80 fpu in the tendon at point 1, the jacking stress-
and the prestress at sections 1 and 2‚ can be
es, expressed as a fraction of fpu, are determined to
determined assuming equal but opposite slopes for
be:
curves A and B.
1. = 0.800
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(0.143)] Section Properties
2. 0.800e = 0.765 2
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(2)(0.169)] Ag = 800760 mm
3. 0.765e = 0.705 Sb = 69.1
6
10 mm
3
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(2)(0.169)]
4. 0.705e = 0.651 St = 224.9 10 mm
6 3
[(0.0023)(8.5)+(0.18)(0.143)] Location
5. 0.651e = 0.622 Md (kN - m) 495 + 524 1021
Ml (kN - m) 331 + 349 581
The variation of prestress along the beam at jacking
Mtotal (kN - m) 826 + 873 1062
is shown in curve A. After anchor set, the reduction
e (mm) 0 612 113
in the prestress at the jacking end is shown by curve
e (mm) 280 320 360
B. Note that the prestress at locations 1 and 2‚
e + e (mm) 280 + 292 473
approximately equals the prestress at locations 5
% initial prestress 62.2 65.1 70.5
and 4, respectively.
fpi (MPa) 1157 1211 1311
The length, y, over which the anchorage set is fpe (MPa) 927 981 1081
effective is determined as follows, assuming a linear Pi (kN) 2106 2204 2386
variation in prestress between supports 1 and 3: Pe (kN) 1687 1785 1967
The anchorage set loss can be checked using the

anchorage set area approach. The displacement of
the jacking end of the tendon is given by:
Continued

(fpu )(anchorage set area) 1 2 3

= 1 = + (0.113)(1.32)2
Ep (EI)(17.0) 3 8
(1860) (8500) 2 3
= [(0.8 + 0.765) (0.612)(7.18) 8.5 (7.18)
190,000 2 3 8
(7500) 2 3
(0.624 + 0.659)] + (0.765 0.659) (0.612)(8.5) 8.5 (8.5)
2 3 8
= 15.6 mm 14 mm specified 2.08
=
EI
The elongation of the strand during jacking is
equal to the area under the curve A divided by Ep, 1 2 5
3 = (0.612)(8.5)2
and is given by: (EI)(17.0) 3 8
2 3
= (0.5)[0.8 + (2)(0.765 + 0.705 + 0.651) (0.612)(7.18) 8.5 + (7.18)
3 8
(1860)(8500)
+ 0.622] = 236 mm 2 3
190000 + (0.113)(1.32) 17.0 (1.32)
3 8
Initial and final tendon stress: 2.92
=
fpi = (fpu)(% prestress) EI
fpe = fpi 230 MPa Fixed end moments for 1 kN of virtual post-ten-
The initial and final tendon stresses are calculated sioning force are:
as shown in the table on this page. 2EI
F.E.M. @ = ( 3 2 1)
Secondary moments:
l
Secondary moments induced by post-tensioning 2EI
2.92 2.08
= (2) = 0.15 kN - m
are accounted for by considering the effects of 17.0
EI EI
restraint at the supports. 2EI
F.E.M. @ = ( 3 2 1)
For simplicity, a virtual post tensioned force of 1
l
kN is used, giving the following primary moments: 2EI 2.08 2.92
= (2) = 0.44 kN - m
17.0 EI EI
3
M2 = (612)(1)/10 = 0.612 kN-m
Secondary moments are derived from these fixed
3
M3 = (113)(1)/10 = 0.113 kN-m end moments by analysis such as moment distri-
bution.
These secondary moments may be considered as
effective changes in the tendon profile in accor-
dance with the equation: M = P e
with the resulting values of ie of 280 mm at sup-
ports 1 and 5, 360 mm at 3 and 320 mm at 2
and 4, as shown in the table.
The unrestrained end rotations in the span are Required post-tensioning force:
found by any statical method, such as the moment
Use an allowable tensile stress of:
area method, as follows:
0.5 fc = 3.0 MPa
The required final prestress force, P, is determined
from the equation:
Continued

Prestress Load
fb ft fb ft fb ft
P / Ag + 2.63 +2.63 + 2.73 + 2.73 + 2.94 + 2.94
P (e + e) / S 8.53 + 2.63 + .9.26 2.84 16.2 + 5.05
Md / S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Initial Ml / S
Stresses + 1.26 + 3.05 + 4.4 + 2.2 + 1.47 + 3.47

Permissible 0.6 f ci 0.6 f ci 0.6 f ci 0.6 f ci 0.6 f ci 0.6 f ci
stresses + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0 + 15.0
OK OK OK OK OK OK
Pe / Ag + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.2 + 2.2 + 2.42 + 2.42
Pe (e + e) / S 6.84 + 2.1 + 7.58 2.31 13.5 + 4.1
Md / S + 7.16 2.2 7.58 + 2.31 + 14.7 4.52
Final Ml / S + 4.74 1.47 5.05 + 1.58 + 8.42 2.63
Stresses + 7.1 + 0.52 2.8 + 3.8 + 12.3 0.63
Permissible 0.6fc 0.6fc 0.5 fc 0.6fc 0.6fc 0.5 fc
stresses + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0
OK OK OK OK OK OK
Md + Ml P P(e + e) Determine number of strands required in the

0.5 fc = ± tendon:
S Ag S 1759 103
n = = 12.8
Md + Ml (981)(140)
0.5 fc
P = S Use 13 strands (Ap = 1820 mm )
2
1 e+ e
+ Determine initial and final prestress forces based
Ag S
on previously calculated stresses:
826 106 Po = Ap fpo
6
3.0
P = 224.9 10 / 103 = 270 kN
1 280 Pe = Ap fpe
+
800760 224.9 106 Values for the various locations are given in the
table. All stresses are within permissible values.
873 106
3.0
P = 69.1 106 / 103 = 1759 kN Factored flexural resistance:
1 292 At exterior supports 1 and 5.
+
800760 69.1 106 Mf = DMd + LMl + 1.0M *
= (1.25)( 495) + (1.5)( 331) + (1.0)(1687)(0.280)
P =
1602 106 = 643 kN-m
3.0
224.9 106 / 103 = 1230 kN
*According to Table 3.2.1, Case 1 should also be considered.
1 473
+ Determine if strain compatibility must be used to
800760 224.9 106 calculate the value of fpr:
Therefore, the prestress force at location 2‚ gov-

erns. Continued


kp = 2(1.04 fpy / fpu )
The code allows moments calculated at the face of
= (2)(1.04 1675 /1860) = 0.28
supports to be used in the design of beams.
c p A p fpu
= Calculate the shear force at the centreline of column:
dp 1 c fc 1bdp + kp p Ap fpu
wf = D w d + L wl
(0.9)(1820)(1860)
= = (1.25)(35.1) + (1.5)(20.0) = 73.9 kN/ m
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(0.883)(350)(687) + (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(1021 495)(1.25)
= 0.647 > 0.5 per Clause 18.6.2 (a) VfCL = (73.9)(8.5) +
17
Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following
(581 331)(1.5)
values were calculated: fpr = 1398 MPa and + = 689 kN
c = 407 mm. 17
a = 1c = (0.883)(407) = 359 mm Shear force at the face of the column:
VfCF = 689 (73.9)(0.25) = 670 kN
Determine flexural resistance:
Mr = p Ap fpr (d a/ 2) Moment at the column face:
= (0.9)(1820)(1398)(687 359 / 2) /106 VfCL + VfCF
Mf = DMd + LM + 1.0M (0.25)
= 1162kN - m > 643 kN - m OK 2
At midspan 2‚ and 4: = (1.25)( 1021) + (1.5)( 581)

Mr = DMd + LMl + 1.0M 689 + 670
+(1.0)(1945)(0.36) + (0.25)
= (1.25)(524) + (1.5)(349) + (1.0)(1785)(0.320) 2
= 1750 kN- m
= 1278 kN m
c p A p fpu
Check that the rectangular stress block lies within =
the flange of the T-Beam: dp 1 1 c fc bdp + kp p Ap fpu
kp = (2)(1.04 fpy / fpu ) (0.9)(1820)(1860)
=
= (2)(1.04 1675 /1860) = 0.28 (0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(350)(800) + (0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
p A p fpu = 0.570 > 0.5 (Clause 18.6.2 (a))

c =
1 1 c fc b + k p p A p fpu / dp
Therefore, use strain compatibility. The following
(0.9)(1820)(1860)
= values were calculated: fpr = 1581 MPa and c = 460
(0.28)(0.9)(1820)(1860)
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(3750) + mm.
825
a = 1c = (0.883)(460) = 407 mm
= 50mm < 150 mm flange thickness is OK
Treat as a rectangular section with b = 3750 mm: = (0.9)(1820)(1581)(800 407 / 2)
c 50 = 1546 kN-m > 1278 kN-m OK
= = 0.061 < 0.5 OK
dp 825 Check the stress on the gross concrete area:
Average value of Pe in bay 2 and 4 is 1785 kN.
(0.28)(50)
= (1860) 1 = 1828 MPa Stress on the gross area of the concrete:
825 Pe (1785)(103 )
a = 1c = (0.883)(50) = 44 mm =
Ag 825000
= 2.16 MPa > 0.8 MPa (Clause 18.12.2.3)
= (0.9)(1820)(1830)(825 41.5 / 2) /106
= 2407 kN-m > 1750 kN-m OK To complete this design, check the midspan deflec-
tion, and design the shear reinforcement.
At interior support 3:
Continued

Example 3-36 One way slab
Given: Experience shows that the required prestress

150 mm thick slab spanning one way over five balance load, wp, is between 80 and 100% of the
spans between beams on 8000 mm centres. slab weight when the total superimposed loads
are less than the slab weight.
Hence wp = 2.9 to 3.6 kN/m2, use wp = 3.3 kN/m2
(0.92wd).
The net service load causing flexural stress is:
3.6+2.5–3.3=2.8 kN/m2
Assume a bottom cover of 20 mm, a top cover of
Concrete: 25 mm and a 20 mm duct diameter.
fc = 35 MPa 1 = 0.798 1 = 0.883
Normal Density
Prestressed reinforcement
15.2 mm - 1860 MPa low relaxation unbonded
strand tendons
Ap = 140 mm2 / strand
fpy = (0.9)(1860) = 1675 MPa Dead and live load moments:
Section properties: From the above, dead and live load moments, Md
Ag = 150000 mm2 / m and Ml, are calculated by the moment distribu-
tion method, using two live load configurations
I = 281 106 mm4 / m to give maximum positive and negative live load
S = 3750 103 mm3 / m moments respectively. The dead and live load
moments are summarized in the table below.
Loads:
2 Load balance moments:
DeadDead
loadload
= 3.6= kN/m
3.6 kN/m
2
Live load = 2.5 kN/m 2 The load balance moments, Mbal, due to the
2
Live load = 2.5 kN/m post-tensioning are directly proportional to the
Problem: dead load moments.
Design post-tensioned and non-prestressed rein-
forcement and check the shear resistance. Since: wp = – 0.92 wd, the values for Mbal are
shown in the table below.
Solution:
Use the load balance concept that offers a simple Net load moments:
approach to analyze statically indeterminate struc- The net load moments, Mnl, that cause flexure in
tures: the slab, are calculated from the equation:
Mnl= Md + M + Mbal
l
Service load stresses:

Check the service load stresses on the basis of
the effective prestress, Pe, required to achieve the
assumed balance load, wp:
wp 2
l
Pe =
8e
wp = uniformly distributed upward load applied to The effective prestress force, Pe, required is shown
the concrete by the post-tensioning tendon in the table above.
Continued

Location
Md (kN - m/m) + 17.8 24.7 + 7.6 17.8 + 10.2 19.2
Ml (kN - m/m) + 15.8 18.6 + 12.4 16.9 + 12.4 16.9
Mbal (kN - m/m) 16.3 + 22.6 7.0 + 16.3 9.4 + 17.6
Mnl (kN - m/m) + 17.3 20.7 + 13.0 18.4 + 13.2 18.5
e (mm) + 45 40 + 45 45 + 45 40
2
wp (kN/m ) 3.3 3.3 3.3
e (mm) 65 85 85
wp l 2
Pe = (kN/ m) 406 311 311
8e
Pe
(MPa) 2.7 2.1 2.1
Ag
Mbal (kN - m/m) + 22.6 + 16.3 + 17.6
Pee (kN - m/m) + 16.3 + 12.2 + 12.2
M (kN - m/m) + 3.2 + 6.3 + 5.2 + 4.1 + 4.7 + 5.4

Load Pe = 406 kN/m Pe = 406 kN/m Pe = 311 kN/m Pe = 311 kN/m
fb ft fb ft fb ft fb ft
Pe/Ag + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.7 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1 + 2.1
Mnl/S 4.6 + 4.6 + 5.5 5.5 3.5 + 3.5 + 4.9 4.9
Total 1.9 + 7.3 + 8.2 2.8 1.4 + 5.6 + 7.0 2.8
0.5 fc 0.6 f c 0.6 f c 0.5 fc 0.5 fc 0.6 f c 0.6 f c 0.5 fc
Permissible 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0 3.0 + 21.0 + 21.0 3.0
stresses
OK OK OK OK OK OK OK OK
The service flexural stresses can now be calculated The required number of strands is:
from the equation:
End spans: 406/153 = 2.66 strands/m width
P M
f = e + n as shown in the table.
l
Interior spans: 311/153 = 2.04 strands/m width
Ag S
Secondary moments:
The permissible tensile stresses are dependent
The load balance moment, Mbal, is equal to the
upon the amount of additional non-prestressed
sum of primary and secondary moments. The sec-
reinforcement – see Clause 18.8.
ondary moment is the difference between the load
The value of the assumed effective prestress force balance moment and the primary moment:
Pe, is adequate as all service load stresses are M = Mbal Pee
within the permissible limits.
Values of M’ are given in the table:
Required number of strands:
Friction and anchor stress losses have to be deter-
mined as shown in Example 3-35.
An average initial stress in the tendons after fric-
tion losses of 0.71 fpu is assumed: Factored moments:
fpo= (0.71)(1860) = 1321 MPa
Long term losses = 230 MPa
fpe = 1091 MPa
3
Pe= (1091)(140)/10 = 153 kN/strand
Continued

Mf = 1.25 Md + 1.5 Ml + 1.0 M

M f = (1.25)(17.8) + (1.5)(15.8) + (1.0)(3.2)
8000
fpr = fpe + (dp cy )
lo
= 49.2 kN - m/m
M f = (1.25)( 24.7) + (1.5)( 18.6) + (1.0)(6.3)
(8000)
= 1091 + ((120 40) + (115 40))
40,000
= 52.5 kN - m/m
= 1122 MPa < 1675 MPa (fpy ) OK
M f = (1.25)(7.6) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(5.2)
s A s fy + p A p fpr
= 33.3 kN - m/m a =
M f = (1.25)( 17.8) + (1.5)( 16.9) + (1.0)(4.1) 1 c fc b
(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1121)
= 43.5 kN - m/m =
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
M f = (1.25)(10.2) + (1.5)(12.4) + (1.0)(4.7)
= 25.4 mm
= 36.1 kN - m/m
M f = (1.25)( 19.2) + (1.5)( 16.9) + (1.0)(5.4) Determine the factored flexural resistance:
= 44.0 kN-m/m Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(d a/ 2)
The minimum area of non-prestressed reinforce- = [(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1122)]
ment required by Clause 18.8 is: (120 25.4 / 2) /106
As = 0.003A = 49.5 kN- m > 49.2 kN- m OK
h
= 0.003b For location 3:
2
8000
= (0.003)(1000)(150 / 2) = 225 mm2 / m fpr = fpe + (dp cy )
l o
Use a minimum of 10M Grade 400 bars at 400 mm
(8000)
c/c – As = 250 mm2/m = 1091 + ((115 40)
40,000
Factored flexural resistance: +(120 40) + (115 40))
For location 2: = 1138 MPa < 1675 MPa (fpy ) OK
As = 250 mm2 / m
s A s fy + p A p fpr
Ap = (2.66)(140) = 373 mm2 / m A =
1 c fc b
Determine the value of fpr: (0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)
s A s fy + p A p fpy
=
cy = (0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
1 1 c fc b = 26 mm
(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1675) Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(d a/ 2)
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(1000)
= [(0.85)(250)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)]
= 40 mm
(115 26 / 2) /106
From Clause 18.6.2(b):
= 47.7 kN- m < 52.5 kN- m
Provide 10M bars at 200 mm c/c over the first interi-
or support, location 3:
Continued


Check the shear resistance:
As = 500 mm2 / m
+ ( Dwd + L wl )
s A s fy p A p fpr
l
A = Vf =
2
1 c fc b
8.0
(0.85)(500)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138) = [(1.25)(3.6) + (1.5)(2.3)] = 31.8 kN/ m
= 2
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(1000)
= 30 mm Using the minimum value of Vc specified in Clause
Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(d a/ 2) 11.3.4 and b from Clause 11.3.6.2:
= [(0.85)(500)(400) + (0.9)(373)(1138)]
Vr = c fc bw d
= (0.21)(1.0)(0.65) 35(1000)(0.8)(150) /103
(115 30 / 2) /106
= 96.9kN > 31.8 kN OK
= 55.1 kN-m > 52.5 kN-m OK
To complete the design, check the flexural resis-

tance at other locations and check the midspan
deflection.
Example 3-37 Two way flat slab

Given:
Ap = 140 mm2 / strand
Flat plate floor slab supported by columns with a
fpy = 1675 MPa
2600 mm storey height.
Non-prestressed reinforcement:
fy = 400 MPa
Loads:
wsd = 1.0 kN/ m2
w = 1.9 kN/ m2
l
A cladding load of 6 kN/m, acting along grid lines

1 and 9, at an eccentricity of 75 mm from the cen-
treline of the exterior column.
Problem:
Design the post-tensioning tendons and non-pre-
stressed reinforcement, and check the shear
resistance.
Solution:
Concrete: Determine the slab thickness:
fci = 25 MPa From Figure 3.12.5: h = l / 45
fc = 35 MPa 7500
Longitudinal: h = = 167 mm (governs)
Normal Density 45
Prestressed reinforcement: 6100
Transverse: h = = 136 mm
45
15.2 mm - 1860 MPa unbonded, low relaxation
strands Try h = 165 mm
Continued


Loads:
Dead loads:
Location
2
165 mm slab: (2.4)(9.81)(0.165)= 3.9 kN/m e (mm) 0 32 +52 +52 32
2
Partitions: (wsd):=1.0 kN/m e (mm) 58 85
2
Total dead load:=4.9 kN/m w (kN/m )
2
6.8 6.8
Live loads:
2
Occupancy:=1.9 kN/m wp =
8Pe e 2
(kN/m ) 2.8 1.9
Live load 1.9 l2
= = 0.38 < 0.75
Dead load 4.9 wn (kN/m )
2
4.0 4.9
Factored dead load/factored live load =

1.5(1.9)/1.25(4.9)=0.465 < 2
Per Clause 13.9.1.4, load all panels with full live
load.
Load balancing:
Assume 20 mm cover from the top of slab to the
tendon and 40 mm cover from the underside of
Pe = (1.0)(165)(1000) /103 = 165 kN/ m
the slab to the tendon for fire protection.
With an average initial prestress level after friction
losses of 0.7 fpu and an assumed long term loss of
230 MPa:
Pe = (0.7fpu 230)Ap
= [(0.7)(1860) 230](140) /103

= 150 kN/ strand
For a 6.1 m bay, require:
(6.1)(165)
= 6.7, use 7 tendons
150
(7)(140)
Pe = = 161kN/ m
6.1
Pe (161)(103 )
= = 0.98 MPa
Ag (165)(103 )
If the upward uniformly distributed load due to
the prestress, wp, and the service load, downward
uniformly distributed load, w, the net service load
Assume a parabolic tendon profile with a force
causing flexural stress is: wn = w wp
corresponding to an average compressive stress l
of 1.0 MPa: Equivalent frame properties:

wp l
2 Moments in the slab due to net loading are deter-
Pe = mined by the equivalent frame method outlined in
8e Clause 13.8.2:
At the exterior column 1 , 300 x 350:
c 2c13 (350)(300)3
Ic = = = 787 106 mm4
12 12
Continued


Floor to floor, h = 2600 mm. Clear height of col- Torsional element:
umn, hc = 2600 - 165 = 2435 mm:
c1 = 500 h = 165 l t = 6100
k cEcIc (4)(787 106 )Ec y = 500 x = 165 c2 = 300
Kc = = = 1.29 106 Ec
hc 2435 x x3 y
C = 1 0.63
The stiffness coefficient, kc, is taken as 4.0. For two y 3
way flat plate construction, this is a reasonable (0.63)(165) (165)3 (500)
assumption although not strictly true, as the por- = 1
500 3
tions of the columns within the floors are infinitely
stiff. Actual values of kc can be found in texts on = 593 106 mm4
structural analysis. 9Ec C
Kt =
There are columns above and below, therefore: 3
c2
Kc = (2)(1.29 106 )Ec = 2.58 106 Ec l
t 1
l
t
Torsional element:
c1 = 300 h = 165 l = 6100 (2)(9)Ec (593 106 )
= 2.02 106 Ec
t
=
3
y = 300 x = 165 c2 = 350 300
(6100) 1
x x3 y 6100
C = 1 0.63
y 3
Equivalent column stiffness:
(0.63)(165) (165)3 (300) 1 1 1
= 1 = +
300 3 K ec Kt Kc
= 293 106 mm4 1 1
= +
6
9Ec C 2.04 10 Ec 11.97 10 6 Ec
Kt =
3
c2
l
t 1 Kec = 1.74 106 Ec
l
t
Moment distribution:
(2)(9)Ec (293 106 ) 6
= = 1.03 10 Ec 1. Relative stiffnesses:
3
350
(6100) 1 At exterior column 1:
6100
Column:Kec = 0.74 106 Ec
Equivalent column stiffness:
1 1 1 (4)(6100)(165)3 Ec
4EcIs
= + Span:Ks = =
K ec Kt Kc l (12)(5200)
6
1 1 = 1.76 10 Ec
= +
1.03 10 Ec 6
2.58 10 6 Ec Relative stiffness, column:
0.74 106 Ec
Kec = 0.74 106 Ec = = 0.3
(0.74Ec + 1.76Ec )(106 )
At interior columns and , 500 x 350:
Relative stiffness, slab:
c 2c13 (350)(500)3
Ic = = = 3646 106 mm4 1.76 106 Ec
12 12 = = 0.7
h = 2600 mm and hc = 2435 mm (0.74Ec + 1.76Ec )(106 )
4Ec Ic (4)(3646)Ec (106 ) At interior column 3:

Kc = = = 5.99 106 Ec
hc 2435 Column:Kec = 1.74 106 Ec
Kc = (2)(5.99 106 )Ec = 11.97 106 Ec Exterior span:
4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)3 E c
Kse = = Continued
l (12)(5200)
= 1.76 106 Ec
4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)3 Ec
CPCI Design Manual 5 Interior span:Ksi = = 3-149
l (12)(7500)
6
= 1.22 10 Ec
Moment distribution of net loads

Joint
Span Col. 1-3 3-1 Col. 4-6 6-4 Col. 7-9 9-7 Col.
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 9.0 9.0 23.0 23.0 9.0 9.0
2.7 6.3 3.1
2.0 4.0 4.0 2.8 1.4
0.6 1.4 0.7 2.0 4.0 5.7 5.7 2.8
0.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 2.2 4.3 1.9
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
M nl 1.9 1.9 16.3 5.0 21.4 21.4 5.0 16.3 1.9 1.9
Column:Kec = 1.74 106 Ec
Exterior span:
4. Moment distribution (see table above).
4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)3 E c
Kse = = Determine the midspan moments:
l (12)(5200)
= 1.76 106 Ec Exterior span:
4EcIs (4)(6100)(165)3 Ec Moment at 1 : M1 = –1.9 kN-m/m
Interior span:Ksi = =
l (12)(7500) Moment at 3: M3 = –16.3 kN-m/m
= 1.22 106 Ec Moment at midspan:
2
M1 + M3 w l
Relative stiffness, column: = + n l
2 8
1.74 106 Ec
= 0.37 1.9 16.3 (4.0)(5.2)2
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(106 )Ec = + = 4.4 kN-m/m
2 8
Relative stiffness, exterior span: Interior span:
1.76 106 Ec
= 0.37 Moment at 4: M4 = –21.4 kN-m/m
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(106 )Ec Moment at 6: M6 = –21.4 kN-m/m
Relative stiffness, interior span: Moment at midspan:
6 2
1.22 10 Ec M4 + M6 w l
= 0.26 = + l
(1.74 + 1.76 + 1.22)(106 )Ec 2 8

21.4 21.4 (4.9)(7.5)2
2. Fixed end moments: = +
2 8
Exterior span: = 13.1kN - m/ m
2
wn l (4.0)(5.2)2 The service load moment diagram is as follows:
FEM= l
= = 9.0 kN - m/ m
12 12
Interior span:
2
wn l (4.9)(7.5)2
FEM= l
= = 23.0 kN - m / m
12 12
3. Carry over factors: all carry over factors = –0.5 Continued


the slab thickness beyond each side of the column
Service load stresses:
per Clause 13.10.3:
Flexural stresses are computed from the equation:
P M c2 + (2)(1.5)h = 350 + (3)(165) = 845 mm
f = e ±
Ag S The spacing is:
845
The moment at the face of the support is used. = = 169 say 150 mm
5
Calculations for the interior span are shown below.
Calculations are typical for all spans. The minimum length of non-prestressed reinforce-
ment, according to Clause 18.9.4:
1. Determine moment and stress at: 4:
l = 2l 1 / 6 = (2)(7500)/ 6 = 2500 mm
w l (4.9)(7.5)
VCL = n 1 =l
= 18.4 kN/ m
2 2 Provide 5 – 15M bars, 2500 + 500 wide column =
3500 3000 mm long, spaced at 150 mm c/c about the
VCF = VCL = (18.4)(0.933) = 17.2 kN/ m
3750 column centreline.
Compressive stress:
Moment at column face:
Pe Mcs (25.6)(106 )(6)
VCL + VCF c1 fc = + = 0.98 +
MCF = MCL Ag S (1000)(165)2
2 2
= 6.6 MPa
(18.4 + 17.2)(0.5)
= 21.4 + = 17.0 kN - m/ m
4 Permissible compressive stress, from Clause
Total moment in design strip: 18.3.2(b) is:
MDS = ( 17.0)(6.1) = 104.0 kN-m/m 0.6fc = (0.6)(35) = 21MPa OK
Moment in column strip: 2. Determine stresses at 5:
Width of column strip = (2)(0.25)l 1
= (2)(0.25)(6100) = 3050 mm Total moment in design strip:
MDS = (13.1)(6.1) = 79.9 kN-m
Pe/Ag is acting on the entire section, whereas Mcs
Positive moment in column strip:
is 75% of the total moment distributed over the
column strip from Clause 18.12.2.1. Pe/Ag is acting on the entire section, whereas Mcs
( 104.0)(0.75) is 60% of the total moment distributed over the
MCS = = 25.6 kN - m / m column strip from Clause 18.12.2.1.
3.05
(79.9)(0.60)
MCS = = 15.7 kN - m / m
Stress in column strip: 3.05
P Mcs
ft = e Tensile stress in column strip:
Ag S Pe Mcs (15.7)(106 )(6)
ft = = 0.98
(25.6)(106 )(6) Ag S (1000)(165)2
= 0.98 = 4.7 MPa
(1000)(165)2 = 2.5 MPa
The permissible tensile stress, per Clause 18.3.2(c) From Clause 18.8.1, permissible stress without
is: bonded reinforcement:
0.5 fc = 0.5 35 = 3.0 MPa < 4.7 MPa 0.5 fc = 0.5 35 = 3.0 MPa > 2.3 MPa
Therefore the section is partially prestressed and As = 0.004A = (0.004)(1000)(165)/ 2
non-prestressed reinforcement must be provided
= 330 mm2
according to Clause 18.8.1:
As = (1.25)(0.0006)hl n Provide 5 – 15M bars in the positive moment area
of the column strip, spaced evenly throughout:
= (1.25)(0.0006)(165)(7500) = 928 mm2 3050
Spacing = = 610 - use 600 mm
Provide 5 – 15M bars as reinforcement over a 5
width equal to the column width, c2, plus 1.5 times From Clause 18.9.3, the length of bar:
Continued


From the table, wp for the exterior span is
l b = l 1 / 2 = 7500 / 2 = 3750 mm = 2.8 kN/m2
Provide 5 – 15M bars, 3750 mm long, spaced at 600 Fixed end moment:
mm in the column strip. w p l 2 (2.8)(5.2)2
FEM = = = 6.3 kN - m / m
Compressive stress: 12 12
Pe Mcs (15.7)(106 )(6) 2
fc = + = 0.98 + wp for interior span is = 1.9 kN/m , therefore:
Ag S (1000)(165)2 2
wpl (1.9)(7.5)2
= 4.4 MPa FEM = = = 8.9 kN - m / m
12 12
From Clause 18.3.2(b), permissible stress is: Determine the factored dead and live loads:
0.6fc = 21.0 MPa OK Factored dead load: (1.25)(3.9+1.0) = 6.1kN/m
The results of service load analysis are shown in the Factored live load: (1.5)(1.9) = 2.9 kN/m
table below. Total factored load: = 9.0 kN/m
Check the stresses for the middle strip and the
Fixed end moments:
non-prestressed reinforcement requirements to
w1l 2 (9)(5.2)2
complete service load analysis. Exterior span FEMf = =
12 12
Factored flexural resistance: = 20.3 kN - m
Determine the secondary moments, M’, by subtract-
w1l 2 (9)(7.5)2
ing the primary moments from the load balance Interior span FEMf = =
moments: 12 12
Mbal = Pe + M = 42.2 kN - m
M = Mbal Pe Combine the moments due to factored loads with
the secondary moments to determine the total
The load balance or uplift moments due to the
factored moments, Mf, as shown in table on page
post-tensioning forces are calculated by moment
3-155.
distribution as were the net load moments.
Location
Mn CL (kN-m/m) 1.9 4.1 16.3 21.4 13.1
Mn CF (kN-m/m) 0.4 13.8 17.0
Mn CS (kN-m/m) 1.0 6.2 24.3 25.6 15.7
ft (MPa) 0.8 0.4 4.4 4.7 2.5
fc (MPa) 1.2 2.3 6.3 6.6 4.4
Moment distribution of prestress (uplift loads)

Joint
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 6.3 6.3 8.9 8.9 6.3 6.3 3.0
1.9 4.4 2.2
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.5
2.0 4.1 1.7
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7
0 0 0
Mbal 1.8 1.8 8.7 0.2 8.8 8.8 0.2 8.7 1.8 1.8
Continued


Moment distribution of net loads
Joint
Rel. Stiff. 0.3 0.7 0.37 0.37 0.26 0.26 0.37 0.37 0.7 0.3
FEM 20.3 20.3 42.2 42.2 20.3 20.3

6.1 14.2 7.1 7.1 14.2 6.1
2.8 5.5 5.5 3.8 1.9
0.8 2.0 1.0 2.2 4.3 6.2 6.2 3.1
0.6 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.4 1.1 2.2 0.9
0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.3

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Mbal 5.1 5.1 32.9 6.8 39.8 39.8 6.8 33.1 5.1 5.1
1. Negative factored moment at 4: fpr = 0.7fpu 230

The design strip may be analyzed in its entirety = (0.7)(1860) 230 = 1072 MPa
for factored load conditions. See Clause 13.3.1 of fpe = 0.7fpu 230
CSA A23.3. Moments at the centreline of supports
should be used as the column accounts for less = (0.7)(1860) 230 = 1072 MPa
than 10% of the design strip: dp = 165 30 = 135 mm
Total factored moment on the design strip: 1 = 0.85 (0.0015)(35) = 0.798

1 = 0.97 (0.0025)(35) = 0.883
Mf = (40.0)(6.1) = 244 kN-m
s A s fy + p A p fpy
cy =
Since there are 7 tendons located within the de-
1 1 c fc b
sign strip:
(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675)
=
Ap = (7)(140) = 980 mm2 (0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
= 18.6 mm
As non-prestressed reinforcement is provided
for service load conditions, it may be used in the 8000
fpr = 1072 + ((135 18.6) + (115 18.6)
factored load calculations. The length of the bars 18,200
must be increased from the minimum allowed by +(135 18.6))
Clause 18.9.1 to comply with Clause 18.9.4: = 1217 MPa
As = 1000 mm2 s A s fy + p A p fpr
a =
Calculate fpr from Clause 18.6.2(b): 1 c fc b
(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)
=
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
= 12.7mm
Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(dp a/ 2)
= [(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)]
(135 12.7 / 2) /106

= 182 kN- m < Mf = 244 kN- m Continued

Add non-prestressed reinforcement to increase the

flexural resistance—use 8 – 15M bars: s A s fy + p A p fpy
cy =
1 1 c fc b
2
As = 2600 mm
s A s fy + p A p fpy (0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675)
cy = =
1 1 c fc b
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100)
(0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1675) = 18.6 mm
=
(0.798)(0.883)(0.65)(35)(6100) 8000
fpr = fpe + (dp c y )
= 24 mm lo
8000 8000
fpr = 1072 + ((135 24) = 1072 + ((115 18.6) + (135 18.6) + (115 18.6))
18200 18200
+ (115 24) + (135 24)) = 1208 MPa
= 1210 MPa s A s fy + p A p fpr
a=
s A s fy + p A p fpr 1 c fc b
a =
1 c fc b (0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1208)
=
(0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1210) (0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
= = 12.7 mm
(0.798)(0.65)(35)(6100)
= 17.6 mm Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(dp a/ 2)
Mr = ( s As fy + p Ap fpr )(dp a/ 2) = [(0.85)(1000)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1217)
= [(0.85)(2600)(400) + (0.9)(980)(1210)] (115 12.7 / 2) /106
6
(135 17.6 / 2) /10 = 153 kN- m> Mf = 147 kN- m OK
= 246 kN m > Mf = 244 kN m OK
The post tensioning and non-prestressed re-
Use 13 – 15M reinforcing bars to provide the reinforcement are sufficient to resist the applied
quired factored flexural resistance. factored moment.
2. Positive factored moment at 5: Shear considerations:
Total factored moment on design strip: The calculation of shear and moment transfer
capacities in two way flat plates is an essential
Mf = 147 kN - m
part of the design. Shear capacity is checked
Ap = 980 mm2 for factored resistance to punching shear at the
As = 1000 mm2 supports.
dp = 165 50 = 115 mm Calculate the shear force:
wf = D w d + L w l
= (1.25)(4.9) + (1.5)(1.9) = 9.0 kN/ m2
As shown in the diagram on page 3-155, the
reactions due to factored dead load and the live
load and prestress are calculated. The factored
shear forces at the centreline of supports are de-
termined from these reactions. Upward reactions
are positive.
Continued

Factored moment calculations

Location
Mbal (kN-m/m) 1.8 4.2 8.7 8.8 4.6

Pe (kN-m/m) 0 5.2 9.0 9.0 5.2
M (kN-m/m) 1.8 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.6
Mf (kN-m/m) 5.1 11.4 32.9 39.8 23.5
MfCL (kN-m/m) 3.3 12.4 33.2 40.0 24.1
Mf per strip (kN-m) 20.1 75.6 202.5 244.0 147.0
At location 3: From the diagram:

w l (9.0)(5.2) d
Rwf = 1 = = 23.4 kN/ m c1 = 300 mm d = 132 mm = 66 mm
2
2 2
M Mf1 32.5 4.0 c2 = 350 mm
Rmf = f3 = = 5.5 kN/ m
l 5.2 (c1 + d / 2)2
e1 =
Shear at exterior column 1: 2c1 + c 2 + 2d
(300 + 66)2
= = 110 mm
(2)(300) + 350 + (2)(132)
1
e2 = (c1 + d) = (0.5)(300 + 132) = 216 mm
2
e3 = e2 e1 = 216 110 = 106 mm
AVT = d(2c1 + c 2 + 2d)
= (132)[(2)(300) + 350 + (2)(132)]
Shear from diagram above: (17.9)(6.1) = 109 kN = 160 248 mm2

3
Shear due to cladding: (1.25)(6)(6.1) = 46 kN 1 d 3 d
J1 = c1 + d + c1 + d
Total Shear Vf: 155 kN 6 2 2
Critical section properties: 2
d
c1Continued
+
2 d 2
+(c 2 + d)de1 + 2 c1 + d e1
2 2
CPCI Design Manual 5 1 3-155
= [(300 + 66)(132)3 + (300 + 66)3 (132)]
6
2
e3 = e2 e1 = 216 110 = 106 mm
AVT = d(2c + c + 2d)
1 2
= (132)[(2)(300) + 350 + (2)(132)]
= 160 248 mm2
3
Example 1 d 3 d
J1 = 3-37 c1 +Continued
d + c1 + d
6 2 2
2 Mvcr = Mf + Ve3
d
c1 +
+(c 2 + d)de12 + 2 c1 +
d
d 2 e1 = ( 4.0)(6.1) + (109)(106) /103 = 12.8 kN - m
2 2 From CSA A23.3 Clauses 13.3.5.3 and 13.10.2:
1
1 =
= [(300 + 66)(132)3 + (300 + 66)3 (132)]
f
2 c1 + d
6 1+
3 c2 + d
1
= = 0.613
2 300 + 132
1+
3 350 + 132
The moment due to eccentricity of the shear
force:
Mv = f Mvcr = (0.613)(12.8) = 7.8 kN m
Maximum factored shear stress:
Vf M e
vf = + v 1
A VT J1
(155)(103 ) (7.8)(106 )(110)
= + = 1.31MPa
160248 2.5 109
From CSA A23.3, Equation 18.5:
p fcp p Vp
vc = c c + +
0.38 c fc bo d
If the term pV p is ignored:

(0.9)(0.98)
vc = (0.38)(1.0)(0.65) 35 1 +
(0.33)(1.0)(0.65) 35
+(350 + 132)(132)(110)2 + (2)(132)(366)
2
= 1.61 MPa > 1.06 MPa = v f OK
366
110
2 Check the shear capacity of the critical section
9
= 2.5 10 mm 4 for the interior column. Provide column capitals if
necessary. Check the shear capacity in the span.
Moment transferred by shear eccentricity: The column strip section should be checked to
The total moment due to the factored loads plus verify the capacity to carry the factored design
the eccentric shear about centreline of the critical strip moment at the column.
section is:
Deflection:
Calculate the live load deflection of a 1 m wide
strip in the centre span of the design strip.
Use the effective moment of inertia according to
Section 3.5.2 since the tensile stress at 4 under
service load is greater than 0.5 f :
c
Continued

(1000)(165)3
Itr Ig = (1000)(165)3 = 374 1066 mm44
Itr Ig = 12 = 374 10 mm
dp = 135 mm 12
dp = 135 mm
Ap = (7)(140) /(6.1) = 161mm2 / m
Ap = (7)(140) /(6.1) = 161mm2 / m
(190 000)(161)
n = (190 000)(161) = 0.0080
n = (28 200)(1000)(135) = 0.0080
(28 200)(1000)(135)
C = 0.0068 from Figure 3.5.5
C = 0.0068 from Figure 3.5.5
lcr = Cbdp33 = (0.0068)(1000)(135)33
lcr = Cbdp = (0.0068)(1000)(135)
= 16.7 106 mm4
= 16.7 106 mm4 6
(0.6) 35(374)(10 )
M cr = (0.6) 35(374)(106 ) = 16.1kN - m / m
M cr = (82.5)(1066 ) = 16.1kN - m / m
(82.5)(10 )
(161)(10 ) (161)(103 )(52.5)(82.5)
3
fce = (161)(103 ) + (161)(103 )(52.5)(82.5)
fce = (165)(103 ) + (374)(1066 )
3
(165)(10
= 2.84 MPa ) (374)(10 )
= 2.84 MPa
(2.84)(374)(106 )
Mdc = (2.84)(374)(106 ) = 12.9 kN - m / m
Mdc = (82.5)(1066 ) = 12.9 kN - m / m
(82.5)(10 )
( 39.8)(6.8) Deflection:
Ms = ( 39.8)(6.8) 0.2 = 30.3 kN - m / m
Ms = 9.0 0.2 = 30.3 kN - m / m Using the moment area method, the deflection at
9.0 6
le = 16.7 10 + (374 16.7) midspan due to live loads is:
le = 16.7 106 + (3743 16.7)
16.1 1 2 5
1066 16.1
3 = (5.0 + 8.4)(3750) (3750)
30.3 12.9 EI 3 8
ll
10
30.3 12.9
= 300 1066 mm44 < Ig Use Ie 3750
= 300 10 mm < Ig Use Ie (8.4)(3750) (106 )
2
Since the tensile stress at 5 is less than 0.5 fc , use 19.5 1012
the gross moment of inertia throughout the span. = = 2 mm
(28 200)(300 106 )
2
Specified live load= 1.9 kN/m
Deflection at midspan due to the net dead load:
(1.9) (2)(4.9)
Live load moment at = ( 39.8) = 8.4 kN- m/ m = = 5 mm
9.0 dr
1.9
(1.9)
Live load moment at = (+24.1) = 5.0 kN- m/ m Long-term deflection should also be computed
9.0
according to Clause 9.8.4.4. This must be com-
pared with permissible deflections specified in
Table 9.3.
3.12.6 Other Considerations

Detailing considerations
The following items need to be considered when detailing concrete elements, post-tensioning anchorages and ten-
dons, and anchorage zone reinforcing:
1. The ends of concrete elements should be large enough to comfortably contain all of the required post-tensioning
anchorages.

2. Anchors should be adequately spaced and anchorage blockouts should be of sufficient size to allow the unimped-
ed operation of stressing jacks.
3. Protruding rebar dowels and obstructions in the stressing face should be carefully detailed to maintain adequate
clearance for stressing operations.
4. Provide adequate cover for bearing plates and other anchorage hardware at the ends of elements. Concrete cover
to the centre of gravity of the prestressing steel should take into consideration the diameter of the tendon ducts
as well as the clear cover required at high and low points of a tendon within the length of an element. Individual
tendons should be spaced to allow effective placement and vibration of concrete.
5. Post-tensioning tendons should take precedence over conflicts with non-prestressed reinforcement, electrical con-
duits or other items included in the element.
6. Anchorage zone areas should be adequately designed and detailed for the placement of concrete and reinforcement.
7. Anchorage blockouts located within a column, may reduce the gross area of the concrete. Column capacity should
be verified at these locations.
Volume change restraints

The relative stiffness of post-tensioned beams and columns must be carefully analyzed. Restraining items such as walls
that frame into columns, should be given special attention, and if necessary, properly designed control joints should
be provided.
When a post-tensioned beam is framed into the top of a relatively stiff column, the elastic, shrinkage, and creep short-
ening of the beam and slab will cause high moments and shears in the column. The prestress force is reduced by the
amount that is diverted to column bending. In multi-story and multi-bay frames, these effects are distributed through-
out the frame.
Anchorage zone reinforcement

General:
The post-tensioning force is applied through relatively small anchorages, causing high local stresses that decrease
as the forces spread through the anchorage zone to the full cross section of the element. Standard bending theory
does not apply and the work of Guyon and Leonhardt should be consulted for classical theories on anchorage zone
stresses. Strut and tie models may also be used.
Steps for designing anchorage zones:

1. Determine the size of the primary prism around individual anchorages.
2. Provide primary bursting reinforcement within each primary prism.
3. Provide reinforcement close to the loaded face of the anchorage zone to resist the spalling stresses.
4. Check bearing stresses behind the anchorages.
5. Consider the overall equilibrium of the anchorage zone and provide secondary reinforcement as required.
Figure 3.12.9 illustrates the areas to be considered.
See Figure 3.12.9 for determining tensile bursting and splitting stresses in anchorage zones. Typical calculations are
given in Example 3-38.
Determination of primary prisms:

The primary prism is the area in a particular plane where the bursting stresses are greatest. See Figure 3.12.10 for the
distribution in a particular plane.
The depth of the primary prism, d, is taken as the lesser of:
1. The distance between centrelines of adjacent anchors.

Figure 3.12.9 Splitting stress in anchorage zones
Figure 3.12.10 Determination of primary prisms
2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an anchorage to the edge of the concrete.
The stress distribution on each axis must be determined when the dimensions of a prism are different on the two
axes, or when the anchorage plate is rectangular.

Bursting stresses:
Bursting stresses vary with the ratio of a/d as shown in
Figure 3.12.11. The area under each curve yields the
total bursting force. This may be represented by the
equation:
Z = 0.3 P (1 – a/d)
a = width of bearing plate
d = depth of primary prism
Reinforcement acting at a stress of 0.5 fy should be

distributed through the depth of the primary prisms.
Widely spaced anchorages in large concrete sections or
small low stressed anchors in slabs may not require any
Figure 3.12.11 Transverse tensile bursting stresses in
bonded reinforcement as the concrete can resist the
anchorage zones
tensile forces.
Spiral reinforcement is designed by the supplier of
the post-tensioning system, not the designer. Spirals are not bursting reinforcement. They are to prevent crushing
immediately in front of the anchor due to very high bearing stresses. Bursting is reinforcement to cover tensile
stresses produced by spreading of the prestressing force away from the anchor. The reinforcement should be
detailed to allow for proper placement of the concrete.
Spalling reinforcement:
Anchored reinforcement to resist a total transverse force of 0.04P, acting at a stress of 0.5 fy should be placed in both
directions as close to the end face of the element as possible.
Bearing stresses behind anchors

Proprietary anchorage designs have been developed to accommodate bearing stresses. Consult with post-tensioning
suppliers for dimensions, capacities, recommended reinforcing and concrete strengths.
Equilibrium of the anchorage zone:

The overall equilibrium of the anchorage zone should be verified. The prestress force is further distributed behind the
primary prisms until the stresses become fully distributed over the entire cross section of the element. The end zone
is shown in Figure 3.12.12. The forces acting on opposite faces of the element produce moment and shear forces on
planes parallel to the longitudinal axis of the element.
Anchored reinforcement should be provided to resist the moment developed by the force couple given in Fig.
3.12.13. The reinforcement should be distributed over a distance of 0.5h from the loaded surface of the anchorage
block or over a distance of 0.25h from the opposite end of the block.
The area of secondary reinforcement should not be less than 0.003 of the area of the horizontal cross-section calcu-
lated for the full length of the anchorage zone.
Checks should be carried out to determine the worst combination of loads since tendons are stressed sequentially.

Example 3-38 Anchorage reinforcement design
Given:
A 400 x 1600 rectangular beam subjected to two
2500 kN post tensioning jacking forces, each on 300
x 300 anchorage plates.
Problem:
Determine the stresses in the end zone and design
the anchorage reinforcement for anchorages 1
1200 mm apart, and 2 400 mm apart.
Solution:
Determination of primary prisms:
Figure 3.12.12 Freebody diagram of end zone
The primary prisms are determined by comparing,

for each of the horizontal and vertical planes, the
lesser of:
1. The distance between the centrelines of adja-
cent anchors, or,
Figure 3.12.13 Equilibrium forces in anchorage

zone
Continued


2. Twice the distance from the centreline of an an- y = 0 at 0.25 d = (0.25)(400) = 100 mm from
chor to the edge of concrete. the bearing plate.
For case 1, in the vertical plane, the depth of the The maximum value of y is:
primary prism may be: ymax = (0.12)(15.6) = 1.9 MPa
1. d1 = 1200 mm, or
This value occurs at a distance from the bearing
2. d2 = (2)(200) = 400 mm plate equal to:
Since d2 < d1, the primary prism in this plane is 0.47 d = (0.47)(400) = 188 mm
400 x 400.
Similarly, in the horizontal plane, the primary prism
is found to be d = 400 mm, as there are no adjacent
anchors in this plane.
The total bursting force:

a
Z = 0.3P 1
d
= (0.3)(2500)(1 0.75) = 188 kN
Z 188 103
As = = = 940 mm2
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
For a 10M spiral, 5 turns are required between
x = 100 mm and x = 400 mm. Use a 10M spiral
with 7 turns at a 50 mm pitch from the anchor
plate to x = 400 mm:
A s (0.5fy )
y provided =
bd
(7)(2)(100)(0.5)(400)
=
(350)(400)
The same procedure for case 2 also gives a primary = 2.0 MPa > 1.9 MPa OK
prism of 400 x 400 x 400.
In this example, the lengths of the primary prisms
Bursting reinforcement, cases 1 & 2: in the vertical and horizontal planes are both
a 300 equal to 400 mm. If they had been different, the
= = 0.75 longer dimension would have been used for the
d 400
length of the spiral.
P (2500)(103 )
o = = = 15.6 MPa
(d)(d) (400)(400) Required reinforcement—spalling stresses,
From Fig. 3.12.11: Case 1 & 2:
The spalling force at the end face of the beam:
Continued


Fsp = 0.04P = (0.04)(2500) = 100 kN the same as for the top anchor. The maximum out
of balance moment is 500 kN-m.
Fsp (100)(103 )
As = = = 500 mm2
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
Case 1:
Provide 4 – 15M distributed evenly in both the verti-
cal and horizontal planes:
As provided = (4)(200) = 800 mm2 > 500 OK
Case 2:
Provide 4 – 15M @ 100 mm c/c vertical plane. Be-
cause spalling occurs outside anchors, 4 – 15M @ 100
should be placed in this location.
M (2)(500)
Required reinforcement—equilibrium: Feq = = = 625 kN
h/2 1.6
Case 1:
Refer to Fig. 3.12.14
At the horizontal plane of the top anchorage, the out Feq (625)(103 )
As = = = 3125 mm2
of balance moment is found as follows: (0.5)(fy ) (0.5)(400)
Use 5 double 15M stirrups at 100 mm c/c.

As = 4000 mm2
Case 2:
At the horizontal plane of the top anchor:
2Pyb (2)(2500)(200)(400)
PR = = = 625 kN
bh (400)(1600)
M = PR (0.5y) = (625)(0.5)(200) = 63 kN- m
3
10
At the horizontal plane at the mid depth of the

beam:
PR = 2Pyb = (2)(2500)(600)(400) = 1875 kN
bh (400)(1600)
M = 0 (1875)(0.3) = 562 kN- m
At the mid-height of the beam:
PR = 2Pyb = (2)(2500)(800)(400) = 2500 kN

bh (400)(1600)
M = 0.4PR + 0.6P
= (0.4)(2500) + (0.6)(2500) = 500 kN- m
Since the beam is symmetrical about the mid-depth,
the out of balance moment for the bottom anchor is
Continued

PR = 2Pyb = (2)(2500)(800)(400) = 2500 kN M (2)(562)

bh (400)(1600) Feq = = = 704 kN
h/2 1.6
M = 0.2P 0.4PR
Feq 704 103
= (0.2)(2500) (0.4)(2500) = 500 kN- m As = = = 3520 mm
0.5fy (0.5)(400)
The maximum moment is -562 kN×m:
Provide 5 double 15M stirrups @ 100 mm c/c The
required anchorage zone reinforcement for both
cases and ‚ is summarized in Figure 3.12.14.
As = 4000 mm2

Figure 3.12.14 Anchorage zone reinforcement for Example 3-38

3.13 References:
1. Gergely, P. and Lutz, L.A., Maximum Crack Width in 15. Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Structures, Col-
Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members, Causes, Mech- lins, M. P., Mitchell, D., Routledge ; ISBN: 0419249206,
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2. Papers by Nawy, E.G. and Huang, P.T., Crack and Strength of Composite Concrete Beams With a Rough
Deflection Control of Pretensioned Prestressed Beams, Interface, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 39. No. 1, pp. 48-69, Jan-
PCI JOURNAL, May-Jun 1977, pp. 30-47, and Nawy, Feb, 1994
E.G. and Chiang, J.Y., Serviceability Behaviour of 17. Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a thin Cast-
Post-Tensioned Beam, PCI JOURNAL, pp. 74-95, Jan- in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 32, No. 6, pp.
Feb 1980 70-85, Nov/Dec, 1987
3. Neville, A.M., Dilger, W.H., and Brooks, J.J., Creep of 18. Recommended Practice for the Design of Prestressed
Plain and Structural Concrete, Construction Press, Lon- Concrete Columns and Walls, PCI Committee on Pre-
don, New York 1983 stressed Concrete Columns, PCI JOURNAL, July - Aug
4. Dilger, W.H., Creep Analysis of Prestressed Concrete 1988
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PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 98-118, Jan - Feb amination of the EI value for Slender Columns, Draft
1982 Paper for ACI Column Symposium, Ottawa, Canada,
5. Suri, V., Dilger, W.H. Crack Width in Partially Prestressed 1974
Members, Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 20. Recommended Practice for Design, Manufacture and
Sep-Oct 1986. Note: As the coefficients k1 have been Installation of Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI Com-
established from tests on relatively small beams, the mittee on Prestressed Concrete Piling, PCI JOURNAL,
above value k1 are somewhat higher than those listed Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 14-41, Mar - Apr 1993
in the paper.
21. Anderson, A.R., and Moustafa, S.E., Dynamic Driving
6. Hutton, S.G., Loov, R.E., Flexural Behaviour of Pre- Stresses in Prestressed Concrete Piles, Civil Engineer-
stressed, Partially Prestressed and Reinforced Concrete ing, ASCE, NY, Vol. 41, No. 8, pp. 55-58, Aug 1971
Beams, ACI Journal, pp. 1401-1410, Dec 1966
22. Margason, E., and Holloway, D.M., Pile Bending During
7. Branson, D.E., The Deformation of Noncomposite and Earthquakes, Proceedings of the Sixth World Confer-
Composite Prestressed Concrete Members, Deflec- ence on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. II, pp. 1690-1695,
tion of Concrete Structures, SP-43, American Concrete New Delhi, India, 1977
Institute
23. Sheppard, D.A., Seismic Design of Prestressed Con-
8. Branson D.E. and Trost H., Application of the I-Ef- crete Piling, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 20-49,
fective Method in Calculating Deflections of Partially Mar - Apr 1983
Prestressed Members, PCI. Journal, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp
62-77, Sept-Oct 1982 24. Park, R., and Falconer, T.J., Ductility of Prestressed Con-
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9. Martin L.D., A Rational Method for Estimating Camber PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 112-143, Sep – Oct
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25. Pizzano, B. A., Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete Piles
10. Shaikh, A.F., and Branson D.E., Non-tensioned Steel in Under Seismic Loading, MSCE Thesis, University of
Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Feb. 1970 Washington, 1984
11. Neville, A.M. Dilger, W.H. Brooks, J.J., Creep of Plain 26. Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Con-
and Structural Concrete, Longman, 1983 crete Beams - Part 2, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp
12. Bazant, Z., Prediction of Concrete Creep Using Age-Ad- 70 - 88, Jan - Feb 1993
justed Effective Modulus Method, ACI Journal 69, 1972, 27. LaGue, D.J., Load Distribution Tests on Precast Pre-
pp. 212-17 stressed Hollow-Core Slab Construction, PCI JOUR-
13. Tadros et al., Prestress Loss and Deflection of Precast NAL, Vol. 16, No. 6, Nov-Dec 1971
Concrete Members, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 28. Johnson, T. and Ghadiali, Z., Load Distribution Test on
114-141, Jan - Feb 1985 Precast Hollow-Core Slabs with Openings, PCI JOUR-
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tially Prestressed Members, Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Calgary, May 1986

29. Pfeifer, D.W., and Nelson, T.A., Tests to Determine the 44. Mirza, S. A., and Furlong, R. W., Strength Criteria for
Lateral Distribution of Vertical Loads in a Long-Span Concrete Inverted T-Girders, ASCE Journal of Structural
Hollow-Core Floor Assembly, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 28, Engineering, Vol. 109, No. 8, August 1983
No. 6, Nov-Dec 1983
45. Raths, Charles H., Spandrel Beam Behavior and Design,
30. Lateral Distribution of Loads on Prestressed Concrete PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 29, No. 2, March-April 1984
Decks, PCI sponsored research project at the University
46. Klein, G. J., Design of Spandrel Beams, Research
of Washington
Project No. 5, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute,
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Vol. 31, No. 5, September-October 1986
32. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete, ACI 318-02, and Commentary, ACI 47. Design and Typical Details of Connections for Precast
318R-02, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, and Prestressed Concrete, Second Edition, MNL-123-
Ml, 1995 88, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL,
1988
33. Naaman, A. E., Ultimate Analysis of Prestressed and
Partially Prestressed Sections by Strain Compatibility, 48. Mattock, A. H., and Chan, T. C., Design and Behavior
PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977 of Dapped-End Beams, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 24, No. 6,
Nov - Dec 1979
34. Noppakunwijai, P., Tadros, M., Ma, Z., and Mast, R.,
Strength Design of Pretensioned Flexural Concrete 49. Mattock, A. H., and Theryo, T. S., Strength of Precast
Members at Prestress Transfer, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 46, Prestressed Concrete Members with Dapped Ends,
No. 1, Jan - Feb 2001 Research Project No. 6, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1986; Summary Paper in PCI
35. Mattock, Alan H., Anchorage of Stirrups in a Thin Cast-
JOURNAL, Vol. 31, No. 5, Sept - Oct 1986
in-Place Topping, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 32, No. 6, Nov
- Dec 1987 50. Zia, Paul, Preston, H. K., Scott, N. L, and Workman, E.
B., Estimating Prestress Losses, Concrete International,
36. Martin, L., and Korkosz, W., Strength of Prestressed
Vol. 1, No. 6, June 1979
Concrete Members at Sections Where Strands Are Not
Fully Developed, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 40, No. 5, Sept - 51. Mast, Robert F., Analysis of Cracked Prestressed Sec-
Oct 1995 tions: A Practical Approach, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 43, No.
4, Jul - Aug 1998
37. Logan, Donald R., Acceptance Criteria for Bond Quality
of Strand for Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Appli- 52. Martin, L. D., A Rational Method for Estimating Camber
cations, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 42, No. 2, Mar - Apr 1997 and Deflection of Precast Prestressed Members, PCI
JOURNAL, Vol. 22, No. 1, Jan - Feb 1977
38. Marshal, W. T., and Mattock, A. H., Control of Horizon-
tal Cracking in the Ends of Pretensioned Prestressed 53. Shaikh, A. F., and Branson, D. E., Non-Tensioned Steel
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1962 No. 1, February 1970
39. Kelly, John B., and Pike, Kenneth J., Design and Produc- 54. Recommended Practice for the Design of Prestressed
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4, Jul - Aug 1988
40. Shaikh, A. F., Proposed Revisions to Shear-Friction Provi-
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stressed Concrete Beam Columns and Wall Panels, PCI
41. Zia, Paul and McGee, W. D., Torsion Design of Pre-
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Bridge Bentcaps, Journal of the American Concrete Determine the Lateral Distribution of Vertical Loads in
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59. PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow-Core Slabs, MNL-

126-85, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chica-
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60. Savage, J. M., Tadros, M. K., Arumugasaamy, P., and
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http://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/handle/1993/4832

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
4.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................................................4-3
4.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................4-7
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS.............................................................................4-8
4.3 BEARING PADS.............................................................................................................................................4-9
4.4 FRICTION....................................................................................................................................................4-11
4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION.......................................................................................................................................4-12
4.6 CONCRETE BEARING................................................................................................................................4-13

4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing...........................................................................................................................4-13
4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing.................................................................................................................4-15
4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE MODEL..................................................................................................4-17
4.8 CORBELS....................................................................................................................................................4-17
4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of Corbels (Cantilever Beam Method)..........................................4-21
4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS..................................................................................................................4-23
4.10 BEAM LEDGES...........................................................................................................................................4-29
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS.........................................................................................................................4-31

4.11.1 Tension.....................................................................................................................................................4-31
4.11.2 Shear Resistance......................................................................................................................................4-41
4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear............................................................................................................4-49
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS......................................................................................................................4-56
4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS................................................................................................................4-56

4.13.1 Steel Haunches........................................................................................................................................4-57
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger..........................................................................................................................................4-60
4.13.3 Loov Hanger [5]........................................................................................................................................4-64
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES............................................................................................................................4-65

4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design.....................................................................................................................4-66
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design.............................................................................................................4-67
4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS...............................................................................................................4-69

4.15.1 Base Plates...............................................................................................................................................4-69
4.15.2 Anchor Rods.............................................................................................................................................4-71
4.16 WELDING ..................................................................................................................................................4-73

4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates...........................................................................................................................4-73
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars...................................................................................................................4-73
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS........................................................................................................................4-77
4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS...........................................................................................................................4-78

4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED CONNECTORS..................................................................................................4-79
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS.........................................................................................................4-80
4.21 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................4-85

CHAPTER 4 Design of Connections
4.0 NOTATION
a = distance from centre of strap to centre of A’sh = diagonal tension reinforcement in re-
load entrant corner
= depth of equivalent concrete stress block Av = diagonal tension reinforcement in
= length of cantilever from applied load to extended end
centre of Ash steel Avf = area of shear friction reinforcement
= distance from centre of load to face of b = width of corbel
column = length of bearing pad perpendicular to
= height of stiffener span
A = bearing area = effective width
= area of gusset = width of angle
A1 = loaded area = width of cantilever bar or tube
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest = average element width
frustum of a pyramid, cone or tapered = effective width of compression block
wedge contained wholly within the
= projection of stiffener
support and having for its upper base,
the loaded area, and having side slopes b1 = width of member
of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal BED = distance from back row of studs to front
Ab = area of bar or stud edge (Back Edge Distance)
Abh = the bearing area of the head of the stud c = cover distance to hanger
or anchor bolt = cohesion stress
Acr = area of crack face = distance from centre of anchor to the
Acv = area of concrete section resisting shear concrete edge
transfer c1 = distance from the centre of an anchor
Af = area of flexural reinforcement in corbel to the concrete edge in one direction.
Where shear force is applied, c1 is in the
Ag = area of gross section
direction of the force.
Ah = area of crack control reinforcement
c2 = distance to edge of concrete
An = area of reinforcement required to resist perpendicular to c1
axial tension
c3 = distance from the centre of an anchor to
= tensile stress area of anchor rod the opposite concrete edge from c1
AN = projected failure surface area of the Cc3 = coefficient for corner influence for a de3
anchor or group of anchors type anchorage
ANO = projected failure of a single anchor not Cev1 = coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear
affected by edge distance load for a de1 type anchorage
As = effective area of welded reinforcement Cev3 = coefficient for eccentric shear force
nearest to the applied load influences for a de3 type anchorage
= area of reinforcement Cf = compressive force
A’s = area of vertical reinforcement near end Ch3 = coefficient for member thickness (h) for
of steel haunch and welded to the steel de3 type anchorage
haunch
Cvcr = coefficient for cracking in a member,
Ase = effective stress area of anchor loaded in shear
Ash = area of reinforcement for horizontal or Cx1 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a
diagonal cracks, hanger reinforcement connection with two or more X rows for a
de1 type anchorage

Cx3 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a fcu = limiting compressive stress in concrete
connection with two or more X rows for a strut
type anchorage = crushing strength
CY1 = coefficient for overall Y spacing of a fmax = maximum stress
connection with two or more Y rows for a
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete = 0.6 fc
de3 type anchorage
fs = stress at service load
C.E. = carbon equivalent
futa = specified ultimate tensile strength of steel
d = distance from extreme compression fiber
used in headed studs
to centroid of reinforcement
fy = minimum specified yield strength of non
= height of steel section
prestressed reinforcement or structural
db = bar or stud diameter steel
de1 = distance from side stud to side edge Ft = tension force in longitudinal
l
de2 = distance from side stud to the other side reinforcement on flexural tension side of
edge from de1 member
de3 = distance from front stud to front edge FN = maximum friction force
de4 = distance from back stud to back edge Fu = ultimate strength of anchor bolt
do = outside diameter of anchor, or shaft g = width of joint
area of headed stud, headed anchor, or = distance from centre of bolt to loaded
hooked bolt face of angle
dv = effective shear depth, taken as the h = height of dap or corbel
greater of 0.9D or 0.72H
= thickness of a concrete member parallel
D = diameter of bolt to the anchor direction
= distance from extreme compression fibre = height of strap
to centroid of main reinforcement
= depth and thickness of steel web
= durometer of bearing pad
hs = depth or length of nodal zone
DBA = deformed bar anchors
hef = effective anchor embedment depth
e = eccentricity of resultant of vertical loads
H = height of member
from centre of embedment length
= eccentricity of load
IEFaSa(0.2) = seismic coefficient (see NBCC)
eh = distance from the inner surface of the
shaft of a J-bolt or L-bolt to the outer tip k = coefficient for factored concrete breakout
of the bolt resistance in tension
ei = distance from centre of bolt to horizontal kcp = factor for pryout resistance
reaction l = length
eN = eccentricity of a normal force on a group l b = compressed bearing length
of anchors l d = development length of reinforcement
ev = eccentricity of shear force on a group of l e = embedment length
anchors l hb = development length of hooked bar
= eccentricity of vertical load l p = length of bearing
Es = modulus of elasticity l w = length of weld
fbu = factored bearing stress m = embedded anchor confinement
f’c = specified compressive strength of modification factor
concrete Mf = factored moment

Mr = factored moment resistance sv = extent of Av distribution for Cazaly

n = number of threads per inch Hangers
= number of anchors S = stirrup spacing
nx = number of rows of studs parallel to load = shape factor
ny = number of rows of studs perpendicular to SED = side edge distance
loads t = thickness of bearing pad
N = unfactored permanent force = thickness of steel web
perpendicular to shear plane, positive for = thickness of base plate
compression, negative for tension
= thickness of plate
Nbr = factored concrete breakout resistance for
= thickness of angle
a single anchor in cracked concrete
= thickness of stiffener
Ncbgr = the factored breakout resistance in
tension of a group of anchors ths = thickness of head of stud
Ncpr = factored breakout resistance in tension of tw = effective throat thickness of weld

a single anchor Tf = factored tensile load
Nf = the factored pullout resistance in tension Tr = factored tensile resistance
of a single anchor UDL = uniformly distributed load
Npr = factored horizontal or axial force v’f = factored shear stress
Nr = factored pullout resistance of a single = shear transmitted by anchor bolt by
anchor in cracked concrete bearing on concrete
Nr = factored tension resistance vr = factored shear stress resistance of shear
Nsbgr = factored side face blowout resistance of a plane
group of anchors Vc = shear capacity of embedded steel
Nsbr = factored side face blowout resistance of haunch connection without additional
an anchor reinforcement
Nsf = factored sustained load force normal to = shear resistance attributed to the
friction face concrete factored by fc
Nsar = factored tension resistance of anchors Vco1 = concrete breakout strength for a
governed by steel strength single stud connection unaffected by
N’ = perpendicular vector component of Nf connection or member geometry
P = the pitch of the thread Vco3 = concrete breakout strength for a

single stud connection unaffected by
Pf = factored tension force
connection or member geometry
R = resistance modification factor
Vcp = factored pryout shear strength
s = width of hanger steel
Vf = factored shear force at section
= width of strap
Vp = component in the direction of the applied
= distance from edge to load point shear of the effective prestressing force
= distance between and As and A’s when factored by fc
placed symmetrically about centre of Vr = factored shear resistance
embedment length (if reinforcement is
Vs = additional factored resistance provided
not placed symmetrically, s equals twice
by reinforcement welded to embedded
the distance from centre of embedment
steel haunch
to nearest reinforcement)
Vsar = factored shear resistance of anchors
s1,s2 = centre to centre of anchors
governed by steel strength
so = spacing of the outer anchors along the
V’ = parallel vector component of Vf
edge in a group

w = width of bearing pad parallel to span s = effective normal stress

= dimension (see specific application) f = concrete strength reduction factor
= width of bearing fa = resistance factor for structural steel, 0.90
w1 = distance from end of beam to assumed far = resistance factor for anchor bolts, 0.67
crack plane fb = resistance factor for bolts, 0.80
x,y = surface dimensions fc = resistance factor for concrete, 0.70 for
xc = distance from centre line of bolt to face precast concrete certified in accordance
of column with A23.4 and 0.65 for all other concrete
xo = base plate projection fp = resistance factor for plates when welded
xt = distance from centre line of bolt to centre to reinforcing bars, 0.63
line of reinforcement fs = resistance factor for reinforcing bars, 0.85
x1,y1 = stud spacing fw = resistance factor for welds
X = overall out to out dimension of outer yc,N = modification factor for resistance in
most studs in back row of anchorage tension to account for cracking
(perpendicular to load) yc,P = modification factor for pullout resistance
Y = total out to out dimension of outer most to account for cracking
studs (parallel to load) ycp,N = modification factor for concrete breakout
z = ratio of average stress to maximum stress resistance to account for premature
Zs = plastic section modulus of structural steel splitting failure
a = angle of hanger reinforcement yec,N = modification factor for resistance in
tension to account for anchor groups
loaded eccentrically
compression block to the specified
concrete stress (see chapter 3) yed,N = modification factor for resistance in
tension to account for edge distances
af = the angle between the shear friction
smaller than 1.5hef
reinforcement and the shear plane
i = horizontal deformation of bearing pad
= design horizontal movement at end of
member
∑F = greatest sum of anchor bolt factored
forces on one side of a column
e1 = principal tensile strain
es = strain in tension reinforcement
θ = angle of assumed crack plane or angle of
diagonal compression
= angle of gusset plate
= angle between weld and direction of load
θs = smallest angle between compressive strut
and adjoining tension ties
= angle between strut and tie
µ = shear-friction coefficient
µs = static coefficient of friction
r v = ratio of shear friction reinforcement

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines the analysis and design of precast concrete connections. Design equations have been
developed using structural analysis, laboratory tests, and field experience. These recommendations take into
consideration current design practices and are guidelines for the analysis and design of connections.
Practical and economical connection design should consider production and construction practice and the
performance of the connections in both the serviceability and the ultimate limit states.
Resistance
Connections must resist the applicable forces due to dead and live loads, wind loads, seismic loads, soil and water
pressures, and imposed deformations. Forces caused by restraint of volume changes and forces required to main-
tain stability must also be considered.
Imposed deformations may be caused by temperature variations as well as creep and shrinkage of the concrete.
Connection types can be categorized according to the forces they resist: compression, tension, flexure, shear and
torsion.
Ductility
The performance of a precast building is greatly enhanced through the use of ductile connections. Ductility is defined
as the ability to accommodate large deformations with little or no increase in load. In structural design, ductility is a
measure of the amount of deformation that occurs between first yield and ultimate failure. First yield occurs when the
steel reinforcement yields. Final failure may be from rupture of the steel reinforcement or by crushing of the concrete.
Considerations Due to Imposed Deformations

Connections restraining movement can cause severe stresses due to the combined effects of creep and shrinkage
of the concrete and temperature variations in the concrete element. Connections that allow movement may reduce
these stresses. Restraint of volume change movements in large elements such as double tee slabs welded at both
bearing supports can develop severe stresses in the members. When long elements are placed on elastomeric
bearing pads and welded only at the top, volume changes can be adequately accommodated.
Durability
Evidence of poor durability is usually exhibited by corrosion of exposed steel, or by cracking and spalling of the
concrete. Connections exposed to weather should be made of, or coated with, corrosion resistive materials. All
exposed connections should be periodically inspected and maintained.
Fire Resistance
Many precast concrete connections are not vulnerable to the effects of fire and require no special treatment.
Combustible pads supporting slabs or double tees do not require fire protection as failure will not result in
collapse. Protection is required for exposed steel brackets supporting beams, as collapse may occur when the steel
is weakened by heat. All gravity connections should be assessed for their fire performance. Fire protection may be
provided by protecting connections with gypsum wallboard, coating with intumescent mastic or spraying with fire
protective materials.
Production and Erection Considerations

The following items should be considered during the selection and also the design and detailing of connections to
facilitate efficient manufacturing and safe, rapid erection:
1. Additional reinforcing around inserts and embedded plates may cause congestion. Reinforcing bar bend radii
must be considered when locating connections. If congestion is suspected, it is helpful to draw large scale
details of the area in question. In some cases, it may be economical to increase the element size to avoid
congestion. Details such as dapped or recessed ends should only be used if necessary as they may require
additional reinforcement in confined areas,

2. Connections that require projections through the forms can permanently damage steel forms. Projections
should be limited to the top unformed surface of the element as cast,
3. A plant casting operation is most efficient when precast elements can be taken directly to the finishing or storage
area immediately after stripping from the form. Operations carried out after stripping, such as welding of projecting
hardware should be avoided whenever possible as these operations may require additional handling, extra work
space, and added labour,
4. Use recommended industry tolerances for precast members, as specified in A23.4. Connections must
accommodate the construction tolerances of supporting members at the jobsite,
5. Hardware items such as inserts, studs, steel shapes, etc. should be readily available standard items. Custom
fabricated or very specialized proprietary items can add cost and cause delays,
6. Inserts used for lifting should not be confused with inserts of a lesser capacity used as tiebacks or for other
purposes,
7. Repeat connection details as much as possible, even if they result in an over design. Repetition will result in
improved productivity,
8. The contract should permit the manufacturer to use alternative methods or materials, provided the design
requirements are met. Allowing alternate solutions will often result in more economical and better performing
connections. Greater options for connections will often improve the speed of erection,
9. Connections should be designed so that the element can be lifted, set, stabilized and unhooked in the shortest
possible time. Some elements may require some supplemental shoring, guying, or fastening before the crane can
be unhooked,
10. Field adjustment of the connections is always necessary. Adjustment in the field can be accomplished using slotted
or oversized holes for bolts and dowels, field welded plates, shims and grout,
11. Worker safety and access should be considered when locating connections. Operations that require working in
an overhead position should be avoided, especially when welded connections are required. Bolted connections
require room to place wrenches on nuts and swing them in a large arc,
12. Materials such as grout, dry-pack, cast-in-place concrete, and epoxies require special cold weather provisions.
Welding may require preheating and is slower when ambient temperatures are low. Costly delays may result if
connections are designed so that grouting and/or welding must be completed before erection can continue, and
13. Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels, and bolts or studs that project from precast elements may be damaged if
care is not taken in handling and shipping. Threads on projecting bolts should be protected from damage and rust.
4.2 LOADS, LOAD FACTORS AND RESISTANCE FACTORS

The equations in this section are based on limit states design. Load factors and resistance factors are contained
in Section 8.3 and 8.4 of A23.3 with fc = 0.70, as per Clause 16.1.3, for precast concrete elements certified in
accordance with A23.4.
To ensure that the overall safety of the connection is adequate, the use of an additional load factor has historically
been used in the precast industry for design-critical connections or those sensitive to erection tolerances. The need
and magnitude of additional load factors for a particular connection must depend on the engineer’s judgment,
usually in the range of 1.1 to 1.3.
Flexural elements seated on properly designed bearing pads should be designed for not only the vertical load at
that joint but also for the horizontal load imparted to the element as a result of restraint provided by the bearing
pad. This restraint force is generally small and it is usually sufficient to design for a horizontal load equal to 0.2
times the factored vertical load. A higher value is required if the bearing area of the element is not reinforced.

4.3 BEARING PADS

Bearing pads are used to prevent direct concrete on concrete contact and to distribute the vertical loads over the
bearing area.
Some pads also reduce force build-up at the connection by permitting small displacements and rotations.
There are several materials commonly available for use as bearing pads:
1. Commercial grade elastomeric (Neoprene) pads exhibit wide variations in shear deformation characteristics
and bearing strength. These pads are not recommended without performance data,
2. Structural grade chloroprene (Neoprene) pads are those which meet the requirements of CSA S6 Section 11.
These pads should be specified where uniform bearing is necessary or when it is desired to reduce volume
change restraints. For high compression stresses and/or large horizontal displacements, laminated pads
consisting of layers of elastomer bonded between steel or fiberglass plates can be used. Each layer behaves
in compression like an individual pad, but the shear deformation is a function of the thickness of the total
assembly, and
3. Laminated fabric bearing pads composed of multiple layers of 190 g/m2 cotton fabric with a high quality
binder are generally used where a higher compressive strength is desired. These pads do not deform as
readily as elastomeric pads, and thereby provide less horizontal movement and rotation capability than do
chloroprene pads.
wb
Shape factor = S =
2( w + b) t
D = Durometer (Shore A hardness)

= Design horizontal movement at end of member
(1) Shore A Recommended

Allowable compressive Recommended
Pad material hardness durometer minimum (2)
stress (MPa) (2) maximum rotation
(D) thickness
Unreinforced
DS 0.3 t
chloroprene or 5.5 50 through 70 1.4
36 b or w
rubber
Random fiber
0.3 t
reinforced 7 + 0.7S 10.3 80 ± 10 1.4
b or w
elastometric
Cotton duck 17 (uniform) 0.12 t
(3) 90 ± 10 2.0
fabric reinforced 27 (nonuniform) b or w
Note:
(1) Allowable compressive stresses may be increased based on test data supplied by the bearing pad manufacturer.
(2) The values in the table are based on sliding criteria. If sliding is not critical or testing indicates more advantageous conditions, thinner
pads may be used. The minimum thickness and maximum rotation values for the cotton duck pad account for the effects of creep.
(3) See PCI Design Handbook, 7th Edition.
Figure 4.3.1 Single layer bearing pads free to slip

Figure 4.3.2 Shear resistance of bearing pads
4. Pads reinforced with randomly oriented fibres have been used successfully in recent years. Vertical load
capacity is higher than plain chloroprene pads, but rotation and horizontal movements are lower than
chloroprene pads. No national standard specifications are available for this material,
5. Tetrafluorethylene (TFE, trade name Teflon) sliding bearing pads reduce horizontal stresses because of their
low coefficient of friction. The TFE is normally bonded to a backing material, such as steel or chloroprene pads.
These bearing pads are usually used at expansion joints. Figure 4.3.3 shows a typical bearing detail using TFE,
and Figure 4.3.4 shows the range of friction coefficients that may be used for design,
6. A multi-polymer plastic bearing strip is manufactured expressly for the bearing support of hollow-core slabs,
and is highly suitable for this application. The material has a compressive strength higher than the typical design
range of concrete used in precast construction, and
7. For interior applications tempered hardboard strips are sometimes used with hollow core slabs to prevent
concrete to concrete bearing. Hardboard can stain concrete surfaces and should not be used in moist conditions.
Hardboard is a food source for mold and is not recommended in cases where this may be of concern.
Figure 4.3.3 Typical TFE bearing pad detail Figure 4.3.4 TFE friction coefficients

Design Recommendations
Research [1] has shown that most of the stress-relieving characteristics of elastomeric bearing pads are due to
slippage instead of pad deformation. The following recommendations should be followed, along with Figures 4.3.1
and 4.3.2, when selecting bearing pads:
1. All design loads should be service loads. Use actual contact area as bearing area for design calculations.
2. At the maximum allowable compressive stress shown in Figure 4.3.2, 10% to 20% instantaneous strain can
be expected. Non-parallel bearing surfaces may double the localized strain. Long-term creep of the bearing
material may add another 100% of instantaneous strain if the sustained dead load is very high.
3. The length and width should be at least five times the thickness to achieve adequate stability in unreinforced
pads. The shape factor, S, for unreinforced pads should be greater than 2 for double tee webs and greater
than 3 for beam seats.
4. Bearing pads for double tee webs should be at least 10 mm thick. For beam seats, a minimum thickness of 12
mm should be used.
5. The sustained dead load stresses on chloroprene pads should be in the range of 2 to 3.5 MPa. If there is
insufficient load on these pads, they tend to walk out from under the bearing location.
4.4 FRICTION
The coefficients of static friction, µs, shown in Figure 4.4.1 are conservative values for use in determining the
upper limit of volume change forces for elements without “hard” connections. The maximum friction force can be
determined by:
FN = µsNsf
Material µs
Elastomeric to steel or concrete 0.7
Laminated cotton fabric to concrete 0.6
Concrete to concrete 0.8
Steel to steel (not rusted) 0.25
Concrete to steel 0.4
Hardboard to concrete 0.5
Multipolymer plastic (non-skid) to concrete 1.2(1)
Multipolymer plastic (smooth) to concrete 0.4(1)

(1) Courtesy Koro Corp.
Figure 4.4.1 Coefficients of static friction of dry materials, µs

4.5 SHEAR-FRICTION
The shear-friction theory described in CSA A23.3 Clause 11.5 is applicable to situations where it is inappropriate
to assume shear stresses are uniformly distributed over the depth of an element. Cracks are assumed to occur at
planes located in the most critical locations. Shear transfer across this plane is achieved by placing reinforcement
across the assumed crack, such that if the portions of concrete on each side of the crack were to move relative to
one another, a tensile strain would be created in the reinforcement. This in turn creates a force normal to the shear
plane. The shear resistance is provided by the friction at the crack interface increased by the effects of the normal
force. Reinforcement inclined at an angle greater than 90 degrees to the assumed crack plane should not be
included as shear friction reinforcing.
Where an area of shear-friction reinforcement, Avf, is placed across the shear plane, the factored shear stress
resistance, vr is calculated by:
vr = c (c +μ )+ s v fy cos f
The term lfc(c+µs) shall not exceed 0.25fcf’c.

Values of c and µ are shown in Figure 4.5.1.
Crack Interface Condition µ c (MPa)

Concrete placed against hardened concrete
with surface clean but not intentionally 0.6 0.25
roughened
Concrete placed against hardened concrete
with surface clean and intentionally roughened 1.0 0.5
to an amplitude of 5 mm
Concrete placed monolithically 1.4 1.0
Concrete anchored to as-rolled steel by
0.6 0.0
headed studs or reinforcing bars
Figure 4.5.1 Values for c and µ
The shear friction reinforcement ratio, rv, is:

A vf
v =
A cv
The effective normal stress, s, is calculated by:
N
= v fy sin f +
Ag
If N is independent of the shear, for example under a shear wall, its load factors should be as per the load
combinations in the NBCC. If N is just a component of the shear across an inclined crack plane, then N would
have the same load factors as the shear force. Any tension acting across the shear plane should be resisted by an
additional amount of tension reinforcement computed by:
Nf
An =
s fy
When reinforcement, An, is added to account for the tension, Nf, across the shear plane, the force, N, becomes
zero in the equation.

The shear friction reinforcement, Avf, on both sides of the assumed crack plane should be properly anchored by
development length by welding to angles or by welding to plates that are further anchored by headed studs or
welded reinforcing. If the normal force, Nf, goes directly into a plate or angle, the An reinforcement need only be
anchored on the side of the crack opposite the load.
4.6 CONCRETE BEARING

It is recommended that reinforcement be provided in all
bearing areas except where calculations show that the
stresses on the unreinforced concrete areas are within
acceptable limits.
Some commonly encountered situations where these
conditions may occur are as follows:
1. Grouted horizontal joints between wall panels,
2. Uniform bearing of hollow core, non-dapped flat
slabs and non-dapped stair units,
3. Footings where column or wall bearing is away from
the edges, and
4. Tops of walls and columns where bearing is near the
centre and the load is relatively small
4.6.1 Plain Concrete Bearing

The design strength of plain (unreinforced) concrete bear-
ing may be calculated as:
A2
Vr = c Cr (0.85fc A1 ) 2(0.85 c fc A1 )
A1
A2/A1 2.0
Note: fc = 0.65 when bearing on cast-in-place concrete.

fc = 0.70 when bearing on precast concrete certified in
accordance with CSA A23.4.
Nf
sw Vf
Cr = Figure 4.6.1 Bearing on plain concrete
129000
The product of s and w should not be taken greater than
5800 mm².

Example 4.1 Plain concrete bearing of a flat slab
Given: A1 = (50)(300) = 15000 mm2

Flat slab 1200 mm wide x 200 mm thick x 8 m long
A 2 = (50 + 25 + 25)(300 + 25 + 25)
carries a factored UDL of 16 kN/m, including its self
weight = 35000 mm2
f’c = 35 MPa, normal density sw = (50)(50) = 2500 mm2 < 5800

0.7
Two elastomeric bearing pads, 50 mm x 300 mm, 2500
Cr = = 0.0633
are located two at each end, centred 50 mm from 129000
the end of the slab. 35000
Vr = (0.70)(0.0633)(0.85)(35)(15000)
Problem: 15000
Determine if reinforcement is required at the end of = 30.2 kN < 41.6
the element.
Reinforcement will be required.
Solution:
However, if it is determined that:
(16)(8)
Vf = = 32 kN Nf = (0.40)(41.6) = 16.6 kN
(2)(2) 0.4
2500
As this area has no ductility, an additional load fac-
Cr = = 0.207
129000
tor of 1.3 will be used.
35000
Vf = (1.3)(32) = 41.6 kN Vr = (0.7)(0.207)(0.85)(35)(15000)
15000
If reinforcement is provided, a crack in the bearing = 98.8 kN > 41.6
area would relieve the restraint force without result-
Reinforcement will not be required.
ing in a failure. In that case, a horizontal force equal
to 0.2 times the factored vertical load would be Alternatively, if the pad is flush with the end of the
reasonable. If reinforcement is not provided, a crack slab:
will result in a structural failure, so a conservative sw = (25)(50) = 1250 mm2
upper limit value should be used for the coefficient
A1 = A 2
of friction. In this case, choose 0.7 from Figure 4.4.1.
0.4
Nf = (0.7)(41.6) = 29.1 kN 1250
Cr = = 0.157
An alternate method to determine Nf would be to 129000
do a volume change analysis as described in Chap- 15000
Vr = (0.70)(0.157)(0.85)(35)(15000)
ter 2. 15000
The bearing area is: = 49.0 kN > 41.6
Reinforcement is not required.
Note that this analysis is very sensitive to the value of
Nf used.
Also note that in all cases, Vr should be checked to
ensure it is less than 2(0.85fcf’cA1).
= (2)(0.85)(0.70)(35)(15000)/103
= 625 kN OK

4.6.2 Reinforced Concrete Bearing

Bearing reinforcement can be designed using shear friction as discussed in Section 4.5. Referring to Figure 4.6.2,
the reinforcement Avf+An, across the assumed crack plane is required to resist the tension force, Nf, directly and
the shear force, Vf, by shear friction.
Design of the reinforcement for concrete bearing using shear friction is shown in Example 4.2.
The vertical shear reinforcement, Ash, across potential horizontal cracks can be calculated by:
1 fy (A vf + A n )
Ash = cA cr
fy μ c
Example 4.2 Reinforced bearing for a rectangular beam
Given: Solution:
Rectangular beam 400 mm wide x 700 mm deep x 8 Vf = (120)(8)/2 = 480 kN
m long carries a factored UDL of 120 kN/m, includ- Nf = (0.2)(480) = 96 kN
ing self weight
Break Vf into its vector components, parallel and per-
fy = 400 MPa pendicular to the cracked surface and respectively.
f’c = 35 MPa, normal density The crack angle is assumed to be 20o.
Bearing pad = 100 mm x 350 mm, 75 mm from the V’ = (480) cos 20o = 451 kN
end of beam to edge of pad N’ = (480) sin 20o = 164 kN
Problem: The area of the cracked surface Acr is:
Determine reinforcement required at the end of the
element.
Other possible details
Alternate location A sh
of vertical crack
H
Possible horizontal w
w1
crack
Option 1
Possible vertical
crack
Nf
lhb ld
Bearing pad
s 20°
N'
Option 2
Vf V'
A vf + An
Vf af =70°
Figure 4.6.2 Reinforced concrete bearing

Continued next page

Example 4.2 Reinforced bearing for a rectangular beam (continued from previous page)
Ac = bw1/sin 20o Use 2-20M bars (As = 600 mm2) welded to a 175
= (400)(175)/sin 20o = 205000 mm2 plate; l d = 487 mm.
Therefore the shear stress to be resisted is: The vertical reinforcement across the potential hori-
zontal crack can be calculated by:
v’f = 451000/205000
= 2.2 MPa
Ash = 1 fy (A vf + A n )
cA cr
Because the reinforcement is not perpendicular to fy μ c
the crack plane, the required area of steel will be Acr = (l d + w1)b
determined by: = (487 + 175)(400)
vr = lfc(c + µs) + fsrvfy cos af = 265000 mm2
where is the angle between the shear friction rein- 1 (400)(303 + 282)
forcement and the shear plane. Ash = (400)(1.4) (0.70)
Substituting for the normal stress, s, gives:
(1.0)(265000) = 124 mm2
N
vr = c c+μ v fy sin f + + s v fy cos f
Ag
One 10M stirrup can be used at the end of the
Note: Ag = Acr = Acv beam.
Setting vr = vf gives:
In lieu of 20M bars welded to a plate, 15M hairpins
451000 o 164000 can be used.
= (1.0)(0.70) 1.0 + 1.4 V (400)sin70 +
205000 205000
From CSA A23.3 Clause 12.5:
+(0.85) v (400)cos70o (100)(15)
l hb = = 254 mm
Solving for the required v gives: 35
v = 0.00148
l
available = 175 – 40 (cover) = 135 mm
Check that c (c + μ ) 0.25 c fc : For 3-15M hairpins:
135
As provided = (3)(2)(200) = 638 mm2 > 585
c (c + μ )=
254
164000
(1.0)(0.70) 1.0 + 1.4 (0.00148)(400)sin70°+
205000
= 2.03 MPa < 0.25 c fc = 6.13 MPa OK

The steel required is:
2
Avf = (0.00148)(205000) = 303 mm
The additional steel required for the horizontal
tension force is:
N 96000
An = f = = 282 mm2
s fy (0.85)(400)
The total amount of reinforcement required is:

Avf + An = 303 + 282 = 585mm2

4.7 COMPRESSION STRUT AND TIE MODEL

The strut and tie model described in CSA A23.3 Clause 11.4 utilizes a truss model together with concepts from the
Compression Field Theory to determine the crushing resistance of the struts.
The geometry of the truss model, consisting of concrete compression struts and reinforcing tension ties, is deter-
mined by following the flow of forces from the support reaction into the body of the supported element. Once the
geometry of the truss is known, the forces in the struts and ties are determined by statics.
The intersection of compressive struts with tension ties or support reactions delineates the nodal zones of multidi-
rectionally compressed concrete. Unless special confinement reinforcement is provided, the concrete compressive
stresses in the nodal zones should not exceed the following limits:
1. 0.85 fc m f’c in nodal zones bounded by compression struts and bearing areas,
2. 0.75 fc m f’c in nodal zones anchoring only one tension tie, and
3. 0.65 fc m f’c in nodal zones anchoring tension ties in more than one direction.

m = A2/A1 ≤ 2.0; the amplification factor, m, is applied to account for the beneficial effects of confinement if
present.
The stress in a compression strut is determined by dividing the strut force by the cross sectional area of the strut
and must be less than the crushing limit, fcu. If a compressive strut is intersected by a tension tie, then fcu must be
reduced to account for the presence of the principal tensile strain e1. This principal tensile strain may be deter-
mined from strain compatibility by conservatively assuming that the strain, es, in a tension tie is fy / Es, as follows:
e1 = es + (es + 0.002)cot2 θs
where θs is the angle between the tie and the strut.
The crushing strength, fcu, accounting for the reduction of strength due to the presence of the principal tensile
strain, e1 is:
fc
fcu = 0.85fc
0.8 + 170 1
Reducing θs results in lower values of the crushing strength, fcu.

f’c
fcu = 2 0.85f’c [CSA A23.3 11.4.2.3]
1.14+0.68cot θ s
The tension tie reinforcement should be distributed over and anchored in an area of concrete at least equal to the
tensile tie force divided by the stress limit previously stated for compressive stresses in the nodal zone. This area
of concrete may be assumed to be the area of concrete surrounding the tension tie reinforcement and having the
same centroid as the tension tie reinforcement.
4.8 CORBELS
Concrete corbels must be designed in accordance with the provisions of CSA A23.3 Clause 11.6. The strut and tie
model as described in Section 4.7 can apply to the design of corbels and is illustrated by the following example:

Example 4.3 Design of a corbel
Given:
A 600 mm x 600 mm column supports a beam with
a factored vertical load of 1000 kN
f’c = 35 MPa, normal density
fy = 400 MPa, weldable
Problem:
Determine the corbel size and reinforcement re-
quired to support the load.
Solution:
Vf = 1000 kN
Nf = 0.2 Vf = (0.2)(1000) = 200 kN
Corbel dimensions:
Choose an overall corbel depth of 600 mm and a
bearing pad size of 500 x 125 x 12. The depth of
the corbel at the outside edge of the bearing pad
should be at least 300 mm. The details of the corbel
are shown in Figure 4.8.1.
Strut and tie model:
The assumed compression strut, tension tie and
nodal zone model for the corbel is shown in Figure
4.8.2(a). The truss model is shown in Figure 4.8.2(b).
Nodes are located at the intersections of the centre Figure 4.8.1 Corbel example
lines of tension ties and compression struts.
The forces in the truss members and the reactions
To determine the location of node D, take the sum
are determined from statics and are summarized
of the moments about A for the first equation and
below:
use the stress limit at D for the second:
a Reaction Ax Ay D
(1000)(693) + (200)(600) = D 600 70
2 Force (kN) 219 819 1819
3
D(10 )
a =
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600) Member CB BD CD BA DA
Solving these equations: Force (kN) -669 +1057 +1097 -819 -219
a = 166 mm
Design of tension ties:
D = 1819 kN The reinforcement required in tie CB is:
669000
As = = 1968 mm2
(0.85)(400)
The minimum area required for the primary rein-
forcement is:
Continued

Example 4.3 Design of a corbel (continued from previous page)
fc 219000
As,min = 0.04 bd 0.002bh As = = 644 mm2
fy (0.85)(400)
(35) Use an additional 4 – 10M column ties at location
= (0.04) (600)(550) DA.
(400)
= 1155 mm2 Additional ties with an area equal to one half the
primary tension tie reinforcement area must be
(0.002)(600)(600) = 720 mm2 placed within two-thirds the effective depth adja-
In situations where As < As,min , As,req = 1.33As per cent to As:
CSA A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3 may be used. 1968
Tie area = = 984 mm2
2
For As =1968 mm2
Use 4 – 25M bars (As = 2000 mm2) Use 5-10M ties, As = (5)(2)(100) = 1000 mm2, within
360 mm of top of corbel.
The vertical reinforcement for the column should Check compression struts:
be checked for the BA tie force, and if necessary The stress limits for the struts are governed by the
the 25M reinforcement should be extended be- nodal limits. Therefore, fcu is not reached.
yond Node A a standard hook length to develop
The nodal limit at D was used to get the geometry,
this force.
so there is no need to check it.
The reinforcement required for tension tie DA is:
Design of nodal zones:
Figure 4.8.2 Strut-and-tie model for corbel example
Continued

Example 4.3 Design of a corbel (continued from previous page)
Reinforcement at nodes A, B, C, and D is anchored

around the column reinforcement. Check the an-
chorage conditions at the ends of the compression Tension ties
for BC
strut in accordance with A23.3, Clause 11.4.3.2.
The primary reinforcement will engage an area of
concrete eight times its diameter, as shown in CSA
A23.3 Figure 11.5(a). The stress over this area of
concrete must be less than the stress limits in the
node regions. Additional ties
To satisfy the stress limits of node C the tension tie

requires a depth of concrete equal to:
669000
= 61 mm
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(600)
Tension ties
This depth is available. for DA
The other nodes are shown in Figure 4.8.4. The re-
inforcement configuration is shown in Figure 4.8.3. Figure 4.8.3 Reinforcement for corbel example
Node B Node C
hs
2 h s = 70 mm l b = w = 125 mm
2
h s = 106 mm
25 M
25 mm
lb = 8 x 25 = 200 mm
mm
= 157
os θ
66°
c
+hs
39° in θ
l bs
2
hs cos θ + l b sin θ= 180 mm Node D 105

7k
2 2 7 kN N
109
219 kN
a = 83 mm
2 1819 kN
No anchorage check required
Figure 4.8.4 Anchorage check example

4.8.1 Alternate Method for the Design of Corbels (Cantilever Beam Method)
CSA A23.3 Clause 11.1.5 allows alternate methods to be used for shear design.
PCI has published several reports on an alternate design methodology. [2][3] The equations in this section follow
these recommendations and are subject to the following limitations:
1. a/d ≤ 1
2. Nf ≤ Vf
3. Anchorage at the front face of the corbel must
develop the necessary reinforcement.
4. Concentrated loads on continuous corbels may
be distributed similar to a beam ledge.
The primary tension reinforcement in the corbel, As,
is the greater of the shear friction reinforcement (2/3
Avf + An) or (Af + An) (Figure 4.8.5).
1.3Vf a + Nf (h d)
Af =
s fy d
Nf
An =
s fy
For convenience, this equation can be rewritten so

that As is equal to:
1 a h
As = 1.3 Vf + Nf
sf y d d
The minimum required tension steel is:

f
As,min = 0.04 c bd
fy
In lieu of using As,min one third more steel can be
used per CSA A23.3 Clause 10.5.1.3.
Crack control reinforcement should be added:
Ah 0.5(As – An)
2
Ah should be distributed within the upper d.
3
The shear strength of a corbel is limited by the max-
imum value given for shear friction across the crack
plane. Figure 4.8.5 Design of concrete corbels

Example 4.4 Design of a corbel using the alternative method (Cantilever Beam Method)
Problem:
Redesign the corbel from the strut and tie model Vr = Vf = c(cAcr + μAvffy)
example using the cantilever beam design meth-
= (1.0)(0.70) (1.0)A cr + (1.4)A vf fy
od. Use the same loads and geometry as Example
4.3. See Figure 4.8.1. Vf -0.70A cr
Avf =
0.98fy
Check the suitability of this method using CSA
A23.3, Clauses 11.6.2, 11.6.3 and 11.6.4. (1000)(103 ) (0.70)(600)(600)
=
a 165 (0.98)(400)
= = 0.303 < 1.0 OK 2
d 545 = 1908 mm
h
= 300 depth of face OK As = (2 / 3)(1908) + 588 = 1860 mm2
2
Nf = Vf x 0.2 = 1000 x 0.2 = 200 kN : The area of primary tension reinforcement shall be the
Check maximum V r of corbel: greater of (a) or (b) above. Therefore, as 1860 > 1805,
provide As ≥ 1860 mm2
From shear friction:
vr = c(c +μ ) + s vfy cos(
f)
Check As, min from CSA A23.3 Clause 11.6.6
where c(c+ μ ) 0.25 c fc As fc
0.04
Since f = 90°, the equation reduces to: bd fy
vr = c(c+ μ ) 35
As,min = (0.04) (600)(545)
vr,max = 0.25 cf’c 400
2 2
= (0.25)(0.70)(35) = 6.13 MPa = 1145 mm < 1860 mm
-3 2
Vr,max = vr,max Acr = (6.13)(600)(600)(10 ) Provide 4 – 25M (As = 2000 mm )
= 2207 kN > Vf OK Check the remaining detailing requirements of CSA
Design primary tension reinforcement: A23.3, Clause 11.6.
V a + Nf (h d) Nf Clause 11.6.5
(a) As = Af + An = f +
s fy d s fy
Add closed stirrups or fully developed bars within 2/3
Note: Since the location of Vf is sensitive to erec- of depth d, adjacent to As.
tion tolerances, a 1.3 factor will be applied to Vf. 2
A h = As /2 = 1860/2 = 930 mm
(1.3)(1000)(165) + (200)(600 - 545) 2 2
Af = 103 d = (545) = 363 mm
(0.85)(400)(545) 3 3
= 1217 mm2 Add 5 – 10M ties within 360 mm of As
2
An = 200 = 588 mm
Clauses 11.6.7 and 11.6.8
(0.85)(400)
As = 1217 + 588 = 1805 mm2 Anchor primary tensile tie reinforcement at front face
or: of corbel. Check that bearing area does not project
(b) As = 2 / 3 A vf + An beyond interior face of anchor.
Vr = [ c (c + μ ) ]Acr In this example, the only difference between the strut
and tie method and the cantilever beam method is that
N the strut and tie method requires a tension tie at the
= c c+μ v fy sin f + A cr
Ag base of the corbel. Note that the empirical cantilever
method has been tested. [2] [3]
Note: Since reinforcement, An, for the horizontal
force is added to the shear friction reinforcement,
N = 0 for calculation of Vr.

4.9 DAPPED END CONNECTIONS

Dapped end connections may be designed by the strut and tie model as per CSA A23.3, Clause 11.4.
Example 4.5 400 mm wide beam with a dapped end as shown in Figure 4.9.1
Given: The corresponding line drawing of the truss is
Vf = 400 kN shown in Figure 4.9.4. The truss can be determined
Nf = (0.2)(400) = 80 kN in the following manner:
f’c = 35 MPa, normal density Node A – located at intersection of reaction force
fy = 400 MPa weldable and tension tie bars (20M bars assumed)
Solution: Node B – located at intersection of tension hanger
Assume a 375 mm long steel bearing angle is bars and top longitudinal bars (15M bars assumed)
used at the support.
Node C – located at intersection of tension hanger
The required bearing length and bottom longitudinal bars (30M bars assumed)
Vf (400)(103 )
= = = 58 mm Node D – taken to be dv/2(tanθ) from edge of ten-
0.75 c fc b (0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
sion hanger so that strut CD can represent the fan
Use a 100 x 150 x 10 mm steel angle at the
Node E – located at intersection of tension tie and
dapped end of the beam to ensure complete
strut CD to represent the anchor for this tension tie
bearing on the steel support.
Node F – located directly below node D so that tie
Provide a 300 x 100 x 12 mm elastomeric bearing
DF can represent the stirrups within the fan length
pad centred 95 mm from the beam end.
dv/tanθ
Using a strut and tie model:
The vertical loads on B and D are equal to the por-
The tension tie, compression strut and nodal zone tion of the uniform distributed load centred about
model is shown in Figures 4.9.2 and 4.9.3. each node.
Figure 4.9.1 Dapped end connection example
Continued next page

(continued from previous page)
Figure 4.9.2 Strut- and-tie model for dapped end connection
Figure 4.9.3 End detail of strut-and-tie model for dapped end connection example
Continued next page

The forces in the truss members can be deter- The 4 – 10M U‑stirrups in the fan region are suffi-
mined by statics and are: cient.
Member AB AE DE DB CE CB CF BE DF Check compressive stresses in the nodal zones:
Force At nodal zone A, the required depth of the nodal

+505 -388 +502 +137 +780 -488 -609 +244 -221
(kN) zone:
Note:Positive is compression and negative is tension.
hs = 388000 80000
= 45 mm
Design of tension ties: (0.75)(0.70)(35)(375)
Tie AE: Therefore, 100 mm provided by the steel angle is

388000 2 adequate.
As = =1141 mm
(0.85)(400) At nodal zone B, because of a concern about
Use 4 - 20M bars (weldable). spalling of the concrete cover, neglect the con-
2 crete outside the anchoring tension tie reinforce-
As = (4)(300) =1200 mm
ment.
Hanger CB:
488000 2
The required length of the nodal zone:
As = =1435 mm
(0.85)(400) hs = 505000
= 86 mm
Use 4 - 15M closed stirrups. (0.75)(0.70)(35)(320)
As = (4)(2)(200) =1600 mm
2 A spacing of 60 mm between the 4 – 15M closed
Tie CF: stirrups will provide a nodal zone length of
(3)(60) + 16 = 196 mm (conservative).
609000 2
As = = 1791 mm
(0.85)(400) Nodal zone C anchors two tension ties. Hence,
Area of 5 – 30M bars is sufficient but anchorage required length:
must be checked. 505000
hs = = 99 mm
Tie DF: (0.65)(0.70)(35)(320)
221000 Thus, 196 mm is still OK.
As = = 650 mm2
(0.85)(400)
External reactions to
provide equilibrium
(from statics calculations)
86 kN 93 kN
64
64
B
D
310
Tension tie
316
representing
stirrups
564
80 A
kN E
248
20
Compressive strut
400 representing fan
kN F
C
72
105 138 704
Figure 4.9.4 Truss idealization for dapped end connection example

Continued next page

Required height of nodal zone C:

609000
hs = = 120 mm s
(0.65)(0.70)(35)(320)
For this nodal zone height, provide 3 – 15M horizon-
tal U‑bars at 50 mm spacing above the layer of 30M
bars.
Also, check the anchorage of tension tie CF in nodal
zone C.
As the 30M bars emerge from nodal zone C, they
can resist a tensile force of approximately:
196 s A s fy
Ft =
l
l d
(196)(0.85)(3500)(400) /(103 )
= = 256 kN
910
The 3 – 15M U‑bars will be capable of resisting a
tension force of (0.85)(3)(2)(200)(400)/103 = 408 kN.
Hence, the total tensile resistance at face of nodal
zone = 256 + 408 = 664 kN
As 664 kN = 609 kN, anchorage is OK Figure 4.9.5 Nodal zone B
To obtain the proper lap length, extend the 15M The compressive strut CE-DE represents a fan
bars at least l d (370 mm) beyond the nodal zone and shaped region of radiating struts, and as the nodal
far enough for the 5 – 30M bars to be capable of zone stresses at the base of the fan, that are at their
carrying the 609 kN tie force on their own (i.e., 470 + highest level, further checks are not required.
370 = 840 mm from the end of the 30M bars).
Check compressive stress limit in the struts that
Although the addition of the 15M U-bars will raise meet at node B (Figure 4.9.5).
the location of node C somewhat, this secondary
If this nodal zone is to be in equilibrium under a
effect will be neglected.
“uniform-static” stress condition, the length of the
faces of the nodal zone must be proportional to the
loads applied to these faces, and the faces must be
perpendicular to the loads. Hence, width of strut AB
at nodal zone B:
(505)(196)
hs = = 172 mm
488 + 86
Thus, stress in strut (again neglecting cover):
505000
= = 9.18 MPa
(172)(320)
Continued

As this strut is crossed by tension tie CB, its diago- Since fcu ≥ MPa, compressive stress in strut is OK.
nal crushing strength will be reduced.
As the other struts meeting at node B will have the
The average tensile strain in tension tie CB can be same compressive stress but smaller values of e1,
estimated as: they will not be critical.
488000 To improve crack control and ductility, provide a
s = = 0.00179
(8)(200)(0.85)(200)(103 ) minimum area of horizontal reinforcement parallel
to the primary tension tie reinforcement AE in the
The average strain will actually be somewhat smaller
region above the support. If the dapped end is
than this due to tension stiffening effects.
treated as a bracket, the required area of such addi-
The strain e1 perpendicular to the strut is: tional reinforcement would be:
s + 0.002 Ah = 0.5 As = (0.5)(1141) = 571 mm2
1 = s + 2
tan s
Use 2 – 15M horizontal U‑bars distributed over 2/3
0.00179 + 0.002 of the effective depth. Extend these bars l d beyond
= 0.00179 + = 0.008
tan2 38o the anchor point.
Diagonal crushing strength is: To improve the support conditions for the highly
stressed compressive strut AB, use two additional
fc
fcu = 0.85fc 15M top longitudinal bars in the region of node B.
0.8 + 170 1 The final details of the dap ended beam are shown
35 in Figure 4.9.6.
=
0.8 + (170)(0.008)
= 16.2 MPa (0.85)(35) = 29.8
Example 4.6 Alternative method for design of dapped end connections
A simpler calculation, based on statics, may be used

Check shear friction:
as an alternate method. It is not dependent upon
modeling assumptions (Figure 4.9.7). Acr = (400)(400) = 160000 mm2
Vf 400000 400000
Ash = = = 1176 mm2 vf = = 2.5 MPa < 0.25 c fc = 6.12
s fy (0.85)(400) 160000
vr = c (c + μ v fy )
Use 3 – 15M closed stirrups
2.5 = (1.0) (0.7) 1 + (1.4) v(400)
1 a h
Af + An = Vf (1.3) + Nf v = 0.00459
s fy d d
The steel required is:
1 213 400 Avf = (0.0459)(160000) = 734 mm2
= (400)(103 )(1.3) + (80)(103 )
(0.85)(400) 375 375
The additional steel required for the horizontal
tension force is:
2
= 1120 mm
A 1.3 factor is used with Vf since the force is sensi-
tive to misalignment of bearing pads.
Continued

Example 4.6 Alternative method for design of dapped end connections (continued from previous page)
Figure 4.9.6 Reinforcement requirements for dapped end connection example
80000 Diagonal tension in the reentrant corner:

An = = 235 mm2
(0.85)(400) A’sh = Ash
2/3 Avf + An = (2/3)734 + 235 = 1176 mm2 use 3 – 15M U bars.
2 2
= 724 mm < 1120 mm Diagonal tension in extended end:
Therefore, 1120 mm2 governs: use 4–20M bars 1
welded to plate. Av,min = (Vf bdc)
2 c fy
Crack Control Reinforcement.
1
Ah = 0.5 (As – An) = (400)(103 ) (400)(375)(1)
(2)(0.7)(400)
a 1
= 0.5Vf (1.3) 2
d = 446 mm
s fy
Use 2–10M stirrups in dap plus 2 – 10M framing bars.
213 1
= (0.5)(400)(1.3) (1000)
375 (0.85)(400)
2
= 434 mm Use 2 – 15M U bars.
Figure 4.9.7 Alternate method to design dapped end connections

4.10 BEAM LEDGES

The strut and tie model can be used in the design of continuous beam ledges supporting concentrated or
uniformly distributed loads. The truss model is very similar to the model used in dapped end connection design.
Example 4.7 Design of a reinforced beam ledge for a double tee leg
Given:
A 125 mm wide double tee leg is resting on a
L‑beam as shown in Figure 4.10.1.
Vf = 100 kN
Nf = 20 kN
f’c = 35 MPa
fy = 400 MPa
The flow of compressive stresses is shown in Fig-
ure 4.10.2. The strut and the tie model is shown in
Figure 4.10.3.
Summing moments about C:
(100)(135 + 510)
DB = = 126 kN tension
510
Figure 4.10.2 Flow of compressive stresses for

beam ledge design example
Summing horizontal forces at A:
AC = 20 + 64 + 84 kN tension
Design of tension ties:
The reinforcement area required for tension tie AC is:
84000
As = = 247 mm2
(0.85)(400)
Use 3 10M stirrups.
The reinforcement area required for tension tie DB is:
126000
As = = 371mm2
(0.85)(400)
Figure 4.10.1 Beam ledge design example Provide 4 – 10M closed stirrups in addition to those
required for shear and torsion. If only the minimum
Summing vertical forces at A: shear reinforcement is required, Vr < Vc + Vp the
ABv = 100 kN
above stirrups can replace the shear reinforcement at
(135)(100) this location.
ABh = = 64 kN
(210)
Check compressive stresses at nodal zones:
AB = 1002 + 642 = 119 kN compression
Depth of the nodal zone at A required to anchor
tension tie AC is:
Continued

Example 4.7 Design of a reinforced beam ledge for a double tee leg (continued from previous page)
84000 20000 This example neglects any ledge stirrups and also
hs = assumes the longitudinal bar is not stressed due to
(0.75)(0.70)(35)(100)
flexure and has full yield capacity available for shear
= 35 mm < (2)(45) = 90
friction. This needs careful consideration by the
Since the compression strut AB is not crossed by a designer as recent ledge tests [10] indicate failure
tension tie, the stresses will be OK. loads much lower than would predicted by this
Check the anchorage conditions at the end of the approach, and further research is required.
compression strut in accordance with CSA A23.3 Note: the bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the
Clause 11.4.2. ledge may be resisting bending moment so it is
The reinforcement can be distributed along the ignored.
length of the beam if the shear along the assumed 94,000 20,000
inclined cracks is checked using shear friction. See vf = +
237,077 162,371
Figure 4.10.4.
= 0.4 + 0.12
= 0.52 MPa
Avf = (2)(200) = 400 mm (1 – 15M times 2)
N
= v fy cos 20o
Ag
400 (34)(103 )
= (400)cos 20o
237,077 237,077
= 0.63 – 0.14 = 0.49 MPa
vr = c (c + μ )
= (0.70)(1 + (1.4)(0.49))
= 1.18 MPa > 0.52 MPa
Check vr 0.25 c fc = 6.13 MPa OK
Figure 4.10.3 Force diagram for beam ledge Therefore, the load cannot punch through the ledge
example and the reinforcement can be distributed along the
length of the beam
V = (100) cos20° = 94 kN
N = (100) sin20° = 34 kN
A cr = Area of 2 sides + Area of back
300 200 + 200 + 300 tan 20°
A cr = 2 x
cos 20° 2
300 125 +125 + (2)300 tan 20°

+ cos 20° 2
= 162,371 + 74707
= 237,077 mm2
The worst case stirrup location is assumed. The hori-
zontal tension force is also resisted by shear friction. Figure 4.10.4 Punching through ledge
The shear friction reinforcement consists of 1 – 15M
longitudinal bar in the top of the ledge. Continued

Example 4.7 Design of a reinforced beam ledge for a double tee leg (continued from previous page)
Alternately, the amount of ledge reinforcement As the amount of ledge reinforcement is sensitive to
can be designed using simple statics: the pad location, Vf is increased by 30%.
Vf (1.3) a N h The hanger reinforcement in the beam becomes:
As + An = + s
sf y d s fy d 100000 690
Ash = = 366 mm2
(100000)(1.3) 135 (0.85)(400) 555
=
(0.85)(400) 255
Use 4 – 10M beam stirrups.
20000 300
+
(0.85)(400) 255
= 202 + 69
= 271 mm Use 3-10M ledge stirrups.
4.11 WELDED HEADED STUDS

Welded headed studs or headed concrete anchors (HCA) are designed to resist direct shear, tension or a
combination of both. Both the resistance of the concrete and the steel must be checked as either may be critical.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) developed methods for analyzing the capacity of headed stud anchors.
These methods were used to develop Annex D of CSA A23.3. The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI)
commissioned a series of tests [4] to further investigate stud capacity in situations common in the precast industry.
The information presented in this section follows the recommendations contained in the non-mandatory Annex D
in CSA A23.3 with the exception of the shear provisions, where the PCI design method is used.
The following examples assume that the majority of precast member anchorages are in uncracked concrete. This is
reasonable as many precast members are prestressed and most of the anchorages designed for precast concrete
connections are located in regions where cracking is unlikely. If there is any possibility the region may crack, the
cracked concrete capacity must be used. For post-installed anchors, refer to CSA A23.3 Annex D.
4.11.1 Tension
CSA A23.3 Annex D checks tensile loading for four cases: steel resistance, concrete breakout resistance, pullout
resistance, and side blowout.
4.11.1.1 Steel Resistance in Tension

The factored resistance of a single anchor or group of anchors in tension shall be limited by:
Nsar = nA se s futa R
futa smallest of 1.9fya or 860 MPa
R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements
.
The effective area of a threaded anchor may be assumed to be 70% of the gross area.
See Figure 4.11.1 for typical headed stud factored resistance.


Nom. Thickness of Diameter Min Plate Thickness

Area Nsar Vsar
Dia. Head of Head for Full Strength
(mm2) (kN) (kN)
(mm) ths (mm) (mm) Weld (mm)
6 5 13 32 8 7 3.0
10 7 19 71 18 16 5.0
13 8 25 127 32 29 6.5
16 8 32 198 49 46 8.0
19 10 32 285 71 66 9.5
22 10 35 388 97 90 11.0
Note:Based on Nelson stud data
futa = 420 MPa, fya = 340 MPa, fs = 0.85
R = 0.7 for tensile loads
R = 0.65 for shear loads (multiply by 0.8/0.7 or 0.75/0.65 if the anchor is governed by
strength of a ductile steel element for tensile and shear loads respectively).
Stainless studs can have considerably less strength, contact local stud manufacturer.
Figure 4.11.1 Factored resistance of headed studs limited by steel strength
4.11.1.2 Concrete Breakout Resistance in Tension

The effective stress area is the projection of a pyramid from the bearing edge of the anchor, shown in Figure 4.11.2,
and should not include the overlapping stress areas in a stud group. Reductions must be made for the intersection
of pyramids with concrete surfaces and an adjustment is made for the overall thickness of the concrete.
Figure 4.11.2 Effective stress area for welded headed studs

In a stud group in which the centre to centre spacing of anchors is less than three times the length of embedment,
the individual effective stress areas will overlap and thus reduce the factored resistance of the group.
The concrete strength used in these equations should not exceed 70 MPa as this was the maximum strength used
in the tests.

The equations below contain a reduction factor to account for the difference between the assumed pyramidal failure
planes and the conical failure planes observed in practice.
The factored breakout resistance of anchors shall not exceed:
(a) for a single anchor:
AN
Ncbr = ed,N c,N cp,NNbr
ANo
(b) or a group of anchors:
AN
Ncbgr = ec,N ed,N c,N cp,NNbr
ANo
Ncbgr = projected failure surface area of the anchor ≤ ANo (Figure 4.11.3)
≤≤<≤≤<
ANo = 9h2ef
yec,N = modification factor for resistance in tension to account for anchor groups loaded eccentrically
yed,N = modification factor for resistance in tension to account for edge distances smaller than 1.5hef
yc,N = modification factor for resistance in tension to account for cracking
= 1.25 for uncracked concrete
= 1.00 for cracked concrete
ycp,N = modification factor for concrete breakout resistance to account for premature splitting failure, for post-in-
stalled anchors only
Nbr = factored concrete breakout resistance for a single anchor in cracked concrete
The factored concrete breakout resistance, Nbr, can be calculated as the greater of:
(a) for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts, where 275 mm < hef < 625 mm:
Nbr = 3.9 c fc h5ef/ 3 R

(b) for cast-in headed studs and headed bolts, where hef < 275 mm

Nbr= k c fc h1.5
ef R
k = 10 for cast-in headed studs, headed bolts and hooked bolts

= 7 for post-installed anchors
hef = effective anchor embedment depth, (mm) < 275 mm
R = 1.0 for most cases
= 1.15 if confining reinforcement is located within 0.75hef of the anchor and is fully developed on both
sides of the pullout plane for the total tension force
= resistance modification factor for concrete that is different than for steel, see CSA A23.3 Clause D.5.3.
See Figure 4.11.4 for single stud capacities not near a free edge. See Figure 4.11.6 for a tabular approach of calcu-
lating concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension.
hef (mm) 75 100 150 200 300
yc,NNbr (kN) 34 52 95 146 271
Note: fc = 0.7,R = 1,hef = stud length + tb –ths,f’c = 35 MPa

yc,N = 1.25 (multiply by 0.8 for cracked concrete)
Figure 4.11.4 Capacity of a single stud not near a free edge (uncracked concrete)
4.11.1.3 Concrete Pullout Resistance in Tension

The factored pullout resistance of an anchor shall not exceed:
Ncpr = yc,PNpr

Figure 4.11.3 Projected areas for single anchors and groups of anchors

Npr is the pullout resistance in tension and can be calculated as:

Npr = 8Abhfcf’cR, for single headed stud or headed bolts
= 0.9fcf’cehdoR, for single J or L bolts
Abh = is the bearing area of the head of the stud or anchor bolt
do = outside diameter of anchor, or shaft area of headed stud, headed anchor, or hooked bolt
eh = 3do ≤ eh ≤ 4.5do
yc,P = 1 for cracked concrete
= 1.4 for uncracked concrete at service loads (fs < fr)
Figure 4.11.5 shows the head diameter required such that this value does not govern over the steel strength shown
in Figure 4.11.1.
4.11.1.4 Concrete Side Blowout Resistance

This requirement applies when c, the edge distance of the anchor, is less than 0.4hef. For a single headed anchor,
with deep embedment, close to an edge:
Nsbr = c 13.3c R A bhf c
Nominal diameter (mm) 6 10 13 16 19 22
Diameter of head (mm) 10.2 15.3 20.5 25.6 30.7 35.8
Note: R = 0.7 for brittle steel elements

R = 1 for concrete
fc = 0.7
f’c ≥ 20 MPa if concrete is uncracked
f’c ≥ 28 MPa if concrete is cracked
Figure 4.11.5 Head diameters sized so that steel strength governs
If a single anchor is located at a perpendicular distance c2 less than 3c from an edge, Nsbr shall be modified by
multiplying it by the factor (1 + c2/c)/4, where 1≤ c2/c ≤ 3.
For multiple headed anchors with deep embedment close to an edge and spacing between anchors less than 6c:
so
Nsbgr = 1+ Nsbr
6c
Nsbr is not modified for the perpendicular edge distance:
so = distance between the outer anchors along the edge in the group
4.11.1.5 Eccentrically loaded anchor groups

1
The modification factor for eccentrically loaded anchor groups shall be: ec,N =
2e
1+ N
This equation is valid for: 3hef
so
eN
2
eN = eccentricity of a normal force on a group of anchors
so = the centre-to-centre spacing of the outer anchors in tension (mm)
If the loading on an anchor group is such that only some anchors are in tension, only those anchors that are in
tension shall be considered when determining the eccentricity, eN.
In the case where eccentric loading exists about two axes, the modification factor, yec,N, shall be computed for
each axis individually, and the product of these factors used as yec,N.

Assumptions Symetrically loaded

c = 0.70, for precast concrete certified in
k = 10 for cast in headed studs
accordance with A23.4. Otherwise,
multiply by 0.65/0.70 c,N = 1.25 (for cracked concrete, multiply by 0.8)
R = 1 (multiply by 1.15 if confining For the IEFaSa(0.2) 0.35 seismic requirement, multiply
reinforcement is used) by 0.75
hef = stud length + t - ths (not to exceed the If stud spacing in both directions exceeds 3hef, treat as
greater of 2/3 h or h – 100) single studs. If stud spacing in one direction exceeds 3hef,
treat as two or more different group of studs.
fc
fc = 35 MPa (multiply by for other Ensure that the failure of one stud or group will not cause
35 prying on the others, resulting in a progressive type
concrete strengths) failure.
s1, s2 (mm) It is critical that the results of these tables be checked
against the sum of the individual stud capacities.
 = 1.0 If the anchor group is eccentrically loaded, modify the
results by the ec,N factor shown in Sect. 4.11.1.5.
Case 1: Not near a free edge
Applies to rectangular stud pattern with outside dimensions s1 and s2

and c > 1.5hef
(s1 + 3h ef )(s 2 + 3h ef )k c f h1.5

ef R c,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
s1 Design Tensile Strength, Ncbgr / ec,N (kN)

hef
s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0 41 48 56 63 70 78 85 93 100 108
50 50 59 68 77 86 95 105 114 123 132
100 59 70 80 91 102 113 124 134 145 156
75 150 68 80 93 105 118 130 143 155 168 180
200 77 91 105 119 134 148 162 176 190 204
250 86 102 118 134 149 165 181 197 212 228
300 95 113 130 148 165 183 200 217 235 252
0 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129 138
50 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 161
100
100 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172 184
150 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194 207
200 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215 230
250 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237 253
300 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258 276
0 105 116 126 137 147 158 169 179 190 200
50 117 129 140 152 164 176 187 199 211 223
100 129 142 154 167 180 193 206 219 232 245
150 150 140 154 169 183 197 211 225 239 253 267
200 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274 289
250 164 180 197 213 230 246 262 279 295 312
300 176 193 211 228 246 264 281 299 316 334
0 158 170 183 195 207 219 231 244 256 268
50 171 185 198 211 224 237 251 264 277 290
100 185 199 213 227 241 256 270 284 298 313
200 150 198 213 228 244 259 274 289 305 320 335
200 211 227 244 260 276 292 309 325 341 357
250 224 241 259 276 293 311 328 345 362 380
300 237 256 274 292 311 329 347 366 384 402
Figure 4.11.6 Concrete breakout resistance of headed studs in tension (Continues next page)

(Continued from previous page)
Case 2: Near one free edge
c1 < 1.5hef
(s1 + c 1 + 1.5h ef )(s 2 + 3h ef )k c  fc h1.5
ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
cmin
ed,N = 0.7 + 0.3
1.5hef
Note: Table A results must be multiplied by ed,N from Table B

Table A: Design Tensile Strength, N cbgr / ec,N / ed,N (kN)
s 1+ c 1
hef
s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 24 31 39 46 54 61 69 76 84 91 99 106
50 29 38 47 57 66 75 84 93 102 111 121 130
100 35 45 56 67 78 89 99 110 121 132 143 153
75 150 40 52 65 77 90 102 115 127 140 152 165 177
200 45 59 74 88 102 116 130 144 158 172 187 201
250 51 67 82 98 114 130 145 161 177 193 209 224
300 56 74 91 108 126 143 161 178 196 213 231 248
0 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
100 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
100 150 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
200 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172 186 201 215
250 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189 205 221 237
300 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207 224 241 258
0 58 68 79 89 100 110 121 132 142 153 163 174
50 64 76 88 99 111 123 135 146 158 170 181 193
100 71 83 96 109 122 135 148 161 174 187 200 213
150 150 77 91 105 119 133 147 162 176 190 204 218 232
200 83 99 114 129 144 160 175 190 206 221 236 251
250 90 106 123 139 156 172 189 205 221 238 254 271
300 96 114 132 149 167 184 202 220 237 255 272 290
0 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219
50 92 105 118 132 145 158 171 185 198 211 224 237
100 99 113 128 142 156 170 185 199 213 227 241 256
200 150 106 122 137 152 167 183 198 213 228 244 259 274
200 113 130 146 162 178 195 211 227 244 260 276 292
250 120 138 155 172 190 207 224 241 259 276 293 311
300 128 146 164 183 201 219 237 256 274 292 311 329
Table B: Modification for Edge Distance ( ed,N)
c1
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
Note: (a) side blowout will govern as c1 < 0.4hef (see Section 4.11.1.4)

Case 3: Free edges on two adjacent sides
c1 < 1.5hef c2 < 1.5hef
1.5
(s 1 + c 1 + 1.5h ef )(s 2 + c 2 + 1.5h ef )k c  fc hef R c,N ed,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
Table A: Design Tensile Strength, Ncbgr / ec,N / ed,N (kN)

s1 + c1
hef
s2 + c2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
50 17 22 28 33 39 44 49 55 60 66 71 76
100 22 29 37 44 51 58 65 72 79 86 93 100
150 28 37 45 54 63 71 80 89 98 106 115 124
75
200 33 44 54 64 75 85 95 106 116 127 137 147
250 39 51 63 75 87 99 111 123 135 147 159 171
300 44 58 71 85 99 113 126 140 154 167 181 195
50 23 28 34 40 46 51 57 63 69 74 80 86
100 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86 93 100 107
150 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103 112 120 129
100
200 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
250 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138 149 161 172
300 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155 168 181 194
50 35 41 48 54 61 67 74 80 87 93 100 106
100 41 49 57 64 72 80 87 95 103 110 118 125
150 48 57 66 74 83 92 101 110 118 127 136 145
150
200 54 64 74 84 94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164
250 61 72 83 94 105 117 128 139 150 161 172 184
300 67 80 92 104 117 129 141 154 166 178 191 203
50 49 56 64 71 78 85 92 99 106 113 120 128
100 56 65 73 81 89 97 105 113 122 130 138 146
150 64 73 82 91 100 109 118 128 137 146 155 164
200
200 71 81 91 101 111 122 132 142 152 162 172 183
250 78 89 100 111 123 134 145 156 167 178 190 201
300 85 97 109 122 134 146 158 170 183 195 207 219
cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95
Note: (a) side blowout will govern as cmin < 0.4hef (see Section 4.11.1.4)


Case 4: Free edges on two opposite sides
c1 < 1.5hef c3 < 1.5hef
c
(s 1 + c 1 + c 3 )(s 2 + 3h ef )k fc h1.5
ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef

s1+c1+c3
hef
s2 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
0 14 22 29 37 44 52 59 67 74 82 89
50 18 27 36 45 54 63 73 82 91 100 109
100 21 32 43 53 64 75 86 97 107 118 129
75 150 24 37 49 62 74 87 99 112 124 136 149
200 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 127 141 155 169
250 31 47 63 78 94 110 126 141 157 173 189
300 34 52 69 87 104 122 139 156 174 191 209
0 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
50 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
100 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
100 150 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
200 28 43 57 71 86 100 115 129 143 158 172
250 31 47 63 79 94 110 126 142 158 173 189
300 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 189 207
0 21 31 42 52 63 73 84 95 105 116 126
50 23 35 46 58 70 82 93 105 117 129 140
100 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 154
150 150 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 169
200 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
250 32 49 65 82 98 115 131 147 164 180 197
300 35 52 70 88 105 123 140 158 176 193 211
0 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146
50 26 39 52 66 79 92 105 118 132 145 158
100 28 42 56 71 85 99 113 128 142 156 170
200 150 30 45 61 76 91 106 122 137 152 167 183
200 32 48 65 81 97 113 130 146 162 178 195
250 34 51 69 86 103 120 138 155 172 190 207
300 36 54 73 91 109 128 146 164 183 201 219
cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

Case 5: Free edges on three sides
c1 < 1.5hef c2 < 1.5hef c3 < 1.5hef

where hef shall be limited to cmax/1.5 or 1/3 of the maximum spacing of the
anchors whatever is greater
(c1 + s1 + c 3 )(c 2 + s 2 + 1.5hef )k c fc h1.5
ef R c,N ed,N ec,N
Ncbgr =
9h2ef
Note Table A results must be multiplied by ed,N from Table B

c1+s1+c3
hef
c2+s2 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
100 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
150 8 17 26 34 43 52 61 69 78 87 95 104
75 200 10 20 31 41 51 62 72 83 93 103 114 124
250 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
300 13 27 41 54 68 82 95 109 123 136 150 164
100 7 14 21 28 35 43 50 57 64 71 79 86
150 8 17 25 34 43 51 60 69 77 86 94 103
100 200 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
250 11 23 34 46 57 69 80 92 103 115 126 138
300 12 25 38 51 64 77 90 103 116 129 142 155
100 7 15 22 30 38 45 53 61 68 76 83 91
150 8 17 26 35 44 52 61 70 79 88 96 105
150 200 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 109 119
250 11 22 33 44 55 66 78 89 100 111 122 133
300 12 24 36 49 61 73 86 98 110 123 135 147
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 65 73 81 89 97
150 9 18 27 36 45 54 64 73 82 91 100 109
200 200 10 20 30 40 50 61 71 81 91 101 111 122
250 11 22 33 44 55 67 78 89 100 111 123 134
300 12 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109 122 134 146
cmin
hef 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300
75 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.97 Case 1 governs
100 (a) 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.90
150 (a) (a) 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.90 0.97
200 (a) (a) (a) 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

4.11.2 Shear Resistance

The factored shear resistance limited by steel strength, Vsar, is shown in Section 4.11.1.1.
The factored shear resistance, governed by concrete failure is based on PCI tests. [4] The lowest of the steel and
concrete values govern.
See Figure 4.11.13 for a tabular approach of calculating concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs.
4.11.2.1 Front Edge

This condition is typical of the majority of shear loaded connections. The shear force is applied perpendicular to
the front edge, as seen in Figure 4.11.7.
Basic strength
Vr = fVco3Cx3Ch3Cev3Cvcr
Vr = factored shear resistance for a single or multiple stud connection, accounting for member and connection
geometry (N)
f = 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement
Note that this concrete strength reduction factor is for precast concrete certified in accordance with CSA A23.4.
Otherwise, multiply by 0.65/0.70
Figure 4.11.7 Headed stud plate edge variables
Vco3 = concrete breakout strength for a single stud connection unaffected by connection or member geometry
(N)
Cx3 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a connection with two or more X rows for a de3 type anchorage
Ch3 = coefficient for member thickness (h) for a de3 type anchorage
Cev3 = coefficient for eccentric shear force influences for a de3 type anchorage
Cvcr = coefficient for cracking in a member, loaded in shear

Single anchor strength
Vco3 = 1 1.5 fc (BED)1.33
l = lightweight concrete factor

BED = distance from back row of studs to front edge
= d + yi = de3 + Y (mm)
e3
de3 = distance from front stud to front edge (mm)
Y = total out to out dimension of stud rows (mm)
X-spacing factor
X
Cx3 = 0.85 +
Cx3 = nstuds-back
3BED
= 1.0, when X = 0
X = overall out-to-out (centre to centre) dimension of outermost studs in back row of
anchorage = ∑xi (mm)
nstuds-back = number of studs in back row
Thickness factor
Ch3 = 1.0 for h > 1.75 BED
h
= 0.75 for h 1.75 BED
BED
h = member thickness (mm)
Eccentricity factor
X
for ev
2
1
Cev3 = 1.0
ev
1 + 0.67
BED
ev = eccentricity of shear force on a group of anchors; distance between point of shear force application and
geometric centroid of group of anchors resisting shear in direction of applied shear (mm)
Cracking factor
For uncracked concrete:
Cvcr = 1.0
For cracked concrete (Figure 4.11.8):
Cvcr = 0.70 if no edge reinforcement or reinforcement less than 15M bar
= 0.85 if edge reinforcement greater than or equal to 15M bar
= 1.0 if edge reinforcement is greater than or equal to 15M and confined within stirrups with a spacing
less than or equal to 100 mm

Figure 4.11.8 Cracking factors, Cvcr for cracked concrete

Example 4.8 Headed concrete anchor front edge failure mode
Given: Thickness factor:

A plate with headed studs is placed in a position h 200
where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm thick precast Ch3 = 0.75 = 0.75 = 0.53
BED 400
concrete panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35
MPa. The plate is loaded with an eccentricity of 35 Eccentricity factor:
mm from the centre line of the stud group. The pan- 1 1
el has 15M confinement bars around the perimeter. Cev3 = =
ev 35
1 + 0.67 1 + 0.67
BED 400
= 0.94 < 1.0
Cracked concrete factor:

Cvcr = 1.0 (uncracked)
With confinement steel = 0.7:
Vr = Vco3 (Cx3 )(Ch3 )(Cev3 )(Cvcr )
= (0.7)(197)(0.93)(0.53)(0.94)(1.0)
= 64 kN 116 kN
Problem: Use Vr = 64 kN
Determine the design shear strength of the stud Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case A :
group.
Vr = (67)(0.93)(0.94)(1.08)
Check for corner condition: = 63 kN which is close enough to 64 kN.
SED 1200 + 100
3 = 3.25 3 The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is
BED 300 + 100
present.
Not a corner condition.
If higher capacity is desired, use tail bars welded to
Solution:
plate.
Steel capacity:
For example, if 2 – 15M tail bars are used:
From Figure 4.11.1
Vr = fsAsfy = (0.85)(2)(200(400)/1000 = 136 kN
Vsar = nAsefsfutR = (4)(29 kN) = 116 kN
Concrete breakout capacity:
Direction of shear Surface
Vr = Vco3Cx3Ch3Cev3Cvcr
BED = de3 + Y = 300 + 100 = 400
Tail Bars
Vco3 = 11.5 fc (BED)1.33
(Fully Developed)
(11.5)(1.0) 35(400)1.33
= = 197 kN
1000
X-spacing factor:
X 100
Cx3 = 0.85 + = 0.85 +
3BED (3)(400)
= 0.93 nstuds-back = 2

Figure 4.11.9 Corner transition to a front edge breakout
4.11.2.2 Corners
The corner is considered to be a special case of the front edge loaded anchorage. If the shear force is applied
perpendicular to the front edge, and the anchorage is located close to the corner, a different concrete breakout
mode occurs. A corner condition should be considered when:
SED
0.2 3.0
BED
where the Side Edge Distance (SED) as shown in Figure 4.11.8, is defined as:
SED = de1 + ∑x = de1 + X (mm)
Basic strength
The strength governed by concrete breakout at the corner is thus given by:
fVco3Cc3Ch3Cev3Ccr
Vr =
Cc3 = coefficient for corner influence for a de3 type anchorage
Corner factor
SED
Cc3 = 0.7 3 1.0
BED
Note that the Cx3 factor is replaced by Cc3 when computing corner capacity.
For the special case of a large X-spacing stud anchorage located near a corner, such that SED/BED > 3, a corner
failure may still result if del ≤ 2.5 BED. See Figure 4.11.9.

Example 4.9 Headed concrete anchor corner failure mode
Given: Concrete breakout strength:

A plate with headed studs as shown, is placed in
fVco3CvcrCev3Ch3Cc3
Vr =
a position where cracking is unlikely. The 200 mm
thick panel has a 28-day concrete strength of 35 Single anchor capacity (same as Example 4.8):
MPa. The panel has 15M confinement bars around
Vco3 = 197 kN
the perimeter. The plate is loaded with an eccen-
tricity of 35 mm from the centre line of the stud Thickness factor (same as Example 4.8):
group. Ch3 = 0.53
Corner-spacing factor:
SED 450 + 100

Cc3 = 0.7 3 = 0.7 3 = 0.78
BED 300 + 100
Eccentricity factor (same as Example 4.8):

Cev3 = 0.94
With confinement reinforcement;
Problem: f = 0.70
Determine the nominal shear strength of the con-
fVco3Ch3Cc3CvcrCev3
Vr =
nection.
= 0.70)(197)(0.53)(0.78)(1.0)(0.94)
Check for corner condition:
= 53 kN
SED 450 + 100
0.2 3 = 1.375
BED 300 + 100 Use Vr = 53 kN.
Corner breakout is likely. Using Figure 4.11.13 Case B:
Solution: Vr = (67)(0.94)(0.77)(1.08)
Steel strength (Figure 4.11.1): = 52 kN which is close enough to 53 kN
Vsar = (4)(29) = 116 kN The 1.08 factor is used, as confinement reinforce-
ment is present.
4.11.2.3 Side Edge

A connection plate loaded in shear parallel to a side edge results in a concrete breakout failure different from the
front edge breakout mode. In this case, the shear force is applied parallel to the side edge (de1 in Figure 4.11.10).
The anchorage will likely behave in a side edge failure mode if:
SED
0.2
BED
Research [4] has determined that the side edge influence can be quite large, especially in thin panels.

If the above ratio is close to the 0.2 value, it is recommended that the corner breakout condition be investigated as
it may still control for large BED values.
Basic strength
The strength governed by concrete breakout at the side edge is given by:
fVco1Cx1Cy1Cev1Cvcr
Vr =
f = strength reduction factor for precast concrete certified in accordance with A23.4. Otherwise, multiply by
0.65/0.70
= 0.65 without confinement reinforcement
= 0.70 with confinement reinforcement
Vco1 = nominal concrete breakout strength for a single stud connection unaffected by connection or member
geometry (N)
Cx1 = coefficient for overall X spacing of a connection with two or more X rows for a de1 type anchorage
CY1 = coefficient for overall Y spacing of a connection with two or more Y rows for a de1 type anchorage
Cev1 = coefficient for in-plane, eccentric shear load for a de1 type anchorage
Single anchor strength
Vco1 = 5.5 fc de11.33 do0.75
l = factor to account for low-density concrete

de1 = distance from side stud to side edge (mm)
do = stud diameter (mm)
X-spacing factor
For a single edge connection condition or a single Y-row of studs in a two, parallel edge condition (Figure 4.11.10):
nx x
Cx1 = + 2 nsides
2.5de1
1 ≤ Cx1 ≤ nx
Cx1 = 1.0, when x = 0

nx = number of X-rows
x = individual X-row spacing (mm)
nsides = number of edges or sides that influence the X direction (1 or 2, i.e., 2 for a column in which the connection
plate is placed equidistant from each side)
Figure 4.11.10 Conditions for calculating Cx1, for side edges

For all multiple Y-row anchorages located adjacent to two parallel edges, such as a column corbel connection, the
X-spacing factor is:
Cx1 = nx
Y-spacing factor
CY1 = 1.0 for ny = 1 (one Y-row)
19(ny Y)0.25
CY1 = + 0.15 ny for ny > 1.0
de1
ny = number of Y-row stud lines
Y = out-to-out Y-row spacing = y (mm)
Eccentricity factor
ev
Cev1 = 1.0 1.0
4de1
ev = eccentricity from shear load to anchorage centroid (mm)
Example 4.10 Headed concrete anchor (side edge failure mode)

Given: SED 150 + 100
Headed stud plate as shown. The 200 mm thick 0.2 = 0.13 0.2
BED 1800 + 100
reinforced precast concrete panel has a 28-day
concrete strength of 35 MPa. The panel has 15M Not a corner condition. Solve as side-edge condition.
confinement bars around the perimeter. The plate Solution:
is placed in a position where cracking is unlikely. Steel strength (Figure 4.11.1):
Vsar = (4)(29) = 116 kN
Concrete breakout strength:
Vr = fVco1(Cx1)(CY1)(Ce1)(Cvcr)
Single anchor strength:
Vco1 = 5.5 fc (de1 )1.33 (do )0.75
(5.5)(1.0) 35(150)1.33 (12.7)0.75
= = 171kN
1000
X-spacing factor:
n x (2)(100)
Cx1= x + 2 nsides = + 2 1 = 1.53
2.5de1 (2.5)(150)
Y-spacing factor:
0.25
19(ny Y)0.25 (19)[(2)(100)]
CY1 = + 0.15 = + 0.15
de1 150
= 0.63 ny = 2
Eccentricity factor:
Problem:
Cev1 = 1.0
Determine the design shear strength of the stud
group.
Continued next page
Check for corner condition:

Example 4.10 Headed concrete anchor (side edge failure mode) (continued from previous page

Vr = Vco1Cx1CY1Cev1Cvcr
= (0.7)(171)(1.53)(0.63)(1.0)(1.0)
= 115 kN < 128 kN
Use Vr = 115 kN
Using Fig. 4.11.13 Case C :
Vr = (110)(1.53)(0.63)(1.08)
= 115 kN = 115 kN = OK
The 1.08 factor is used as confinement steel is present.
4.11.2.4 Back Edge

The shear force is applied perpendicular to the back edge de4, as illustrated in Figure 4.11.7. Under a condition
of pure shear, the back edge has been found through testing to have no influence on the connection capacity.
Minimum concrete clear cover from the studs to the edge must be maintained.
4.11.2.5 In-the-Field
When a headed stud anchorage is sufficiently far from all edges, termed “in-the-field” of the member, the
anchorage strength will normally be governed by the steel strength.
However, if short, stocky studs are used, tests [4] have shown that pry-out failure may occur. This failure is
governed by the tensile strength of the stud. Annex D of A23.3 limits the shear strength of studs to the breakout
resistance in tension for hef less than 65mm and twice this amount if hef is 65mm or longer.
Vcp = kcp Ncbr or kcp Ncbgr
kcp = 1 for hef < 65mm
= 2 for hef ≥ 65mm
See Figure 4.11.11 for conditions where “in-the-field” studs are governed by pry-out failures.
Nom. Diameter 6 10 13 16 19 22
Vsar (kN) 7 16 29 46 66 90
Vcp (kN)
55 21 21 21 21 21 21
hef (mm) 65 54 54 54 54 54 54
75 68 68 68 68 68 68
85 82 82 82 82 82 82
Note:Pryout does not govern for values left of the heavy line.
Vsar values from Fig. 4.11.1
Ncbr = c,NNbr for this case, where c,NNbr is calculated as in Fig. 4.11.4
Figure 4.11.11 Pry-out resistance for single headed studs away from any edges compared to shear steel strength
4.11.3 Interaction of Tension and Shear

CSA A23.3, requires a tri-linear interaction as shown in Figure 4.11.12. This drawing shows that when both tension
and shear are applied to a connection with anchors:

• If the applied shear, Vf, is less than or equal to 20% of the shear strength, Vr, the shear can be neglected, and
the connection designed for tension alone.
• If the applied tension, Nf, is less than or equal to 20% of the tensile strength, Nr, the tension can be neglected,
and the connection designed for shear alone.
• If Vf > 0.2Vr and Nf > 0.2Nr, then:
Nf Vf 5/3 5/3
+ 1.2 or (Nf/Nr) + (Vf/Vr) 1.0
Nr Vr
Figure 4.11.12 Tension-shear interaction

Assumptions = 0.65 multiply by 0.70/0.65 = 1.08 if confinement reinforcement is provided.

Also, multiply by 0.65/0.70=0.93 if concrete is not certified in accordance with A23.4.
= 1, normal weight concrete
fc = 35 MPa (multiply by fc / 35 for other concrete strength)
Cvcr = 1, uncracked concrete
Number of studs times steel strength (Fig. 4.11.1) may govern
Case A: Front edge breakout
Vr = Vco3Ch3Cev3CvcrCx3
Vco3Ch3 is from Table A
Cx3 is from Table B
Cev3 is from Table C
Cvcr = 1
Table A ( Vco3)(Ch3) (kN)
BED (distance from back row of studs to front edge (mm))
50 75 100 125 150 175 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500
75 7 10 13 15 18 20 25 28 30 32 37 41 45 49
Thickness 100 8 11 15 18 21 24 29 32 35 37 42 47 52 57
of concrete 125 8 13 16 20 23 26 33 36 39 42 47 53 59 64
parrallel to 150 8 13 18 22 25 29 36 39 42 46 52 58 64 70
175 8 13 20 24 28 31 39 42 46 49 56 63 69 76
stud (mm) 200 8 13 20 25 30 34 42 45 49 53 60 67 74 81
225 8 13 20 27 31 36 44 48 52 56 64 71 79 86
250 8 13 20 27 33 38 46 51 55 59 67 75 83 91
275 8 13 20 27 34 40 49 53 58 62 71 79 87 95
300 8 13 20 27 34 41 51 56 60 65 74 82 91 99
Table B X spacing factor Cx3
One Row 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Overall out 50 1.18 1.07 1.02 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88
to out 75 1.35 1.18 1.10 1.05 1.02 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90
100 1.52 1.29 1.18 1.12 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.92
spacing of 125 1.68 1.41 1.27 1.18 1.13 1.09 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.93
studs in 150 1.85 1.52 1.35 1.25 1.18 1.14 1.07 1.05 1.03 1.02 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95
back row X 175 2.02 1.63 1.43 1.32 1.24 1.18 1.11 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.97
(mm)
200 2.18 1.74 1.52 1.38 1.29 1.23 1.15 1.12 1.09 1.07 1.04 1.02 1.00 0.98
Use above values or number of studs in back row, whichever is less
Table C Eccentricity Cev3
10 0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99
20 0.79 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.97
30 0.71 0.79 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96
ev <X/2
40 0.65 0.74 0.79 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95
(mm)
50 0.60 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94
60 0.55 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93
70 0.52 0.62 0.68 0.73 0.76 0.79 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.91
80 0.48 0.58 0.65 0.70 0.74 0.77 0.81 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90
90 0.45 0.55 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.74 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.87 0.88 0.89
Figure 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs (continues next page)

Case B: Corner breakout

Vr = Vco3Ch3Cev3CvcrCc3
Vco3Ch3 is from Case A, Table A
Cev3 is from Case A, Table C
Cvcr = 1
Cc3 is from the Table Below
Corner Factor Cc3
BED
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450
100 0.88 0.77 0.70 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.46 0.44 0.42
SED 200 0.97 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.53
distance 300 0.94 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.66 0.64 0.61
to 400 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.73 0.70 0.67
furthest 500 0.99 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.73
stud 600 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.84 0.80 0.77
from 700 0.99 0.96 0.93 0.88 0.84 0.81
side or 800 All values in this area are 1.00 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85
900
corner 1000 0.96 0.92 0.88
0.99 0.95 0.91
(mm) 1100 0.98 0.94
1200 0.97
Case C: Side edge breakout

Vr = Vco1Cx1Cy1Cev1Cvcr
Vco1 is from Table A (below)
Cx1 is from Table B (page 4-43)
Cy1 is from Table C (page 4-44)
Cev1 is from Table D (page 4-44)
Cvcr = 1
Table A Case C Vco1 (kN)
de1 (distance from nearest stud to edge)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
6 11 19 28 38 49 60 72 97 130 166 204 244
nominal 10 15 26 38 52 66 81 97 131 177 225 277 331
13 19 32 48 65 82 101 121 163 220 280 344 411
diameter 16 22 38 57 76 97 120 143 193 260 331 406 485
19 26 44 65 88 112 137 164 221 298 380 466 557
22 29 50 73 98 126 154 184 248 334 426 523 625


Table B Case C X spacing factor (Cx1)
de1 (mm)
number stud
of rows spacing
parallel x1, x2 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
to load (mm)
(nx)
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50 2.00 1.67 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25 1.20 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.10
75 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
100 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
125 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.83 1.71 1.63 1.50 1.40 1.33 1.29 1.25
150 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
175 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.88 1.70 1.56 1.47 1.40 1.35
200 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
Number
of 3 50 2.50 2.00 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38 1.30 1.24 1.20 1.17 1.15
sides = 1 75 3.00 2.50 2.13 1.90 1.75 1.64 1.56 1.45 1.36 1.30 1.26 1.23
100 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
125 3.00 3.00 2.88 2.50 2.25 2.07 1.94 1.75 1.60 1.50 1.43 1.38
150 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.50 2.29 2.13 1.90 1.72 1.60 1.51 1.45
4 50 3.00 2.33 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50 1.40 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.20
75 4.00 3.00 2.50 2.20 2.00 1.86 1.75 1.60 1.48 1.40 1.34 1.30
100 4.00 3.67 3.00 2.60 2.33 2.14 2.00 1.80 1.64 1.53 1.46 1.40
125 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.67 2.43 2.25 2.00 1.80 1.67 1.57 1.50
150 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.40 3.00 2.71 2.50 2.20 1.96 1.80 1.69 1.60
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50
75 1.50
100 2.00 1.33 All values to the right of line = 1.00
125 2.00 1.67 1.25
Number 150 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
of sides 175 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.40 1.17
=2 200 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
(only one
horizontal
row) 3 50 1.50
75 2.25 1.50 1.13
100 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
125 3.00 2.50 1.88 1.50 1.25 1.07
150 3.00 3.00 2.25 1.80 1.50 1.29 1.13
4 50 2.00 1.33
75 3.00 2.00 1.50 1.20
100 4.00 2.67 2.00 1.60 1.33 1.14
125 4.00 3.33 2.50 2.00 1.67 1.43 1.25
150 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.40 2.00 1.71 1.50 1.20
Number
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
of sides
= 2 (with 2 all 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
more
than one 3 all 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
horizontal
row)
4 all 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

Table C Case C Y spacing factor (CY1)

de1 (mm)
out to out
number of rows
spacing of
perpendicular to 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 350 400
studs, Y
load (ny)
(mm)
1 0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2 50 1.65 1.15 0.90 0.75 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.45 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30
75 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
100 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
150 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
200 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
250 2.40 1.65 1.27 1.05 0.90 0.79 0.71 0.60 0.51 0.45 0.41 0.37
300 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
3 50 1.81 1.26 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.57 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32
75 1.99 1.38 1.07 0.89 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.52 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33
100 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
150 2.34 1.61 1.24 1.03 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.59 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37
200 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
250 2.64 1.81 1.39 1.14 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.40
300 2.75 1.88 1.45 1.19 1.02 0.89 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.45 0.41
4 50 1.94 1.34 1.04 0.86 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.33
75 2.13 1.47 1.14 0.94 0.81 0.71 0.64 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.38 0.35
100 2.27 1.57 1.21 1.00 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.57 0.49 0.43 0.39 0.36
150 2.50 1.72 1.33 1.09 0.93 0.82 0.74 0.62 0.53 0.46 0.42 0.39
200 2.68 1.83 1.41 1.16 0.99 0.87 0.78 0.66 0.55 0.49 0.44 0.40
250 2.82 1.93 1.49 1.22 1.04 0.91 0.82 0.68 0.58 0.51 0.46 0.42
300 2.95 2.01 1.55 1.27 1.08 0.95 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.52 0.47 0.43
Table D Case C Eccentricity factor Cev1
de1 (mm)
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 250 300 350
distance 10 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
from shear 20 0.88 0.92 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99
load to 30 0.81 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.98
anchorage 40 0.75 0.83 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97
centroid 60 0.63 0.75 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96
ev1 (mm) 80 0.50 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.94
100 0.38 0.58 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.93
Figure 4.11.13 Concrete shear breakout resistance of headed studs

Vf e
Nf = + 0.2Vf
h
(100)(150)
Example 4.11 Design of welded headed studs for combined=loads
+ (0.2)(100) = 80 kN
250
Given: Concrete:
A 13 mm thick plate with headed studs is used
hef = length of stud + t – ths
for attachment of a steel bracket to a column as
shown. = 200 + 13 – 8 = 205 mm
use 200 mm when using the tables
f’c = 35 MPa, normal density
l = 1.0
8 – 13 mm diameter studs
Nominal stud length = 200 mm.
fut = 420 MPa (Figure 4.11.1)
Vf = 100 kN (plus a horizontal load equal to
20% of the vertical load)
Column size: 500 mm by 500 mm
From Figure 4.11.6 Case 4, free edge on two op-

posite sides:
s1 + c1 + c3 = 500
s2 = 100
Ncbgr = (142)(0.87) = 124 kN
Steel:
From Figure 4.11.1:
Nsar = (4)(32) = 128 kN > 124 kN
Nr = 124 kN
Assume the shear force is distributed equally

Problem: between the top and bottom stud groups (engi-
Determine if the studs are adequate for the con- neering judgment): Vf/2 = 100/2 = 50 kN. Evaluate
nection capacity. the top group of studs for combined shear and
tension:
Solution:
The eccentric shear force, Vf, is resolved by the For concrete shear strength, due to the close
force couple shown in the sketch below. Assume proximity of the side edges, it is apparent that
that the tensile force is resisted by the top two “side edge” breakout will be critical:
rows of studs, with breakout planes as shown. From Figure 4.11.13 Case C:
Note: assumptions for load distribution involve
de1 = de2 = 175 mm; X = 150 mm
engineering judgment.
Y = 100 mm
For tension on the top group of studs:
Table A, Case C: (Interpolate between de1 160
Ve
Nf = f + 0.2Vf and 200 for 13-mm studs)
h
(100)(150) fVco1 = (137)(1.08) = 148 kN
= + (0.2)(100) = 80 kN
250 The 1.08 factor is used because the vertical bars in
Concrete: the column provide confinement for shear.
hef = length of stud + t – ths Continued
= 200 + 13 – 8 = 205 mm
use 200 mm when using the tables
Example 4.11 Design of welded headed studs for combined loads (continued from previous page)
Table B, Case C: Check embedded plate for bending between

studs:
Cx1 = 2
Table C, Case C:
nY = 2
CY1 = 0.56
Cev1 = 1.0; Cvcr = 1.0
Vr = fVco1Cx1CY1Cev1Cvcr
= (148)(2.0)(0.56)(1.0)(1.0)
= 166 kN
Steel shear strength is the same as tensile Pf l (80)(100)
strength: Plate Mf = = = 2000 kN-mm
4 4
From Figure 4.11.1: bt 2
Mr = a fy Zs = (0.9)(300)
Vsar = (4)(32) = 128 kN < 166 kN 4
Use Vr =128 kN where b (of plate) = 250 mm
Combined loading: For Mr Mf, calculate minimum plate thickness:

Nf = 80 kN; Nr = 124 kN (250)t 2
Mf = a fy Zs = (0.9)(300)
Nf 80 4
= = 0.645 > 0.2
Nr 124 = 2000 kN-mm
Vf = 50 kN; Vr = 128 kN
(2.0)(106 )(4)
Vf 50 t = 11 mm
= = 0.391 > 0.2 (0.9)(300)(250)
Vr 128
Nf Vf Use 13 mm thick plate.
+ = 0.645 + 0.391 = 1.04 < 1.2
Nr Vr
The studs have sufficient capacity.
4.12 DEFORMED BAR ANCHORS

Deformed bar anchors, DBA, are available in standard diameters and lengths. Anchors are automatically welded
to steel plates similar to headed studs. These bars are anchored in the concrete by bond and their required
development length can be calculated the same way as the development length of reinforcing bars.
4.13 STRUCTURAL STEEL BRACKETS

Structural steel shapes such as wide flange beams, double channels, angles, tubes or vertical plates often serve as
haunches or brackets as illustrated in Figure 4.13.1, Figure 4.13.3 and Figure 4.14.4.

4.13.1 Steel Haunches

The capacity of the haunches shown in Figure
4.13.1 can be calculated using the notation
shown in Figure 4.13.2. [7]
1 c fc bl e
Vc =
e
1 + 3.6
l
e
The effective width of the compression block is

as shown in Figure 4.13.2.
Holes through the structural section aid
compaction. Additional column ties provide
confinement.
Where there is inadequate concrete or insuffi-
cient superimposed axial dead load above and
below the haunch to develop the compressive
forces, it will be necessary to develop the force
couple by using reinforcing bars in tension as
shown in Fig 4.13.1(b).
Additional capacity can be obtained by weld-
ing vertical reinforcing bars to the steel section,
as shown in Figure 4.13.1(b). When the welded Figure 4.13.1 Embedded structural steel shape
reinforcement is developed both above and
below the steel section and the weld is dou-
bled, the effective area of reinforcement is doubled. In lieu of a precise analysis, the additional capacity can be
calculated as follows:
If A’s = As,
2A s s fy
Vs =
6e / l e
1+
4.8 s l e 1
The factored resistance governed by concrete failure:

Vr = Vc + Vs
The factored resistance of the steel section can be determined by:
Flexural resistance:
0.5Vf2
Mr = a Zs fy Mf = Vf a +
1 c fc b
Shear resistance:
Vr = a 0.66fyht Vf
It is recommended that hollow structural steel sections be filled with concrete to improve the bearing condition.
For steel shapes projecting equally from each side of the element, with approximately symmetrical loading, the
factored shear resistance on each side as governed by the capacity of the concrete can be calculated by:
1 c fc bh
Vr =
2
Horizontal forces, Nf, are resisted by anchors designed for shear friction on the perimeter of the section.

Figure 4.13.2 Effective width of embedded shapes

Example 4.12 Design of structural steel haunch
Plastic section modulus of HSS:

Zs = 205000 mm3
Flexural resistance of HSS (neglect concrete fill):
Mr = a Zs fy = (0.9)(205000)(350)/106
= 64.6 kN - m
0.5Vr2
Mr = Vr a +
1 c fc b
Given: 0.5Vr2
(64.6)(106 ) = Vr (100) +
The structural steel haunch shown. (0.8)(0.7)(35)(254)
e = 100 + 250 / 2 = 225 mm
Solving for Vr :
b = 2.5 w = (2.5)(101.6) = 254 mm
bmax = 300 (2)(25) (2)(5) = 240 mm Vr = 446 kN < 488 kN
s = 150 Shear resistance of HSS:

2
Effective As = 2As = (2)(600) = 1200 mm Vr = a 0.66fyht
fc = 35 MPa
= (0.9)(0.66)(350)(152.4)(2)(9.53) /103
fy(reinforcement) = 400 MPa (weldable)
= 604 kN > 446 kN
fy(structural steel) = 350 MPa
Flexural resistance of the HSS controls and
Problem: Vr = 446 kN.
Find the factored resistance of the connection.
Solution:
1 c fc bl e
Vc =
e
1 + 3.6
l
e
(0.80)(0.70)(35)(240)(250)(10 3 )
= = 277 kN
1 + (3.6)(225 / 250)
2A s s fy
Vs =
6e l e
1+
4.8s l e 1
(2)(1200)(0.85)(400)(10 3 )
= = 211kN
(6)(225 / 250)
1+
(4.8)(150 / 250) 1
Vr = 277 + 211 = 488 kN

1
2l p
1
2l b b1
a 3.0a ld
b
Cantilever bar or tube sv =0.8d
Y
Nf d
Nf
Dowels An
Vf
lb h
Av
Steel
strap A vf
or reinforcing
bar
lp ld
g c
Strap, s
(a) Basic components (b) Design assumptions
Figure 4.13.3 Cazaly hanger
4.13.2 Cazaly Hanger

The Cazaly hanger has three basic components (Figure 4.13.3).
Design assumptions are as follows:
1. The cantilevered bar is usually proportioned so that the interior reaction from the concrete is 0.33 Vf. The
hanger strap should be proportioned to yield under a tension of 1.33Vf:
1.33Vf
As =
a fy
fy = yield strength of strap material
a = 0.90 or 0.85 if reinforcing bar is used

The hanger strap must terminate at or below the flexural reinforcement to avoid a breakout failure plane
starting in the splitting tension zone. Cover requirements must be satisfied.
2. Vf may be assumed to be applied l p/2 from the face of the seat. The remaining part of the moment arm is the
width of the joint, g, and the cover, c, from the end of the member to the edge of the strap. Since the moment
is sensitive to this dimension, it is important that this dimension be kept as small as feasible and the value used
in analysis is not exceeded in the field. Most hangers in practice have exterior cantilever lengths,(l p+g+c), of
100 to 150 mm.
3. The bar should be proportioned to carry the moment in combination with shear and tensile forces per CISC
[6]. Alternatively, if the bar is proportioned to take this moment at the yield stress, but using elastic section
properties (i.e. Mf = (fafybd2)/6) the shear and tensile forces can usually be neglected.
The moment in the cantilevered bar is made up of bending due to the vertical force Vf with an eccentricity = a,
and Nf with an eccentricity = 0.5Y and is given by:
Mf = Vfa + Nf(0.5)Y
a = 0.5l p+g+c+0.5s
l p = bearing length at the support
Y = depth of the bar or HSS

Other notation is shown in Figure 4.13.3(b).

It may be prudent to use a slightly higher value for “a” to account for fabrication and erection tolerances and
the sensitivity of the connection. This is at the engineer’s judgement.
Design of the bar or HSS is then accomplished so that:
The size of the bar must be such that for combined flexure and tension the actual stress ≤ 0.9 Fy
For Flexure:
Zrequired = Mf/faFy = [Vf(0.5l p + g + c + 0.5s) + Nf(0.5)Y] / faFy
Then based on a trial section check that the actual stress due to combined flexure and tension is ≤ 0.9 Fy
For Shear:
Actual shear stress is ≤ 0.9(0.6 fy)
4. Provide anchor reinforcement distributed uniformly over 0.8d as illustrated in Fig 4.13.3 to resist 1.33 Vf.
Av = 1.33 Vf / fafy
Check minimum area required:
Where:
Av ≥ 0.06 f’c b1sv / fy
b1 = width of component
sv = 0.8d
5. The conservative and simplifying assumption that strap forces are concentrated at the strap centreline is implicit
in the 0.5s factor in the value of a.
6. Conservatively, if the width of the member in which the hanger is cast equals b1; then
bu f = 0.85c f'c b1 b ≤ 2 c 0.85fc'

where fc = 0.65; 0.7 for CPCI certified precast plants.
The bearing length, l b, is then given by:
Vf / 3
lb =
bfbu

7. To maintain the conditions of equilibrium assumed, the interior cantilever must have a length:
3.0a = (1.5l p + 3.0g + 3.0c + 1.5s)
8. The minimum total length of bar is then:
0.5l p + a + 3.0a + 05l b
9. Longitudinal dowels, An, are welded to the cantilevered bar to transmit the axial force, Nf:
Nf
An =
s fy
fy = yield strength of dowel
s = 0.85
10. The lower dowel area, Avf, can be proportioned using effective shear friction described in Section 4.6.7.
vf’ = vr


v’ / Ac = lfc(c+µs)+fsrvfycosaf
Vfcos20° / Ac = lfc[c+µ(rvfysinaf + N’f/Ac)] +fsrvfycosaf
lfc(c+µs) ≤ 0.25fcf’c
Avf = rvAc
Ac = bh
µ and c per Figure 4.5.1.
Note that the width of the strap, b, is conservatively used here rather than the full width of the member to account
for a potential crack plane directly behind the strap.
Example 4.13 Design of a Cazaly Hanger
Given: Weld 50 mm across top, 25 mm down both sides

Hanger is similar to that shown in Figure 4.13.3. = 100 mm of weld.
f’c = 35 MPa (both member and support) Design bar:
fy(reinforcing bars) = 400 MPa a = 0.5 (strap width, s) + g + c + 0.5l p
fy(structural steel straps) = 300 MPa
fy(tubes) = 350 MPa = (0.5)(50) + 25 + 20 + (0.5)(100)
Vf =150 kN = 120 mm
Nf = 30 kN Mf = Vf a + Nf(0.5)Y
b1 = 150 mm Try HSS 101.6x101.6 ; Y = 101.6 mm
c = 20 mm
= (150)(120) + (30)(0.5)(101.6)
g = 25 mm
l p = 100 mm
= 19524 kN-mm
d = 550 mm Mf (19524)(103 )
Zreq’d = = = 61980 mm
*CPCI certified precast plant s fy (0.9)(350)
Problem:
Size the hanger components. HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35
Solution: Zs
4
= 81300 mm [6] > 61980 OK
1.33Vf
As(strap) = Check combined flexure and tension:
s fy
(1.33)(150000) factual = Mf / Z + Nf / A 0.9 fy
= = 739 mm2 3 3 3
(0.9)(300) = 19524x10 / 81.3x10 + 30x10 /2320
Use 10 x 50 strap; = 240.1 + 12.9 0.9 (350)

= 253.0 < 315 MPa OK
As = 2(10)(50)
= 1000 mm2 > 739 Check shear:
Design weld for strap: factual = Vf / Y(2t) ≤ 0.9(0.6)fy
Try 8 mm fillet weld (using E49 elctrodes) = 150x103 / (101.6)(2)(6.35)
Check weld using CISC [6] or Figure 4.16.1: = 116.2 ≤ 0.9(0.6)(350) = 189 OK
Vr = 1.24 kN/mm Design anchor reinforcement:
(1.33)(150) Av = 1.33 Vf / fafy
lw = = 80 mm
(2)(1.24) = 1.33(150x103) / (0.75)(400)
= 665 mm2
Continues next page

Example 4.13 Design of a Cazaly Hanger (Continued from previous page)
Use (4) 10M stirrups; As = 800 mm2 Nf (30)(103 )

An = = = 88 mm2
Check minimum shear reinforcement: f
s y (0.85)(400)
Av 0.06 fc b1sv / fy Use 1 – 10M dowel = 100 mm2
0.06 35(150)(0.8)(550) / (400) Design bottom dowel:
Ac = b1 l p / sina
2
59 mm < 800 OK
Check bearing at strap: = (150)(100) / sin 20°
b1 150 = 43857 mm2
fbu = 0.85 c fc = (0.85)(0.7)(35)
b 101.6 V’ = Vf cosa = 150 cos 20° = 141 kN
= 25.3 MPa N’ = Nf sina = 30 sin 20° = 10.3 kN
c 0.85f c
v’f = V’ / Ac = 141(103) / 43857 = 3.21 MPa
(2)(0.7)(0.85)(35)
vr = lfc[c+µ(rvfysina + N’f/Ac)] + fsrvfycosa
41.6 OK
= (1)(0.7)[1+1.4(rv400sin70)+10.3x103/43857)]
Vf / 3 (150)(103 ) / 3 + 0.85rv400cos70
lb = = = 19.5 mm
fbu (b) (25.3)(101.6) = 0.93 + 487.7rv
vr = v’f
Minimum total length: 3.21 = 0.93 + 487.7rv
= 0.5 l p + a + 3a + 0.5l b rv = 0.0047
check lfc(c+µs) ≤ 0.25fcf’c
= (0.5)(100) + 120 + (3)(120) + (0.5)(19.5)
lfc(c+µs) = (1)(0.7)[1 + 526.3x0.0047x0.33]
= 540 mm = 2.66
Use HSS 101.6 x 101.6 x 6.35 x 550 long ≤ 0.25(0.7)(35) = 6.1 OK
Avf = rv Ac
Note, 10 mm added to tolerance, etc. = 0.0047(43857)
Design top dowel: = 206 mm2
Use (1) 20M bar; Avf = 300 mm2
Check welding requirements for dowels.
150
50
25
8 100 HSS 101.6 x101.6 x 6.35
125
10M
(4) 10M
5 50
10 x 50
STRAP
20M
6 50

4.13.3 Loov Hanger [5] b1

The hanger illustrated in Figure 4.13.4 is designed using b
Steel bar
the following equations:

h d
1.3Vf
Ash = Nf
An
s fy cos Vf
Nf h d a A sh
An = 1+
f
s y d a/2 Av
Av beam shear reinforcement to be added per the ld

design requirements. (a) Basic components
The steel bar or tube is proportioned so that the bearing a N f (h - d)

Cf 2 C f = 1.3Vf tan a +
strength of the concrete is not exceeded, and to provide d- a
a 2
2
sufficient weld length to develop the diagonal bars.
fbu = 0.85fcf’c Nf a Nf 1 +
h-d
d- a
2
The connection should be detailed so that the reaction, Vf 1.3Vf /cos a
the centre of compression and the centre of the diag-
(b) Design assumptions
onal bars meet at a common point, as shown in Figure
4.13.4. The compressive force, Cf, is assumed to act at a
Figure 4.13.4 Loov Hanger
distance a/2 from the top of the bearing plate.
Example 4.14 Design of a Loov Hanger
Given: Solution:
Hanger is similar to that shown in Figure 4.13.4 1.3Vf (1.3)(100)(103 )
Ash = = = 407 mm2
o
f’c = 35 MPa (both member and support) s fy cos (0.85)(400) cos 20
Vf = 100 kN Use 2 – 15M bars As = 400 mm2 (close enough)
Nf = 20 kN
Minimum weld length, 15M bar, E49xx electrode,
b1 = 150 mm
from Figure 4.16.4 is 84 mm on 300 MPa plate.
a = 20o
Detail An so it is near the bottom of the steel bar.
h– d 0
Nf 20000
An = = = 59 mm2
fy (0.85)(400)
2
Use 10M = 100 mm
Provide end bearing plate as shown:
fbu = 0.85 c fc = (0.85)(0.7)(35 MPa)
= 20.8 MPa
Cf = 1.3Vf tan = (1.3)(100) tan 20° = 47 kN
Use plate width of 32 mm. Check distance a:
Cf 47000
a = = = 71 mm
bfbu (32)(20.8)
Problem: a/2 = 71/2 = 36 mm < 40 mm

Size the hanger connections.

Figure 4.14.1 Design relationships for connection angles
Cf
a =
bfbu
Nf (h d)
Cf = 1.3Vf tan +
d a2
For most designs, the horizontal reinforcement, An, is placed very close to the bottom of the steel bar. Thus, the
term (h – d) can be assumed to be equal to zero.
Tests have indicated a weakness in shear in the vicinity of the hangers. It is recommended that stirrups in the beam
end be designed to carry the total shear.
4.14 CONNECTION ANGLES

Angles used to support light precast elements can be designed by statics as shown in Figure 4.14.1.
In addition to the applied vertical and horizontal loads, the design should include all loads induced by restraint of
movement.
The minimum thickness of axially loaded non-gusseted angles (Figure 4.14.2) can be calculated by:
4Nf g
t =
a fyb
The minimum thickness of non-gusseted angles loaded in shear, as shown in Figure 4.14.3, may be determined by:
4Vf ev
t =
a fyb
Design ev = specified ev + 20 mm.

The tension on the bolt may be determined by:
e
Pf = Vf v
ei

Figure 4.14.2 Horizonal loads on connection angle Figure 4.14.3 Vertical loads on connection angle
4.14.1 Triangular Stiffener Design

See Figure 4.14.4 for typical stiffener plate details.
Yielding along the free edge frequently occurs prior to buckling and stress redistribution within the system. [9]
The design normal force, Nf, is assumed to be resisted by the top transverse line of weld on the bearing seat and
has no impact on the design of the stiffener. A ratio z has been established for triangular stiffeners that relates
average stress, Vf/bt, to the maximum stress fmax. See Figure 4.14.5.
2 3
b b b
z = 1.39 2.2 + 1.27 0.25
a a a
The design strength is reached when the stress in the free edge reaches the material’s yield strength:
Vr = fafyzbt
To ensure yielding along the free edge, the following limits should be satisfied:
b b 650
If 0.75 1.0 , then
a t fy
b
650
b b a
If 1.0 2.0 , then
a t fy
Figure 4.14.4 Triangular stiffener Figure 4.14.5 Triangular stiffener design limits

Example 4.15 Triangular stiffener analysis
Given: Solution:
The stiffened seat connection is shown below.
Stiffener thickness, t = 10 mm fy = 300 MPa b 200
= = 0.80 that is > 0.75 and < 1.0
a 250
b 650 650
must be = = 37.5
t fy 300
b 200
= = 20 < 37.5 OK
t 10
2 3
b b b
z = 1.39 2.2 + 1.27 0.25
a a a
= 1.39 2.2(0.80) + 1.27(0.80)2 0.25(0.80)3
= 0.315
Vr = a fy zbt = (0.85)(300)(0.315)(200)(10)
= 161 kN
Problem:
Determine the design shear resistance of the stiff-
ener.
4.14.2 Non-Triangular Stiffener Design

The non-triangular stiffened beam seat is designed based on the recommendations of Reference [9].
The minimum stiffener thickness to ensure yielding along the leading free edge shown below. [8]
b fy
t =
250
Using the minimum thickness, the nominal strength of the stiffener may be determined using a combined load
analogy. The nominal normal force, Nf shown in Figure 4.14.6, is assumed to be resisted by the top line of weld on
the bearing seat and has no impact on the design of the stiffener.
According to [8], bearing stress, fbu, at outer edge of stiffener must satisfy:
b
Mf
Vf 2
fbu = + a 1.5 fy
A I
b b
Vf e
Vf 2 2
a (1.5)fy = +
tb tb3 /12

Figure 4.14.6 Non-triangular stiffener
a (1.5)fy
Vr =
b b
e
1 2 2
+
tb tb3 /12
The stiffener thickness required based on an applied load
b
6 e
1 2 1
t = Vf +
b 2
b a (1.5)fy
Example 4.16 Non-triangular stiffener analysis
Given:
The stiffened beam seat shown.
Stiffener thickness, t = 10 mm
fy = 300 MPa
Problem:
Determine the design shear resistance of the stiffener.
Solution:
(0.9)(1.5)(300)
=
150 150
a (1.5)fy 115
Vr = 1 2 2
b b + 3
e (150)(10) (10)(150) /12
1 2 2
+ = 234 kN
b(t) t b3 /12

4.15 COLUMN BASE CONNECTIONS

Column base plates and anchor bolts must be designed for erection and service loads. Erection loads are often
critical.
4.15.1 Base Plates

Many column base plate details are used. Two typical base plate details are shown in Figure 4.15.1.
The base plate thickness, required to satisfy bending for columns where all anchor bolts are in compression and the
base plate is not grouted, is determined by:
( F)4x c
t =
a fy b
The base plate thickness, for columns where the anchor bolts on one or both of the column faces are in tension, is
determined by:
( F)4x t
t =
a fy b
The base plate thickness for columns where the thickness is controlled by bearing on concrete or grout, is
determined by:
2 c 1fc
t = xo
a fy
The factored shear resistance of a column base plate can be determined by:
Vr = fa0.66fybt

Figure 4.15.1 Column base connections

Diameter pitch combinations Nominal bolt size, inches Threads per inch
Nominal diameter Thread pitch D n
D (mm) P (mm)
1/2 13
10 1.5 5/8 11
12 1.75 3/4 10
14 2.0 7/8 9
16 2.0 1 8
20 2.5 1 1/8 7
22 2.5 1 1/4 7
24 3.0 1 3/8 6
27 3.0 1 1/2 6
30 3.5
Note: Dimensions according to ANSI B18.2.1
36 4.0 Thread dimensions according to ANSI B1.1
42 4.5
Note: Local availability of metric sizes should be checked. Figure 4.15.3 Imperial fastener thread data
Figure 4.15.2 Metric fastener thread data
4.15.2 Anchor Rods

The following equations are used to determine anchor rod diameters.
The factored tensile resistance [6] shall be taken as:
Tr = arAnFu
ar = 0.67
An = the tensile stress area of the rods
= (D 0.938P)2 for metric rod
4
0.974 2
= (D ) for imperial rod
4 n
P = the pitch of thread, mm (Fig. 4.15.2)
n = number of threads per inch (Fig. 4.15.3)
D = diameter of the rod
A list of commonly used anchor rod materials are found in Figure 4.15.4.
The factored shear resistance [6] shall be determined by:
Vr = 0.60farAbFu
When the rod threads are intercepted by the shear plane, the factored shear resistance shall be taken as 70% of Vr.
An anchor rod required to develop resistance to both tension and shear shall be proportioned [6] so that:
2 2
Vf Tf
+ 1
Vr Tr
is the portion of the total shear per rod transmitted by bearing of the anchor rods on the concrete.

Specification fy (MPa) Fu (MPa)

CSA G30.18 – M1992
(R2002)
400 R 400 620
400
400 620
W
CSA G40.21-04
300
300 450
W
350
350 450
W
380
380 480
W
400
400 520
W
480
480 590
W
550
550 620
W
ASTM F155-04
36 248 400
(1)
55 371 517
(2)
105 724 862 Figure 4.15.5 Typical anchor rods
(1)Weldable grade 55 must be specified.
(2)Grade 105 is not weldable.
Figure 4.15.4 Anchor rod materials
An anchor rod, required to develop resistance to both tension and bending, shall be proportioned to meet the
requirement of S16 Clause 13.9(a). The tensile and moment resistance, Tr and Mr, shall be based on the properties
of the cross section at the critical section:
Tf Mf
+ 1.0
Tr Mr
When the rods are near a free edge, the buckling of the rods before grouting must be considered.
Confinement reinforcement, as shown in Figure 4.15.1, should be provided. A minimum of 4-10M ties at 75mm
spacing is recommended.
Anchor rods must be fully developed in the concrete per A23.3 Clause 15.9.3.2. The methods shown in Section 4.11
can be used to determine rod capacity governed by concrete failure.
The pullout capacity can be increased using hooks, nuts or plates as shown in Figure 4.15.5. The bottom of anchor
rods should be a minimum of 100mm above the bottom of a footing, and above the footing reinforcement.
As Annex D of A23.3 is not mandatory, testing can also be used to confirm pullout strength.
Compression on anchor rods during erection can be substantially reduced by using steel shims to support gravity
loads. The required area of the shims can be determined by calculating the bearing resistance of the concrete.

Example 4.17 Column Connection; Baseplate and Anchor Bolt Design
Given: Try 24 mm ASTM A36 bolts

500 mm square column anchored with threaded
Tr = farAnFu
rod anchor bolts. The column is assumed pinned
= 0.67 [ f/4 (24 – 0.938x3)2] 400 / 1000
at the base; no tension requirements other than
= 94.5 kN > 87.5 OK
structural integrity (CSA A23.3 16.5.2.4)
Check anchor pullout strength in footing.
f’c (column) = 35 MPa
fy (baseplate) = 300 MPa Baseplate:
Problem: Check one bolt in tension:
Determine anchor bolts size and baseplate size.
Solution:
Anchor bolts: structural integrity
Tr ≥ 1.4 Ag = 1.4 (500 x 500) / 1000
= 350 kN
b
350 / 4 = 87.5 kN / bolt 127
x= 2 = 90mm
60
x b=(2)60 2 + 127 2
=350mm
128
500
125
t = (Tf 4x/  sfyb)

3
= [(87.5 x 10 x 4 x 90)/(0.9 x 300 x 350)]
127
= 18.25 mm
60
Use plate 500 x 500 x 19 mm
Check plate anchors into precast column.

60 127 125 128 60
500
4.16 WELDING
4.16.1 Welding of Steel Plates
The welding of steel plates is governed by CSA Standard S16. Typically precast connections are welded using fillet
welds. See Figure 4.16.1 for capacities. See CISC [6] for more information.
4.16.2 Welding of Reinforcing Bars

Welding of reinforcement is a practical method of developing force transfer in many connections. Typical
reinforcing bar welds are shown in Figure 4.16.2.
The welding of reinforcing bars is governed by W186.

Fillet weld size Factored resistance

(mm) Vr (kN/mm)
5 0.78
6 0.93
8 1.24
10 1.55
12 1.87
14 2.18
16 2.49
Note: E49xx electrode
S16 Clause 13.13.2.2
1.5
Vr = 0.67 wAwXu (1.0 + 0.5sin )
w = 0.67
Aw = effective throat area of weld
Xu = ultimate strength as rated by the
electrode classification number
1.5
(1.0+ 0.5sin ) has been conservatively taken
as equal to 1
Figure 4.16.1 Factored shear resistance of equal leg fillet welds for each mm of weld length
Weldability of a bar is a function of its carbon equivalent. Carbon equivalents should be limited to:
0.55% for 20M and smaller bars,
0.45% for 25M and larger bars
Carbon equivalent, C.E., is calculated using:
%Mn %Ni %Cr
C.E. = %C + + +
6 20 10
Rebar should not be welded when mill reports are not available or when the chemical composition of the bars is
not known.
Common considerations in the design and detailing of welded bar connections are:
1. Welding should not be performed within 50 mm or two bar diameters of a bent portion of a bar,
whichever is greater, and
2. Allowance should be made for the thermal expansion of steel to avoid concrete spalling or cracking
when welding bars to structural shapes that are embedded in concrete.
When item 2 is a concern, adequate confinement reinforcement should be provided in the immediate area or a
compressible material should be placed around the steel plate to allow for expansion.
The size of fillet welds for full capacity of a reinforcing bar welded to a plate is shown in Figure 4.16.3. The required
length of a flare bevel groove weld, to develop the full strength of the reinforcing bar, is shown in Figure 4.16.4.
Reference should be made to W186 for further background information on the design and detailing of welded bar
connections.

Figure 4.16.2 Typical reinforcing bar welds

Minimum Minimum
Size of weld thickness of thickness of
Bar size
(mm) 248W plate 300W plate
(mm) (mm)
10M 6 5 4
15M 8 7 6
20M 10 8 7
25M 13 10 9
30M 15 12 10
35M 18 15 12
Note: Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and
E49xx electrodes.
s = 0.85 (Non seismic)
w = p = 0.63
Fig 4.16.3 Fillet welds
Fillet
weld
Bar size size Length of weld on 248 MPa plate (mm) Length of weld on 300 MPa plate (mm)
(mm)
10M 4 72 60
15M 5 102 84
20M 6 125 103
25M 8 161 133
30M 10 191 158
35M 12 228 188
Note:Table is based on 400W reinforcing bar and E49xx electrodes.
s = 0.85 (Non seismic)
w = 0.63
This is based on the effective throat thickness assumed by W186.

Under Clause 6.6.2.5 the manufacturer’s procedures may be
qualified by the Canadian Welding Bureau to increase the effective
throat thickness and reduce the weld lengths shown.
Fig 4.16.4 Flare bevel groove welds

Example 4.18 Strength analysis of weld group
Given: 2
x = 50 / [(2)(50) +125] = 11.1 mm
Plate connection shown
ex = 125 – 11.1 = 113.9 mm
fy = 300 MPa
y = 125 / 2 = 62.5 mm
E49XX welding electrodes
Vr Vr = 0.93 kN/mm (from Fig. 4.16.1 for 6 mm fillet weld)
125
lw = 50 + 125 + 50 = 225 mm
Applied Stress: Mc/Ip + P/Aw
50 fx = Mz y/Ip + Px/Aw
fy = Mz x /Ip + Py/Aw
125
6 225 Mz =  V re x
50 Px = 0
10mm Py =  Vr
PLATE 3 2 3 4
Ip = (8)(50 ) + (6)(50)(125 ) + 125 –
50
12 (2)(50) + 125
4
Problem: = 608941 mm
Determine the design strength of the weld group fy = Vrex (b – x) / I p + Vr / l w
(elastic vector method).
= Vr (113.9)(50 – 11.1) / 608941 + Vr / 225
Solution:
= 0.0117 Vr
Centre of gravity of the weld:
fx =  Vrex (d/2) / Ip
50 Vf
= Vr(113.9)(125 / 2) / 608941
= 0.0117  Vr
125 2 2
fr = (fx + fy )
= [(0.0117  Vr)2 + (0.0117  Vr)2]
50 = 0.0165 Vr
Strength: 0.0165  Vr = 0.93
x ex  Vr = 56 kN
4.17 MOMENT CONNECTIONS

Moment connections are sometimes required in building frames as discussed in Section 2.6. Moment resistance
can be achieved using connections that develop a force couple. Tensile capacity through the connection can be
developed by a variety of load transfer devices. Rebar splices can be used to replicate monolithic cast-in-place
concrete.
When designing moment resistant connections, restraint of creep, shrinkage and volume changes must be
considered. Designers should specify the erection sequence when moment frames are relied on for stability during
the erection of precast structures.

4.18 DOWEL CONNECTIONS

Dowel connections can provide an efficient solution
in certain situations. The strength of dowels depends
on dowel size, embedment length and the developed
bond.
Cement-based grouted dowels

Dowels may be placed in a hole and grouted to
provide the necessary connection, as shown in Figure
4.18.1. For compression connections, the required
embedment length can be taken as the dowel
development length.
Recommended construction requirements for
cement-based grouted connection are as follows:
1. Dowel holes should have an internal diameter
of no less that three bar diameters. The grout to
concrete bond strength need only be one third
the grout to rebar bond when the hole is three
times as large,
2. Stay-in-place hole forms should be corrugated,
3. Non-shrink grout is recommended where dowel
connections are subjected to tensile loads,
4. Development length will depend on the specified Figure 4.18.1 Grouted tube connection
grout strength,
5. Confinement reinforcement, consisting of a spiral or ties, may be required to prevent concrete splitting or
bond failure between the conduit and the surrounding concrete, and
6. Adjustments after initial set of the grout may destroy the dowel bond and reduce the connection strength.
Smooth formed ungreased dowel holes exhibit very good bond to the concrete around the hole when rebar
dowels and non-shrink grout are used. Typically, a rebar dowel will debond from the grout before the grout plug
will debond from the smooth hole. Additional grout strength is realized because the excess water of a sand cement
grout is absorbed into the surrounding concrete.
Epoxy grouted dowels

Epoxy adhesives can be used for anchoring dowels, bolts, bars, or similar shapes into concrete. The physical
properties of epoxy compounds vary widely. Their tensile strength is generally much larger than that of cement
grout. Refer to manufacturer’s specifications for specific material properties and field applications.
The thermal expansion coefficients of some epoxy compounds can be seven times that of cement grout or
concrete.
Recommended requirements for epoxy connections should be similar to those recommended for cement grouted
dowels.
Mortar filled steel sleeves

Steel sleeves, when filled as per the manufacturer’s instruction with the specified grout, have been shown to
develop 150% or more of the yield strength of the reinforcing steel being spliced. These splices are very useful as
seismic connections.

4.19 BOLTS AND THREADED CONNECTORS

Various types of bolts and other threaded connectors are used in connections of precast concrete elements to
achieve rapid assembly. It should be ensured that the connection can be installed without field modifications.
Whenever possible, provide over-sized or slotted openings in hardware to be fastened to accommodate fabrication
and construction tolerances and to reduce volume change forces.
Designers should standardize all loose threaded connectors to prevent accidental substitution during construction.
The generic types of threaded connectors are:
Standard Bolts
Standard bolts, as defined here, are those satisfying ASTM A307.
Design of standard bolts should be in accordance with S16 and CISC [6]. Refer to Figure 4.19.1 for factored
resistance of bolts.
High Strength Bolts

High strength bolts, identified as ASTM A325 and ASTM A490, were developed for friction type connections
between structural steel elements.
Nominal Factored shear resistance(2) – single shear(3)

Bolt size Factored tensile
area Ab (kN/bolt)
(1) 2 (4) resistance, Tr (kN/bolt)
Metric Imperial (mm ) Threads excluded Threads intercepted
A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307 A325 A490 A307
A325M A490M A325M A490M A325M A490M
1/2 127 50.3 63.1 – 35.2 44.2 – 62.9 78.9 –
5/8 198 78.4 98.4 39.3 45.9 68.9 27.5 98.0 123 49.2
M16 201 80.1 100 – 56.1 70.2 – 100 125 –
3/4 285 113 142 56.6 79.0 99.1 39.6 141 177 70.8
M20 314 125 157 – 87.6 110 – 156 196 –
M22 380 151 190 – 106 133 – 189 237 –
7/8 388 154 193 77.1 108 135 54.0 192 241 96.4
M24 452 180 226 – 126 158 – 225 282 –
1 507 201 252 – 141 176 – 251 315 –
M27 573 228 286 – 160 200 – 285 358 –
1 1/8 641 223 318 – 156 223 – 279 398 –
M30 707 282 353 – 197 249 – 352 441 –
1 1/4 792 276 393 – 193 275 – 345 492 –
M36 1018 406 508 – 284 356 – 507 635 –
1 1/2 1140 397 566 – 278 396 – 496 708 –
(1) The number following the letter M is the nominal bolt diameter in millimeters.
(2) For long lap splices, see S16 Clause 13.12.1.1.
(3) For double shear, multiply tabulated values by 2.0.
(4) Threads are intercepted if thin material next to the nut is combined with detailing for minimum bolt sticking
through the nut.
Figure 4.19.1 Factored shear and tensile resistances (kN / bolt), fb = 0.80 [6]
These bolts have more then twice the tensile resistance of A307 bolts. Their application requires controlled
tensioning of the fastener to develop sufficient force to prevent slipping of the connected parts. Bolts must be
tightened in accordance with S16 to take full advantage of their high strength in friction-type connections.
As a result of creep and minor crushing, it is unlikely that high-strength bolts will hold their tension when tightened
against concrete. Some applications and limitations are shown in Figure 4.19.2.

High strength bolts are not weldable.
Threaded rods
Threaded rods of standard sizes and grades (both mild steel and high strength steel) are sometimes used in
precast concrete connections. The most common applications are for column base anchor rods, beam-column
connections and lateral connections of architectural precast panels.
Coil bolts and rods

Coil bolts and rods are commonly used for precast handling as they are less susceptible to thread damage.
Manufacturer’s specifications must be used as they are not covered by standard specifications. Due to the loose
thread fit, they are not recommended for final connections unless double nuts are used.
4.20 CONNECTIONS FOR WALL PANELS

The multitude of sizes and shapes of precast, wall panels
has led to a variety of connections.
Your local CPCI member should be contacted for more
information.
The mass of the entire panel should be supported at
one level using two connections. Lateral alignment
connections, as required, should also be located near the
corners of the element.
Requirements of connections
Connections for load bearing wall panels are subject to
heavier and more varied loading than those for non-load
bearing wall panels. The connections form an essential
part of the structural support system.
Panels may be required to resist one or more of the
following:
1. Panel self weight,
2. Roof and floor loads,
3. Wind, seismic or earth pressure loads,
4. Effects of imposed deformations (shrinkage, creep,
temperature), and
5. Abnormal loads such as blast loads.
Vertical joint connections

To assure lateral force transfer between adjacent wall
panels, vertical joint connections must be able to transfer
direct tension and compression in combination with
vertical shear. Figure 4.20.1 illustrates forces at vertical Figure 4.19.2 Application of high-strength bolts
joints for coupled and uncoupled wall panels.
There are several types of connections that can transfer
loads across vertical joints. Mechanical fasteners are the most popular type of joint connection used in precast
bearing wall structures. Connections may consist of cast-in steel sections or inserts at panel joints fastened

Figure 4.20.1 Lateral force transfer in shear walls
together by bolting or welding, as seen in Figure

4.20.2. These connections have low to moderate
shear resistance, but are considerably less expensive
to install than keyed connections and are preferred
for exposed walls where they may be hidden in
grouted recesses.
Horizontal joint connections

Horizontal panel joints usually occur at each floor
level and at the junction of foundations or transfer
beams. Connections at these joints will often perform
multiple functions: support of gravity loads from floor
elements, transfer of horizontal shear, and resistance
of tension/compression forces due to lateral loads.
Typical floor to wall panel arrangement in high-rise
precast construction is illustrated in Figure 4.20.3.
Hollow core floor slabs are supported directly on the
lower wall panel unit with an end gap of 50 to 70 mm.
The gap and a portion of the core can be filled with a
flowable grout. The upper wall unit is supported by a
continuous bed of dry pack grout.
Vertical reinforcement is generally spliced at the
horizontal joints as illustrated in Figures 4.20.8
to 4.20.10. This vertical reinforcement provides
resistance to in-plane shear and provides shear
friction reinforcement across the joint.
Figure 4.20.2 Panel to panel shear connection

Figure 4.20.3 Cross sections of interior and exterior platform type wall-to-floor connections
Figure 4.20.4 Slab to shear wall connection Figure 4.20.5 Double tee to shear wall connection

Figure 4.20.6 Floor to bearing wall connections
Figure 4.20.7 Roof to bearing wall connection
Figure 4.20.8 Vertical bar splice using weld angle

Figure 4.20.9 Grouted sleeve tension tie Figure 4.20.10 Post-tensioned vertical tie
The vertical tension tie shown in Figure 4.20.9 uses a pipe sleeve that is grouted with an expansive grout after the
upper element is aligned and braced. Tests have shown that these splices develop the full strength of the bar.
Figure 4.20.10 illustrates a typical post-tensioned bar vertical tie. Bars are tensioned at the top of each panel.
Threaded couplers are used to connect bars in the panels above.
Floor to wall shear connections

Other methods must be used to transfer vertical load and horizontal diaphragm forces where floor elements are
not directly incorporated into the horizontal joint of the wall panel. Examples of connections used in multi storey
shear wall structures are illustrated in Figures 4.20.4 to 4.20.7.
Wall to foundation connections

Typical wall panel to foundation connections are often similar to the tensile connections shown in Figures 4.20.8 to
4.20.10.

4.21 REFERENCES
6. Handbook of Steel Construction, Canadian Institute of
1. Iverson, J.K. and Pfeifer, D.W., Criteria for Design of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition.
Bearing Pads, Technical Report TR4-85 Precast/Pre-
stressed Concrete Institute, PCI JOURNAL, Vol.30, 7. Marcakis, K., and Mitchell, D., Precast Concrete Con-
No.5, Sept - Oct 1985. nections with Embedded Steel Members, PCI JOUR-
NAL, Vol. 25, No. 4, Jul - Aug 1980.
2. Kriz, L. B., and Raths, C. H., Connections in Precast Con-
crete Structures — Strength of Corbels, PCI JOURNAL, 8. Manual of Steel Construction – Load and Resistance
Vol. 10, No. 1, February 1965. Factor Design, Third Edition, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago, IL, 2001.
3. Mattock, A. H., Design Proposals for Reinforced Con-
crete Corbels, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 3, May - Jun 9. Salmon, Charles G., and Johnson, John E., Steel Struc-
1976. tures: Design and Behavior, Fourth Edition, Harper and
Collins, New York, NY, 1996.
4. Anderson, Neal S., and Meinheit, Donald F., Design Cri-
teria for Headed Stud Groups in Shear: Part 1 — Steel 10. Lucier, Walter, Rizkalla , Zia & Klein, Development of
Capacity and Back Edge Effects, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 45, a Rational Design Methodology for Precast Concrete
No. 5, Sept - Oct 2000. Slender Spandrel Beams, Part 1, Experimental
5. Loov, Robert, A Precast Beam Connection Designed Results, PCI JOURNAL, Spring 2011.
for Shear and Axial Load, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 13, No. 3,
June 1968.


CHAPTER 5
ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE
5.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.1 Checklist.....................................................................................................................................................5-3
5.1.2 Design Objectives.....................................................................................................................................5-6
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis.................................................................................................................5-7
5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS..............................................................................................................5-8

5.2.3 Crack Control...........................................................................................................................................5-10
5.3 SPANDRELS................................................................................................................................................5-10
5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels..................................................................................................................5-10
5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports..................................................................................................................5-11
5.4 COLUMN COVERS.....................................................................................................................................5-12

5.4.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................5-12
5.4.2 Design Guidelines...................................................................................................................................5-12
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS......................................................................................................................5-13

5.5.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................5-13
5.5.2 Design Considerations............................................................................................................................5-13
5.5.3 Order of Solution.....................................................................................................................................5-14
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels..........................................................................................................................5-15
5.6 DOUBLE WYTHE INSULATED PRECAST CONCRETE WALL PANELS.......................................................5-15

5.6.1 Non-Composite Design..........................................................................................................................5-16
5.6.2 Composite Design ..................................................................................................................................5-16
5.6.3 Curing.......................................................................................................................................................5-16
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis......................................................................................................................................5-17
5.6.5 Insulation..................................................................................................................................................5-17
5.6.6 Bond Breakers..........................................................................................................................................5-17
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers........................................................................................................................................5-17
5.6.8 Wythe Design..........................................................................................................................................5-17
5.6.9 Element Size............................................................................................................................................5-18
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors...................................................................................................................................5-18
5.6.11 General Architectural Design Considerations......................................................................................5-22
5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................5-22

5.7.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................5-22
5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................................5-24

5.8.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................5-24
5.8.2 Reinforcement..........................................................................................................................................5-25
5.8.3 Natural Stone...........................................................................................................................................5-25
5.8.4 Structural Clay Products..........................................................................................................................5-29

CHAPTER 5 Architectural Precast Concrete
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS FORMS...................................................................................................5-33

5.9.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................5-33
5.9.2 Design......................................................................................................................................................5-33
5.9.3 Construction Considerations..................................................................................................................5-34
5.10 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................5-34

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Architectural precast concrete products are precast concrete units or elements that, through finish, shape, colour
and/or texture, define the architectural aesthetics and function of a structure.
Architectural precast concrete units can range from simple flat panels to complex, three dimensional, multi-tex-
tured, multifaceted shapes that can serve not only as cladding (non-load bearing wall elements), but also combine
their attractive appearance with their ability to serve as structural (load bearing) elements.
Among the many applications for architectural precast concrete, a distinction can be made between load bearing
and non-load bearing elements:
1. A non-load bearing (cladding) element is one that can be removed from the structure without any consequence
to the structural integrity or stability of the structure. Although non-load bearing units are normally provided only
for the purpose of separating environments (building envelope), they are subjected to externally applied loads,
such as those due to wind and earthquake, and
2. A load bearing element is one which resists and transfers vertical and transverse loads applied from other ele-
ments in the structure. A load bearing element cannot be removed without affecting the structural integrity or
stability of the structure as a whole or any of its parts.
Non-load bearing architectural elements can be made of conventional concrete or fibre reinforced concrete. Fibre
reinforced concrete elements may consist of concrete containing alkali-resistant fibres in combination with a sand/
cement slurry or standard aggregates depending on the application method. This type of unit can be fabricated
to be lighter in weight than conventional precast units but still accommodate the same range of shapes and face
mixes with numerous variations in colour.
In composite construction, precast concrete elements may be used as forms for cast-in-place concrete. This solu-
tion is especially suitable for combining architectural and structural function in load bearing facades.
5.1.1 Checklist
A thorough knowledge of architectural precast is required for the precast to be utilized most efficiently and suc-
cessfully in the design. Knowledge of current production and erection practices is an asset for the design to be
successfully implemented without major modifications during construction.
The following is a checklist of factors that the designer must consider in the design, manufacture and erection of
architectural precast concrete elements.
Architectural and structural design considerations

1. Is the precast to be load bearing or non-load bearing?
2. What finish is desired for the structure? For full information on the many and varied types of finishes available,
contact CPCI, refer to the CPCI Colour and Textures Guide (www.cpci.ca/en/resources/technical_publications/)
or contact your local precast manufacturers.
3. Architectural features such as reveals, ribs and cornices should be sized to complement the overall scale of the
project.
4. What type of wall assembly is to be utilized – single wythe or double wythe insulated wall panels? Refer to Section 5.6.
5. What are the building science requirements in order for the precast to function in concert with adjacent materials
and to the requirements of the specifications?
Element size considerations

1. Structure – loading limitations of the structural frame?
2. Production facilities – form and plant size, plant crane capacity, handling capabilities, finishing capabilities are all
factors limiting element size.

3. Transportation – load limits, seasonal load limits, overhead clearances, width restrictions, trailer capacity, trailer
height, trailer width, distance to project site, and condition of roads to the site may restrict element size.
4. Erection – Crane size and type, traffic control, access, layout and other prevailing site conditions can have a pro-
found impact on element size.
5. Handling capabilities – Crack control may limit element size even more than the considerations mentioned
above.
Supporting structure
1. Type of structure, deflection criteria, acceptable magnitude and location of loadings may restrict element type as
well as size, connection type and design.
2. Overall structural stability may require certain element types and sizes or connection designs.
3. Structural stability during erection must be considered to ensure safety during construction.
Standardization
Obtain maximum repetition of units to reduce overall form and production costs. The use of common features sizes
as well as shapes may make the difference between an economical design and one that is beyond the limits of the
project budget. Consultation with an experienced CPCI architectural producer can prove invaluable in the early
stages of design.
Design of connections
Refer to Chapter 4 of this Manual.
Detailed design of elements

The actual design of the precast concrete components should be left up to the precast concrete manufacturer
awarded the project. Each precast manufacturer has their own preferred method of panelization of the architectural
features and has their own preferred connection hardware and methods of attachment of elements to the structure.
These should be left solely to the manufacturer to design. For the design of the particular precast concrete ele-
ments, the designer should refer to Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Chapter 4, Section 5.5.3, and Chapter 6 of this Manual,
the CPCI Architectural Precast Concrete Walls: Best Practice Guide (www.pci.org/bookstore/storefront.aspx) [1] and
the PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual (http://www.pci.org/bookstore/storefront.aspx) [2] for:
1. Concrete mix design and concrete design strength,
2. Reinforcement material (steel or composite) and type (prestressed or non-prestressed),
a) for structural performance in final position,
b) for stripping, storage, transportation, handling and erection,
3. Design of connections, inserts, internal hardware, lifting hardware, etc. for stripping, storage, transportation and
erection,
4. Thermal performance, and
5. Building science requirements—jointing, air barrier / vapour retarder details, connection to adjacent building
materials.
Shop drawings
For acceptable standards for the preparation of shop drawings for cast-in hardware, connection details and
erection drawings as well as production drawings, refer to the PCI Precast Concrete Drafting Handbook,
(www.pci.org/bookstore/storefront.aspx) [3] including:
1. Erection drawings,
2. Connection details,
3. Anchor layout drawings,

4. Panel production drawings,

5. Hardware details,
6. Storage diagrams, and
7. Drawings of special erection handling procedures and equipment.
Formwork
There are various types of formwork used in the manufacture of architectural precast elements. These include steel,
wood, fibreglass, concrete, polyurethane, foam and more. Ask your local CPCI architectural member for informa-
tion on the various forming materials used in the manufacture of architectural precast concrete to best suit the
requirements of your project.
Production
For information regarding production materials to be used and production methods to be followed, refer to CSA
A23.4 and your local CPCI architectural precast manufacturers.
The following items should be considered:
1. Plant size, production capacity and lifting capabilities,
2. Placement of hardware and reinforcement,
3. Materials for hardware and reinforcement,
4. Inspection of forms, hardware and reinforcement,
5. Mixing, placing and consolidation of concrete,
6. Curing requirements of specification and codes,
7. Stripping procedures to limit cracking and for colour consistency,
8. Finishing requirements and complexity, and
9. Storage methods and space.
Quality control and certification

Precast manufactured for use in buildings in Canada is required by law to be certified according to the
requirements of CSA A23.4 as stated in the national and the provincial building codes. The CPCI Certification
Program (www.precastcertification.ca) certifies to the more stringent of both the (United States) PCI Certification
Program according to PCI MNL 116 and 117 and the CSA A23.4 standard. The program is recognized for its
thoroughness of the inspection process and the detail and content of the inspection reports issued to the
manufacturer after the certification inspection. The CPCI program is geared to a continuous improvement process
with the aim of improving the product for all involved. Refer to both CSA A23.4 and the CPCI Certification Program
(www.precastcertification.ca/en/) for complete information on the requirements of quality control throughout the
entire production sequence.
Transportation
The panel sizes for a structure may be dictated by limitations imposed due to transportation of the precast to the
site. The size of panels should however, be kept as large as possible, in order to reduce erection costs and the
number and the overall length of joints, which will reduce future maintenance costs.
Refer to Section 3.9.5 for:
1. Types of trailers,
2. Types of frames,
3. Support material, and
4. Transportation limitations for weight, width and height due to road construction and seasonal considerations.

For further detailed information on methods, materials and equipment used in handling and transporting all types
of precast concrete units, consult your local CPCI architectural precast manufacturers.
Erection
In order to utilize architectural precast concrete successfully, the designer must clearly envision the erection pro-
cess. The following are some of the basic requirements for consideration:
1. Ensure unimpeded site access to accommodate continuous erection,
2. Provide a working area and adequate storage space,
3. Allow for a staging area for trailers and cranes,
4. Consider the types and capacities of erection equipment in relation to unit weights and sizes,
5. Allow for the lifting, turning, rotating and tilting of units, at the pickup point, the final location on the structure
and any temporary set-down locations in between,
6. Provide layout points for the survey of the structural frame, the location of cast-in hardware and the final position
of the precast on the structure, and
7. Plan to minimize the number of panels and the erection requirements for panels left off to accommodate man-
hoists, etc.
Safety
Refer to local safety regulations.
Economy
When the project is in the design development stages, the following economic considerations should be reviewed:
1. Assess the costs associated with the design and panel production complexity, transportation distances, erection
complications and timing as it relates to production, transportation and erection,
2. Provide for progress payment for completed units stored at the production facility to ensure product is ready
when needed, and if project delays are anticipated, and
3. Evaluate the economic advantages of precast concrete in initial building costs as well as long term function,
operation (reduced heating loads due to thermal mass effects), maintenance and building envelope costs.
Tolerances
For the aesthetic requirements of the design to be met and fully appreciated, the following tolerances should be
carefully allowed for, reviewed and noted:
1. Scale of design features,
2. In-situ concrete or steel support structure tolerances such as construction elevations, out of plumb and plane,
straightness, sway, shrinkage, creep, and differential deflection,
3. Production tolerances with respect to dimensions; skew, bowing and warping of panels, and
4. Erection tolerances:
a) the precast concrete unit clearances relative to the supporting structure.
b) precast concrete unit to precast concrete unit spacing and joint size - refer to CSA A23.4.
The total effect of all tolerances will be seen at the joints in the final structure.
5.1.2 Design Objectives

The design objectives that apply to the design of each individual precast element should be consistent with the
objectives of the complete project, of which the architectural precast concrete is a part.

Structural integrity of the completed structure is the primary objective. Deflections must be limited to acceptable
levels, and stresses limited to prevent instability, reduced service life or premature failure of individual connections,
individual elements or the structure as a whole.
The economics of the construction of the entire project is another important design objective. The designer should
attempt to optimize the entire structure and consider the advantages provided by multi-functional precast con-
crete elements. The designer should be aware of the major economies offered by standardization or repetition.
Consideration must also be given to the cost of large versus small elements, bearing in mind, weight limitations in
the production facility, during transportation, site crane lifting capacity and location.
The economics of the overall operation and maintenance of the structure should also be factored into the costs
of the project. Thermal mass of the precast concrete panels can reduce the heating load during peak periods,
thereby reducing HVAC equipment size as well as peak utility loads, and should therefore be considered. The
maintenance of the precast components over the long term will be low in comparison to other materials as precast
is a very durable product. Consult the CPCI Maintenance and Inspection Manual for Precast Concrete Building
Enclosures (www.cpci.ca/en/resources/technical_publications/) for an item-by-item description of the maintenance
requirements, and a set of inspection and maintenance checklists for typical precast enclosure systems.
The aim of repetition in the design is to reduce costs by increasing plant productivity. Repetition means fewer
forms and a subsequent reduction in form construction costs. Production-line manufacturing can be implement-
ed in the plant when a particular casting sequence is repeated each day, leading to improvements in efficiency
through the repeated operations of familiar tasks. Handling, storage and delivery are simplified with subsequent
reductions in the risk of errors. Site efficiency is also improved through the repetition of familiar erection sequenc-
es. These benefits can only be achieved if there is a high degree of repetition in the design and production of the
precast elements.
Often, in the initial design stage, a high degree of repetition appears possible, however as the design details are
finalized, very strict discipline is required by the designer to avoid the creation of a large number of non-repetitive
elements. Any budget costs given at the initial design stage should take into account the possibility that the num-
ber of non-repetitive elements may increase as the design progresses. If non-repetitive units are unavoidable, the
increase in costs can be minimized when the elements can be cast from a master mold with simple modifications.
This eliminates the need for completely new forms. In general, it is easier to alter a form if the variations can be
contained within the total form envelope. This can be accomplished through the use of bulkheads or block outs.
Cutting into the form surface should be avoided, if possible, and done only as a last resort.
The term “standard” is difficult to define, but elements cannot truly be described as standard unless they are iden-
tical in every respect. Even relatively minor variations, such as the position of connections, are sufficient to make an
element non-standard (non-repetitive). Most manufacturers expect and allow for some variation, and will normally
accept minor changes to standard elements without an increase in price.
5.1.3 Structural Design and Analysis

Architectural precast concrete design should be considered as three distinct parts:
1. The precast elements individually,
2. The support system(s) for the precast elements, such as beams, slabs, walls, columns, and foundations, and
3. The connections that serve to attach the individual precast elements to the support system.
The design of the architectural precast elements and the structure involves the transfer of load from precast to
structure. Stability and the potential for movement of the element and/or the structure must also be considered.
Element movement can be caused by shrinkage, expansion and contraction due to temperature and moisture
changes, and elastic and creep deformations resulting from stresses within the element.
Structure movement should consider the above-mentioned causes in addition to movement due to gravity, wind
and seismic loads, foundation effects, short and long term deflection and differential settlement.

The potential for movement can be determined by analysis, and provisions should be made to accommodate
these movements where possible.
The structural design of an architectural precast concrete element requires the determination of all loads that will
act on the precast element. This includes consideration of the following:
1. Stresses induced during the stripping, handling, transportation, and erection processes,
2. Strain gradients across the thickness of the element (stresses induced by the restraint of bowing due to thermal
and moisture differentials and non-uniform curing can be significant),
3. Forces that may develop in the precast elements and the connections due to restrained volume changes and
distortion of the structural frame,
4. The deflection response of the precast elements under the action of:
a) dead and live loads
b) wind and seismic loads
c) thermal loads
5. Specified tolerances for the support structure and those allowed for in the manufacturing and installation of the
precast elements,
6. Acceptable crack locations and crack widths should be determined (while it is preferable to have crack-free units,
it is not uncommon to have some cracks in precast units), and
7. Historical performance of various types of connections.
The designer should recognize that loads and behaviour cannot be established precisely, particularly with elements
continuously subjected to the environment. The imprecise nature of design loads will generally not affect the
design of the element provided that the above factors have been considered, and provided that reasonable values
have been established in accordance with the requirements of the relevant building codes.
The designer must pay close attention to the allowable tolerances for the structural system. This is particularly
important for isolated elements forming long vertical lines, such as column covers, where any deviation from the
vertical is readily noticeable.
All non-load bearing elements should be designed to accommodate movement freely and, whenever possible,
without redundant supports, except where provisions are necessary to partially restrain bowing. Extremely high
loads may be induced if bowing is completely restrained.
5.2 NON-LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS

5.2.1 General
Non-load bearing elements are cladding elements only. They are designed to resist wind forces, seismic forces
generated from their self-weight, and the forces required to transfer the weight of the element to the structural
support system. Although service loads, wind loads and seismic forces do frequently produce the maximum stress-
es, the forces imposed during the manufacturing, handling and erection processes will usually govern the design
due to the lower strength of the concrete at time of initial stripping and handling. Seismic forces will generally gov-
ern connection design, but will usually result in element stresses less than those imposed during unit manufacture
and handling.
5.2.2 Deformation
The relationship between the deformation of the elements and the supporting structure must be evaluated, and
care taken to prevent unintended restraints and imposed loads due to these deformations. Deformations of the
supporting structure that induce unintended loading of the precast elements may be caused by deflection due to

the weight of the precast elements, volumetric changes

of the structural frame, and torsion of spandrel beams.
To prevent imposing loads on the elements, the con-
nections must be designed and installed to permit
unrestrained deformations.
Behaviour of a series of elements supported on a flexi-
ble beam is shown in Figure 5.2.1. The tendency for the
elements with two gravity load bearing connections to
deflect with the beam may cause unintended restraint
forces to develop in the longitudinal direction. Alterna-
tively, this problem could be resolved by providing two
narrower panels spanning column to column, thereby
not being affected by the deflection of the supporting
member. This illustrates the need for the precast design-
er to provide for vertical deformations of the supporting
beam or keep loads near columns.
The most prevalent cause of element deformation after
placement on the structure is bowing due to thermal
variations or gradients within the element. This will gen-
erally cause elements to bow outward.
The elements will not be subjected to stresses if sup-
ported in a manner that will permit deformation to
occur unrestrained, and assuming a homogeneous ma-
terial and linear temperature distribution. If an element Figure 5.2.1 Deformation of elements on flexible
is restrained laterally at mid span, such restraint may beam
induce significant element stresses. It is generally better
to hang an element from its top than support it at the
bottom because the moment induced by the eccentrici-
ty of the load bearing connections is opposite to that of
the predominant thermal gradient.
Bowing of elements while in a horizontal orientation
before erection can be caused by:
1. Differential shrinkage due to moisture evaporation
from the top face of the element while the lower face
is maintained at 100% humidity,
2. Deflection due to self-weight and the position of the Figure 5.2.2 Element forces induced by frame
support points, distortion
3. Deflection due to a temperature gradient between
faces (e.g., Storage orientation), or
4. Deflections due to creep of the concrete in incorrectly stacked elements and variations in the length of time in
the storage yard.
Non-load bearing elements should be designed and installed so that they do not restrain the structural frame from
lateral translation. If such restraint is developed, significant diagonal tension and compression may occur, as indicat-
ed in Figure 5.2.2. To prevent this, precast elements that are installed between components of the structural frame
should be connected at the top and bottom only and left free along the sides. The space tolerance required for erec-
tion will usually be sufficient to prevent contact during lateral deformation of the frame but this should be verified.

The vertical shortening of concrete columns should be considered in tall structures. At intermediate levels, the
differential shortening between two adjacent floors will be negligible, and the element will follow the frame move-
ment. At the lowest level, if the element is rigidly supported at the base, the accumulated shortening of the struc-
ture above may induce loading of the lower element due to unintended stacking. The connections and horizontal
joint widths should be designed to accommodate all column shortening. A similar situation may result when two
adjacent columns have significantly different loads.
Non-load bearing elements that contain openings may develop stress concentrations at the corners of these open-
ings resulting from unintended loading or restrained bowing. While these stress concentrations may be partially
controlled through the use of reinforcement, the designer should always try to eliminate imposed restraints. Areas
of abrupt changes in cross section should be well reinforced to resist these stress concentrations.
5.2.3 Crack Control

While it is desirable to manufacture and erect elements that are crack-free, the design of non-load bearing ele-
ments will often be governed by the limiting crack width. Section 3.4.2 discusses allowable tensile stresses and
crack widths in concrete.
Cracking can also be controlled by introducing prestressing, using either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning. In
either case, the prestress force should generally be concentric with the effective cross section to minimize out-of-
plane deformations. For thin sections (75 mm to 100 mm thick) that may be subjected to undesirable bowing, expe-
rienced precasters sometimes prestress the section eccentrically to counteract the bowing. It is recommended that
the prestress force in an element, after all losses, be limited to between 1 to 6 MPa. Transverse reinforcement may
be required to prevent longitudinal splitting of the concrete parallel to the prestressing strands.
When short elements are pre-tensioned, care must be taken to ensure that adequate bond transfer length is pro-
vided for the strands. For a discussion on transfer lengths, see Section 3.4.9.
5.3 SPANDRELS
5.3.1 Non-load Bearing Spandrels
Spandrels are precast elements that are less than one storey in height, made up of either a series of individual
elements or as one element extending between columns. Load bearing support for spandrels should be located at
the floor level near or on the columns. Lateral restraint for eccentric loading can be achieved using connections to
the floor structure (See Figure 5.3.1) or to the columns behind, at the top and bottom of the elements.
Spandrels are usually paired with a window wall system. The vertical deflections, rotations and the twisting of the
spandrels should be limited to accommodate the requirements of the window wall system.
Special provisions should be made for slender elements, which are defined as elements in which the spacing of lat-
eral support of the compression zone exceeds 50 times the compression flange thickness. The number 50 is based
on the criteria outlined in CSA A23.3 Design of concrete structures and is somewhat conservative. [4]
The factored resistance of the lateral support should be a minimum of 2% of the factored force in the compression
zone.

Figure 5.3.1 Typical spandrel connections
5.3.2 Effect of Cantilever Supports

Consideration should also be given to spandrels that are hung at the ends of long cantilevered supports. The de-
signer must verify the effects of deflection and rotation of the support structure, including the effects of creep, and
design all attachments to accommodate these effects (See Figure 5.3.2). A particularly critical condition can occur
at the corners of buildings where a cantilever exists on one or both faces.
Figure 5.3.2 Effect of cantilever supports

5.4 COLUMN COVERS

5.4.1 General
The use of precast concrete elements as covers for steel or cast-in-place concrete columns, and as mullions, along
with special shapes, and specific finishes is a common method of achieving architectural expression in an economi-
cal manner. When precast panels are used around steel columns and beams, the precast may provide the required
fire rating without resorting to further protection of the steel (See Section 6.3). Precast panels used around cast-in-
place concrete columns and beams provide a uniform finish in combination with special architectural shapes. The
interior surface of the precast may be readily insulated, minimizing the differential temperature variation through
the concrete section. Column covers can be multi-functional, providing space for services and for the attachment of
vertical window-washing equipment. For a further discussion of beam covers (spandrels) see Section 5.3.
Column covers are generally supported by the structural column or the floor, and are usually designed to carry
no vertical load other than their own weight. The vertical load of each length of column cover section is usually
supported at one elevation, and tied back top and bottom to the floor slabs for lateral load transfer and stability.
Connections must allow for relative horizontal movement between floors. This may cause the column cover to
apply varying loads to the bearing connections. Column covers are usually designed to be as long as possible. The
length is dependent upon transportation and lifting limitations, architectural considerations, and upon the ability of
the structure to locally support a specific concentrated load (element weight).
5.4.2 Design Guidelines

Column covers and mullions are usually a major focal point in a structure. The following are some items that the
designer should consider:
1. The allowable tolerances for the structural system: This is particularly important for column covers and mullions
since, as isolated elements, they often form a long vertical line and any deviation from a vertical plane is readily
visible. Invariably, this deviation is the result of the allowable tolerances associated with the structural steel and/
or cast-in-place concrete frames. These deviations can be compensated for by precast connections with suffi-
cient adjustment. This need for adjustment must be recognized during design, and clearances should be estab-
lished that will reflect realistic construction tolerances. The designer should anticipate a planned clearance of at
least 25 mm, however 40 mm is more common between precast elements and the structure. For steel columns,
the designer should also consider the additional clearances required around splice plates to accommodate the
projecting bolt heads, bolt ends and nuts,
2. Support for vertical loads should be provided at only one level. Support for horizontal loads and for stability
should be provided at additional levels as required,
3. Column covers and mullions that project from the facade will be subjected to loads imposed by shearing winds.
Connections designed to provide a horizontal moment resisting couple are required to resist these forces,
4. The effects of temperature and humidity change must be considered,
5. The width of horizontal joints between stacked precast column covers should be sufficient to accommodate elas-
tic and shrinkage shortening of the structural frame,
6. The designer must clearly envision the erection process. Column cover connections are, by their location, often
difficult to reach and, once made, difficult to adjust,
7. Insulation may be placed on the interior face of the column cover or, alternatively, it may be applied to the struc-
tural column directly. A minimum setting clearance of 20 mm between precast and insulation, or insulation and
structure is required. Connection details must be chosen to accommodate either configuration,
8. Column covers or mullions may be combined with adjacent spandrels to minimize joints where possible, and
9. Where uniformity of architectural finish is required on two or three sides of a column cover, the designer must be
aware of the manufacturing limitations of achieving this with certain types of finishes, and should be guided by

a CPCI certified architectural precaster regarding the feasibility of these requirements. For example, to ensure
uniformity of finish, it may be necessary to stage-cast L or U-shaped elements with quirk mitre joints. Vertical legs
over 300 mm high will generally require separate face down casting.
5.5 LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS

5.5.1 General
The design and structural behaviour of exterior architectural precast concrete bearing wall elements is dependent
upon many factors. These include the shape and configuration of the elements, the magnitude of applied gravity
and lateral loads, and the manner by which loads are transferred between elements. The capability of the individu-
al element’s components to resist shear, axial force and flexure affect the element’s design.
The design of architectural precast elements is not significantly different from the design of two-dimensional
frames. Once they have been isolated and taken as free bodies, elements can be designed using the applicable
codes and standard procedures. Design examples are included in Chapter 3.
Architectural precast concrete elements used as exterior load bearing walls can be classified as either flat or
ribbed. Both flat and ribbed elements may have window, door, or other openings.
Figure 5.5.1 illustrates three types of ribbed elements. The element of Figure 5.5.1(a) is a horizontal Vierendeel
truss window mullion element, while the other elements are vertical window mullion elements.
Whether the architectural element of the exterior wall is placed horizontally or vertically depends primarily upon
handling and erection requirements and the methods or details selected for making connections. A horizontal
Vierendeel truss type element lends itself to simple handling since it is shipped in its erected orientation, requires
gravity load connections at each floor level, and requires a minimum of erection bracing.
A two-storey vertical element requires additional erec-
tion handling and, because of its projected height
during erection, demands more sophisticated erection
procedures.
Shipping and erection requirements and the design of
the connections are factors that will play a part in deter-
mining the element size and configuration. An element
can only be as large as can be shipped, handled and
hoisted with the available erection equipment, and with-
in the allowable design capacity of the connections.
5.5.2 Design Considerations

Wall elements are subjected to loads applied in the
vertical and horizontal directions. Loads in the horizon-
tal direction may be both parallel to and normal to the
plane of the wall. Vertical loads are usually parallel to
the plane of the wall and are applied at an eccentricity
influenced by the geometry of the wall, the location and
the configuration of the connections, and erection and
manufacturing tolerances. Manufacturing tolerances are
due to panel alignment such as out of plumb, bowing or
horizontal displacement relative to the wall. These may
also be required to accommodate tolerances in con-
struction of the building structure. See CSA A23.4 for
industry tolerances. Figure 5.5.1 Horizontal and vertical ribbed elements

Lateral loads due to wind are applied perpendicular to

the plane of the wall. Lateral loads due to seismic can
occur both parallel to and perpendicular to the plane of
the wall. These loads cause lateral deflections, reducing
the vertical load carrying capacity of the wall. Horizontal
loads may be resisted by shear walls and distributed by
floor diaphragms.
Figure 5.5.2 illustrates a special framing arrangement
that provides uniform distribution of loads to elements
on all sides of a structure. The uniform loading of the
perimeter by the floor and roof construction has the
advantage of resisting tension forces caused by later-
al loadings, and thus minimizes connection and other
hold-down requirements. Uniform distribution of floor
and roof loadings around the building’s perimeter also
reduces differential creep deformation of elements as
discussed in Section 2.4. The effect of cumulative loads
on connections between elements must be considered,
as they may govern minimum element dimensions. Figure 5.5.2 Perimeter floor loading to exterior
element wall
The transfer of gravity loads between elements or combi-
nations of gravity and axial loads caused by lateral loading
can become the major factor influencing the structural
dimensions of an element and the required connection details.
Often the size of the element will not be controlled by the required concrete area for flexural design but by the
minimum dimensions for sealing elements at the joints and for placing reinforcement. The required dimension for
handling devices, or the space required to accommodate a variety of connection conditions may also influence the
minimum element thickness.
For most precast exterior bearing wall structures, the gravity dead and live load condition will control structural
dimensions rather than load combinations that include lateral loads.
Unless analysis or experience indicates otherwise, both load bearing and non-load bearing elements should be
reinforced with an amount of reinforcing, as specified in the appropriate building code, and a reinforcement ratio
(r) being the area of reinforcement divided by the effective section area in flexure (As / b x d) = 0.001.
5.5.3 Order of Solution

The order of solution can be divided into the following categories:
1. Determine the design loads, both gravity and lateral, applied to the elements as a whole, and identify the areas
subjected to the greatest loading,
2. Select the size and shape of the wall elements. This will be influenced by the architectural details and location of
the vertical and horizontal element to element connections.
Development of connection details must consider such questions as:
a) Do the details lend themselves to standardization?
b) Will imposed change deformations (creep, shrinkage, and temperature) influence the detail or the connection
design?
c) Can the details be produced by the precaster within the required tolerances to provide adequate quality and
strength?

d) Can the details be maintained in the field within

the required tolerances to provide adequate qual-
ity and strength?
3. Review the preliminary size and shape of the ele-
ments considering the desired architectural finish and
the production requirements for stripping, general
handling, storage, shipping and erection,
4. Review the creep, shrinkage and temperature be-
haviour of the building as a whole to ensure that the
structural behaviour of the elements is not influenced
adversely, and determine if non-structural items such
as partitions, glass, and sealants will be affected, and
5. Check proposed connection types and concepts to
determine their suitability and capability to resist the
various applied loads. In some cases, local practice or
the desire for panel removal, flexibility or reuse may
suggest one type of connection over another, for ex-
ample, the use of bolts rather than welds. Ensure that
all connections will be accessible, where required. Figure 5.5.3 Load bearing spandrel
5.5.4 Load Bearing Spandrels

General
Load bearing spandrels are elements that support floor or roof loads. Except for the magnitude and location of
these additional loads, the design consideration for load bearing spandrels is the same as for non-load bearing
spandrels.
Loads
Load bearing spandrels support structural loads that are generally applied eccentrically to the shear centre of the
element. A typical arrangement of spandrels supporting a floor is shown in Figure 5.5.3.
Torsion due to eccentric loading must be resisted by the spandrel itself, or by a horizontal couple developed by the
floor construction. To take care of torsion in the floor construction, the details must provide for a compressive force
transfer at the top of the floor, and a tensile force transfer at the bearing of the precast floor element. The load
path of these floor forces must be followed through the structure, and considered in the design of other elements
in the building. Even when torsion is resisted in this manner in the completed structure, twisting of the spandrel
during construction must be considered.
If torsion cannot be removed by floor connections, the spandrel should be designed for the induced stresses.
5.6 DOUBLE WYTHE INSULATED PRECAST CONCRETE WALL PANELS

Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels are comprised of two concrete wythes separated by a layer of
insulation. Depending on the design, an air space between a pervious exterior wythe such as stone or masonry and
the insulation may be required. The introduction of an air space behind the face wythe of concrete is not desirable
in concrete faced panels as the face wythe is virtually impervious to water penetration. See Chapter 6, Section 6.1.3
for more information on rain penetration control.
Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels provide a means of transferring load while insulating a struc-
ture. Panels may be cladding elements, where they support only their own weight and transfer lateral loads to the
supporting structure, or they may act as beams, bearing elements or shear walls, transferring loads applied from
other parts of the structure.

5.6.1 Non-Composite Design

Non-composite elements are panels where the outer
wythe is supported by the inner wythe using relatively
flexible ties or hangers, that accommodate differential
movement of the two wythes due to changing tempera-
ture and humidity conditions. The inner wythe transfers
vertical and lateral loads to the structural framework and
supports the weight of the outer wythe. The structural
inner wythe is normally thicker and stiffer than the outer
non-structural wythe. Exceptions to this are cases, such
as insulated double tee wall panels, where the outer
wythe may be load bearing. The lateral tie-back connec-
tions require special attention in these cases.
Air gap double wythe panels are elements where an
air space is provided behind the veneer facing to allow
moisture penetrating the pervious exterior facing to drain
to the exterior of the assembly. [5] Examples are elements
where the exterior wythe consists of natural stone or ma-
sonry. An air space or drainage layer should not be used
when the exterior wythe is concrete, or where the mason-
ry is adhered to the exterior concrete wythe.
In non-composite elements, one wythe provides the
total structural function and is analyzed assuming no
structural interaction with the other parts of the element,
although some limited amount of shear transfer may
occur. See Figure 5.6.1(a).
5.6.2 Composite Design

Composite elements are panels where the inner and
outer wythes are interconnected through the insulation
by means of rigid ties. The two wythes act together to
resist externally applied loads. Wythe interaction may be
total or partial depending on the rigidity of the connector
system. Panels with solid concrete regions that restrict
relative movement between the wythes are rarely used
due to the thermal bridging created by the concrete.
When a composite element has the same overall
thickness as a non-composite element, the composite
element will demonstrate greater stiffness. See Figure
Figure 5.6.1 Non-composite and composite elements
5.6.1(b). Deformation of the outer wythe will affect the
inner wythe. Composite panels are prone to thermal
bowing. The introduction of prestress in both wythes of a composite element can be used to induce a negative
bow to counteract the tendency of the element to bow outwards.
In some designs, a concrete rib between the wythes is required for bearing. Freedom of movement can be provid-
ed at the other three sides.
5.6.3 Curing
No special precautions are required for curing the lower cast wythe of double wythe insulated precast concrete wall
panels that is protected by the insulation and retains the heat of hydration which increases the early strength of the

concrete. The heat generated by large precast elements can be significant. The shock effect of rapid cooling can
cause cracking of the lower cast wythe in extreme winter temperatures. Temperature change should be kept within
reasonable levels when stripping and yarding double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels.
5.6.4 Flexural Analysis

A discussion of double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panel design can be found in Section 3.11.
5.6.5 Insulation
The thermal properties of insulation and concrete are discussed in Section 6.1. Insulation with an aluminum foil
coating should be avoided due to the reaction between aluminum and concrete.
The thickness of the insulation is usually determined by project specifications, the thermal characteristics of the
insulating material and the design temperature range of the structure. A minimum insulation thickness of 50 mm is
recommended, with no limitation on maximum thickness. The deflection characteristics of the inter-wythe connectors
should be considered in relation to the insulation thickness. For an explanation of the thermal performance
requirements of precast concrete wall panels to conform to the latest code, refer to the publication, “Meeting and
Exceeding Building Code Thermal Performance Requirements” published by RDH Building Science Inc. [12]
5.6.6 Bond Breakers

Rigid insulation is capable of transferring shear forces between the concrete wythes. The degree of shear transfer
depends on the thickness and the properties of the insulation. It is not necessary to break the bond between the
insulation and one of the concrete wythes of non-composite elements. The initial bond between concrete and in-
sulation may be beneficial during stripping as concrete strengths are lower at this time however the bond between
the concrete and the insulation should not be accounted for in the final design.
5.6.7 Vapour Barriers

A 50 mm thickness of concrete is normally regarded as a satisfactory vapour barrier. [6] Continuity of vapour barrier
must be considered in all joints to ensure a functional building envelope.
5.6.8 Wythe Design

The minimum thickness of panel wythes is dependent upon structural requirements, finish, reveal layout, type of
reinforcement, handling considerations and past experience.
Non-structural wythe (non-composite elements)

The wythe should be as thin as architectural details will permit to minimize differential temperature effects within
the exterior wythe. The following limitations are applicable:
1. At the thinnest point, thickness should not be less than 50 mm, but preferably 65 mm,
2. Thickness should be sufficient to provide proper reinforcement cover, in accordance with the applicable codes,
3. Thickness should be sufficient to provide the required anchorage of wythe connectors, and
4. The minimum thickness should not be less than three times the maximum aggregate size.
Structural wythe (non-composite and composite elements)

The thickness of the structural wythe should be determined by structural analysis, and accommodate architectural
details and loading requirements. The wythe should not be less than 75 mm thick.
The limitations listed above for the non-structural wythe should also be considered. Panels require lateral connec-
tions at the top and bottom and may have lateral ties at midspan and/or connections to the adjacent elements
to prevent differential bowing. Top hung, eccentrically supported elements will bow outwards less than bottom
supported units.

5.6.9 Element Size

The size of elements will be primarily determined by architectural considerations. Additionally, the following restric-
tions are applicable:
1. The maximum dimensions and weight should be determined based on transportation, handling and erection
limitations, and
2. a) The maximum dimension for non-composite panels should be in the order of:
L = 48 c
c = the concrete thickness ie. the overall panel thickness minus the thickness of the insulation
b) The maximum dimension for prestressed composite elements should be in the order of:
L = 60 t
L = maximum dimension
t = overall thickness of element excluding any ribs
The above suggested lengths are empirical and based on experience. Where bowing can be accommodated,
these values may be exceeded by experienced CPCI certified architectural precasters.
Larger panel sizes may be accommodated using concrete with a low water to cementitious materials ratio.
5.6.10 Wythe Connectors

General considerations
For non-composite elements, the weight of the outer wythe must be transferred to the inner structural wythe. This
is generally accomplished using shear connectors and tension/compression ties passing through the insulation at
regularly spaced intervals. A less desirable, and now
rarely used alternative to the use of shear connectors
is to provide a solid concrete rib at the bottom of the
element to serve as a support and allow the wythes to
move without restraint. The solid rib is usually located
at the foundation to minimize the effects of thermal
bridging.
Shear connectors
The vertical shear load is carried by the inclined legs of
10M reinforcing bars bent into the configurations shown
in Figure 5.6.2 (a), (b), (c) and (f). The use of composite or
stainless steel reinforcing bar is only required in panels
with an air space such as when using porous exterior
cladding materials such as masonry or natural stone.
Galvanized mild steel or composite reinforcing bars are
adequate in all other types of panels. These bars are
usually placed parallel to the vertical axis of the element.
Sometimes, additional bars are placed parallel to the
horizontal axis to allow for element rotation, torsion
forces or special shear requirements.
Figure 5.6.2 Typical shear connectors
Expanded metal or a steel truss can be installed or tied
to the reinforcement to connect the concrete wythes as
shown in Figure 5.6.2(e). Cut or continuous sections may be used to provide one-dimensional shear capacity. Sim-
ple tie rods are also used as tension/compression ties to resist wind loads and prevent wythe separation.

Figure 5.6.3 Shear connector for ribbed element
Safe Load A B
Note
(kN) (mm) (mm)
9 160 155 Use a minimum of 2, 6 mm
diameter rods top and
18 320 155
bottom of flat sleeve anchor
27 475 155 to maintain stability
36 640 155
Figure 5.6.4 Anchorage for ribbed elements Figure 5.6.5 Tension/compression ties

For ribbed insulated elements, it is best to position the shear connectors in the rib area of the element (Figure
5.6.3). This makes it easier to position and ensure proper embedment depths and adequate concrete cover for the
reinforcement connecting the two concrete wythes.
In non-composite panels, it is preferable to have only one anchoring centre due to expansion and contraction. In
an element with two ribs, a shear connector can be positioned in either of the ribs and a flat anchor can be posi-
tioned vertically in the other rib. The flat anchor should have the same vertical shear capacity as the shear connec-
tor, and should be located on the same horizontal axis. The flat anchor has little or no horizontal shear capacity
and therefore the horizontal restraint of the exterior concrete face by this anchor is minimized, (Figure 5.6.4). In a
multi-ribbed element, the shear connector should be positioned in the rib closest to the centre, with flat anchors
used in the other ribs as required.
Tension/compression ties
Examples of ties are shown in Figure 5.6.5.
Tension/compression ties are generally 6 mm in diameter made from composites, Type 304 or Type 316 stainless
or galvanized steel. Stainless steel or composite connectors are preferred in elements with porous facings such as
limestone or brick. Refer to CSA A370 Connectors for masonry for further information. Plastic connectors are also
acceptable; however, consideration may have to be given to the fire resistance of plastic ties.
Ties of welded wire fabric, conforming to ASTM 185 M-07, or reinforcing bars, conforming to CSA G30.18 are ac-
ceptable. Shaped, crimped, or bent ties should be cold bent.
Connectors intended to accommodate differential movement between wythes should be able to withstand 5,000
cycles of reversal at an amplitude of 3 mm.
Tension/compression ties should be flexible enough to avoid significant resistance to temperature and shrinkage
movements in the plane of the element surface.
Ties should have sufficient anchorage in each wythe to safely transfer the applied loads. This can be accomplished by
hooking around or tying to the reinforcement, or by bending or deforming the ends of the ties.
At the time of stripping with a non-structural wythe cast face down, ties acting in tension will transfer the weight of the
exterior wythe and any form suction to the structural wythe.
Ties will act in tension or compression under wind pressure, or suction. While it is probable that the insulation will act
to transfer wind compression, it is recommended that only the ties, acting in compression, be assumed effective.
Horizontal shear ties should be provided for handling and racking loads, such as inertia forces developed during
seismic activity (earthquakes). The functional behaviour of connectors is illustrated in Figure 5.6.6.
Arrangement
Satisfactory connector layout requires an assessment of element geometry and weight, anticipated movement of
the exterior wythe, and a knowledge of tie material strength and flexibility characteristics which have been estab-
lished by tests.
The exterior wythe will move in response to environmental changes and concrete shrinkage. To accommodate this
movement without distress, the connectors should be sufficiently flexible in the direction of movement to prevent
undue restraint.
In the erected position, the device that transfers the weight of the non-structural wythe to the structural wythe
should ideally be a single element or a closely spaced pair of elements located near the centre of the element. This
arrangement will permit the non-structural wythe to expand and contract with the least amount of total restraint
(See Figure 5.6.7 (a)).
The shear centre of the connectors need not be at the centre of mass; however, a maximum of 3 mm maximum
differential movement between wythes is recommended. The shear connectors can be located along two lines

Figure 5.6.6 Functional behaviour of connectors
at right angles (See Figure 5.6.7 (b)). The tension/com-

pression ties that are used solely to transfer load during
stripping or direct wind forces should not unduly restrain
lateral movement.
Additional forces due to torsion should be considered
when the shear centre of the connectors cannot be
located near the centre of mass of the supported wythe.
Similar consideration is required when the lateral (rack- Figure 5.6.7 Arrangement of connectors between
ing) force is not coincident with the shear centre in each wythes
direction.
The tension and compression ties within the field of the element should be approximately 600 mm on centre.
Around the perimeter of an element and openings larger than 600 mm, ties should not be located more than 300
mm from the edge (See Figure 5.6.7).

5.6.11 General Architectural Design Considerations

The architectural design of double wythe insulated wall panels is similar to that of single wythe elements, with the
following special considerations.
Bowing
A recognized characteristic of composite double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels is the tendency of
elements to bow outwards under prolonged exposure to the sun. There is, however, less tendency to develop ther-
mal bowing in non-composite double wythe insulated precast concrete panels.
The inner wythe of temperature-controlled buildings is kept at a constant temperature with little thermal variation.
Although the exterior wythe experiences extreme temperature variations, the temperature gradient in each of the
wythes is minimal. This minimizes thermal bowing of non-composite double wythe insulated precast concrete wall
panels.
The tendency of elements to bow is influenced primarily by element size, the rigidity of connection between the
wythes, and daily temperature variations on the exterior face. Differential movement between adjacent elements is
generally not a problem. The effect of thermal bowing can be satisfactorily accommodated through good design
and detailing practices.
For elements with large openings, joints in the outer wythe at the corners of such openings are desirable. These
joints may extend through to the insulation layer and may subsequently be caulked or treated architecturally, in the
same manner as the joints between elements.
Control joints should be provided in large non-composite elements to divide the outer wythe into smaller units
to provide for the possibility of cracking due to extreme temperature changes or from shrinkage and creep of the
concrete. The pattern for these control joints becomes an important architectural feature.
Corners
Double wythe insulated wall panels require special details at the corners of structures due to bowing. Mitred cor-
ners must be restrained for the joints to perform satisfactorily. Joints at corners are not as easily sealed as bowing
occurs in two different planes. Elements with small returns, will be stiffer than adjacent elements and panels on
both sides of the corner should be restrained across the joints. Restrained panels at corners must be adequately
reinforced to resist the restraint forces.
Special corner units that are not flush with the adjacent elements can be effectively used to hide bowing at corners,
(Figure 5.6.8).
5.7 AESTHETIC AND BUILDING ENVELOPE CONSIDERATIONS

5.7.1 General
The aesthetic requirements of projects vary widely and must be determined with the scale of the structure and site
considerations in mind. Concrete is formed while in a plastic state allowing for the creation of designs that are virtu-
ally limitless in detail and cannot be accommodated with many other materials. The introduction of profiles, panel
joints and reveals or false joints will change the overall appearance of a structure.
The architect’s selection of colour and texture have a dramatic effect on the aesthetics of a structure. When the
available aggregate colours and sizes are combined with different matrix colours and finishing techniques, a wide
range of colours can be achieved.
The acceptable range of finish and texture should be considered when the desired finish is specified and finally
approved. The expected range of some finishes is much wider than others due to variations in the aggregate source,
colour and size and the finishing technique. A uniform finish on a light sandblast finish is more difficult to achieve than
a medium or heavy sandblast finish. The presence of air or “bug” holes on a light sandblast finish will be much more
apparent than on a medium sandblast finish due to the texture of the finish and the affect of light on this texture.

Figure 5.6.8 Architectural and structural details

The development of samples will aid in the determination of an acceptable finish. Samples should be viewed from a
distance of no less than 6 metres and on taller structures, usually at one third the building height for determination of
colour and texture uniformity. Once a project has been awarded, a minimum of three (3) 1 metre square range samples
should be produced to determine the expected range of finishes.
It is inevitable that some damage will occur to the precast during shipping and erection. Patching samples may be
requested to determine the capability of the precaster to repair this damage and the amount of damage that can be
tolerated.
Mockups may also be requested to determine the constructability and efficiency of the interfaces between the different
materials in the building envelope.
Placement in relation to supporting structure

Precast panels should extend above or below the surfaces of slabs to mask the variations in the cast-in-place concrete
or steel structure behind. The panels should also be placed a minimum of 25 mm away from the supporting structure to
accommodate construction tolerances in the building frame. The tops of panels should also extend a sufficient distance
above the top surface of slabs or beams to accommodate working from the slab without the need for ladders or lifts,
when connecting the panel to the structure.
Interfacing with other wall materials

No attempt should be made to make other materials, such as curtainwall sections, windows or doors, flush with the
precast concrete face. These materials will not behave
in the same manner as the precast when subjected to
temperature and volume changes. These materials will also
have construction tolerances as will the precast. By setting the
precast proud of these materials, construction tolerances and
variations in the material behaviour will be hidden from view.
5.8 VENEER FACED ELEMENTS

5.8.1 General
Finishes using materials such as natural cut stone, brick,
structural tile, and architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneers)
provide an even wider variety of colours and textures for
precast units.
Some advantages of using veneer faced elements are:
1. Thinner veneers can be used in precast panels than those
required for field set construction,
2. Veneers can be readily attached to the face of multi-plane
units, such as column covers, spandrels with integral soffit
and sill sections, deep reveal window frames and parapet
sections, (Figure 5.8.1). These are often impractical and
expensive to construct on site, and
3. The erection of the precast units is faster and more eco-
nomical than field set construction because panels can
incorporate a large number of veneer pieces and may
include insulation, interior finishes and windows. This also WWR = welded wire reinforcement
reduces the overall joint length, reducing potential joint
leakage and joint maintenance later on. Figure 5.8.1 Applications of veneer faced precast

The fabrication, handling and erection of stone-faced elements is similar to that of traditional precast elements.
Special handling and shipping procedures are required for more complex units such as those shown in Figure
5.8.1.
Many veneers exhibit different physical properties and structural behaviour to that of the precast concrete back-
up. Tensile, compressive and shear strength, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal expansion, creep and
shrinkage are physical properties that must be reviewed. Other factors influencing interaction are temporary and
permanent applied loads, and thermal cycling. The behaviour of an assembly is also dependent upon the configu-
ration of the element, i.e., the relative thickness of the basic components, and the location of insulation in the wall
assembly.
Veneers may be either bonded to or isolated from the concrete back-up, however, bonding is not recommended
for large veneer sections. When isolation of the veneers is required, the following bond breakers are recommend-
ed:
1. a polyethylene sheet (minimum 2 mil thickness),
2. a polyethylene foam pad (1 - 2 mm thickness), or
3. an air gap (3 - 6 mm)
The bond breaker will render the veneer non-composite provided the anchor arrangement does not limit the free
movement of the veneer.
An air space should be provided between a porous veneer and the backup concrete. In these elements, the veneer
is subjected to a significantly reduced wind load than that normally arising from gust effects as the air space should
be vented to the outside (pressure moderated rain screen).
The strength of the facing veneer material must be determined and an appropriate anchor system chosen to
ensure the adequacy of the veneer to resist flexural stresses during handling, transportation, erection and final
loading.
Bowing of veneer elements can occur. The amount of bowing depends upon:
1. Size, type and colour of veneer,
2. Location and orientation on the structure, and
3. Location and method of connection of the veneer to the back-up
For cut stone finishes, emphasis on samples and mock-up units is particularly important. Supplemental tests of the
behaviour of the unit for anticipated temperature changes may be required. Durability of the combined unit should
be based on past performance.
Full scale mock-up units are recommended to verify the design performance for new and major applications. Tests
may be performed on sample elements to confirm the suitability of the cut stone and anchors and to determine
the effects of in-service loads and bowing.
5.8.2 Reinforcement
Cover depth of reinforcement in veneer faced backup panels must be a minimum of 15 mm (See CSA A23.4).
5.8.3 Natural Stone

Natural stone veneers can be cut to various sizes and shapes. Different colour and texture combinations can pro-
vide a wide variety of aesthetic possibilities. [7]
Properties
The structural properties of natural stone veneers are dependent upon several factors; the rift and cleavage of crys-
tals, the degree of cohesion, the interlocking of crystals and the nature of the cementing materials.
Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks will exhibit differing strengths parallel to and perpendicular to their original
bedding planes. The properties of a given type of stone will vary depending on the quarry of origin. Specific data

should be obtained from stone suppliers. The range of properties for common building stone is given in Figure
5.8.2. These values will serve as a guide for preliminary design.
Modulus Modulus of Coefficient of

Compression Tension
Type of rupture Shear (MPa) elasticity thermal expansion
(MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa x 103) (10-6mm/(mm . °C))
Granite 70 - 280 4.1 - 6.9 7.6 - 20.7 13.8 - 29.7 39 - 66 8.1 (avg.)
Limestone 28 - 70 2.1 - 2.6 4.8 - 8.3 6.2 - 12.4 21 - 37 4.3 - 5.4

41 - 105(1) 7.6 - 17.9 11.4 - 33.1 13 - 90
Marble 2.8 - 15.9 3.8 - 22.1
52 - 115.5(2) 7.6 - 18.6 16.2 - 29.7 30 - 102
Serpentine 76 - 193 5.5 - 11.0 17.9 - 34.5 33 - 66
Sandstone 35 - 140 1.9 - 3.5 3.5 - 6.9 2.1 - 20.7 13 - 53 11
Slate 48 - 214 20.7 - 30.0 27.6 - 62.1 13.8 - 24.8 62 - 103 10

(1) Parallel with respect to the bedding / cleavage planes
(2) Perpendicular with repect to the bedding / cleavage planes
Figure 5.8.2 Range of natural stone properties
Size and thickness

Piece size, manufacturing process, handling, finishing, anchorage type and colour range will govern the veneer
thickness.
Granite is an excellent material for exterior use. Granite veneer can be fabricated in thicknesses from 20 mm
to 50 mm.
Marble and limestone, although softer than granite, can also be used. Limestone can be fabricated in thicknesses
from 40 mm to 125 mm depending on the size, finish and material properties.
Codes may specify minimum thickness and maximum stone dimensions. Stone suppliers should be required to pro-
vide material properties and recommended sizes and thicknesses.
The length and width of veneer materials should be sized to a tolerance of plus zero, minus 3 mm. Flatness toler-
ances for finished surfaces will vary, depending on the type of finish. For example, granite industry tolerances vary
from 1.2 mm for polished surfaces to 4.8 mm for flamed surfaces (thermal finishes) when measured with a 1,200
mm straightedge. Thickness variations are not as important. Differences in thickness can be accommodated in the
concrete backup.
Anchorage of stone facing

Connection of natural stone to the concrete should be made with mechanical anchors that will accommodate some
movement, (See Figure 5.8.3).
Bonding of the backup concrete to the stone veneer should be prevented. A bond breaker should be used be-
tween the veneer and the concrete to allow for independent movement.
Stone veneer is usually supplied with holes predrilled in the back surface for the attachment of mechanical anchors.
Generally, for sound, dense veneer materials, four anchors should be used for each square metre of veneer, with
a recommended spacing of 500 mm between anchors and a minimum of two anchors per piece of veneer. Four
anchors should normally be used for square or approximately square pieces.
Note that for limestone veneers, a moisture barrier is recommended at the concrete face to eliminate a possible
chemical reaction between the limestone and the concrete that could stain the exposed face.

Note: Recommended safety factor for galvanized deformed bar is 8.
Figure 5.8.3 Typical anchor details for stone veneers for bonded and unbonded elements

Anchor size and spacing in veneers of variable strength

or with natural planes of weakness will require special
analysis. The holes, drilled at an angle of 30° to 45° to
the plane of the stone, should be approximately one-
half the thickness of the veneer deep. The anchors
should be bonded to the veneer using a moisture-resis-
tant epoxy filler compatible with the stone. Rubber or
silicone sleeves slipped over the anchors adjacent to the
back face of the veneer should be used to accommo-
date the differential coefficients of thermal expansion
of the veneer and the precast concrete backup. Thicker
foam bond breakers can also be used for this purpose.
Anchors are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Preformed anchors fabricated from stainless steel are
commonly used. Typical details for natural stone veneers
are shown in Figure 5.8.3. Figure 5.8.3 (a), (b) and (c)
present anchor details for marble, granite and limestone
veneers respectively. Figure 5.8.3 (d) illustrates a typical
cross dowel anchor detail.
Truss anchors, shown in Figure 5.8.4, are used for fully in-
sulated elements. Anchors should preferably be located
at joints in the insulation. The methods shown in Figure
5.8.4 (a) and (b) have tended to replace the arrangement
shown in Figure 5.8.4(c) in which the anchor is embed-
ded in a concrete cylinder formed by a hole drilled in
the insulation. All methods are in current use, although
the thermal advantages of the truss system are clear.
The precast manufacturer should submit test reports on
the veneer anchoring system proposed for use unless
the anchoring system has been used successfully in the
past. Test samples should be a typical element section
of approximately 0.25 square metres and should approx- Figure 5.8.4 Typical anchor details for stone veneers
imate, as closely as possible, the actual element anchor- for double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels
ing conditions.
A bond breaker should be used during sample manufacture to eliminate any bond between the veneer and the
backup concrete.
Each test sample should contain at least two anchors connecting the stone veneer to the concrete backup. If the
anchoring system has not been used previously or with less than satisfactory results, a minimum of ten tests should
be conducted on samples to determine the ultimate pullout and shear strength of each anchor.
Veneer jointing
A non-staining, chemically neutral, resilient, backer rod that will not adversely affect the sealant should be installed
in the veneer joints. Backup concrete should be prevented from entering any portion of the joint between the
veneer units. Joint width between veneer units is an architectural feature and may or may not be equal to the speci-
fied joint width between the precast panels. A minimum width of 6 mm is recommended for veneer joints.
Caulking used for the joints in the veneer should also be non-staining to the veneer material. Panels may be
caulked in the factory where it can be carried out efficiently and inexpensively under more stringent quality control.

5.8.4 Structural Clay Products

Clay products that are bonded directly to the precast concrete include brick, structural facing tile, architectural
terra cotta and ceramic or porcelain tiles. These materials have different mechanical properties compared to the
precast and must be chosen carefully. Where required for exterior use, high strength, low permeability materials
must be used. The manufacturer of the clay product should be consulted to determine suitability.
Glazed ceramic units may craze from freeze / thaw cycles or the bond may fail on exposure to the elements. Since
glazed ceramic units have very low permeance to water vapour, it is recommended that a vapour barrier be in-
stalled on the warm side of walls enclosing areas in which the average relative humidity is expected to exceed 50%.
Clay product faced precast elements may be designed as conventional concrete elements, neglecting, for design
purposes, the structural action of the face veneer. The thickness of the precast elements, in this case, is reduced by
the thickness of the veneer.
Design assumptions often exclude consideration of differential shrinkage or thermal expansion. If the element is to
be prestressed, the effect of composite behaviour and the resulting prestress eccentricity must be recognized and
considered in design.
Sizes
The selection of brick shapes and sizes depends on local availability. Brick manufacturers should be consulted early
in the design stage to determine the manufacturing capability for special shapes, sizes and tolerances (both size
and flatness). In addition to standard shapes and sizes, brick may be available from some suppliers in veneer thick-
ness, and also 1/2 to 1/4 standard brick thickness. Brick liners are available for holding the bricks during casting of
the elements. These liners are available in single-use and multi-use versions. Some liners eliminate the need for
coating the brick with release agents prior to use by incorporating self sealing edges, preventing the flow of slurry
to the brick face. When self sealing liners are used, brick size and flatness variation is important and may require a
tighter tolerance on both brick size and flatness. Brick size tolerances should be discussed with both the brick and
brick liner manufacturer prior to ordering.
Architectural terra cotta (ceramic veneer) is a custom product and, within limitations, is produced in sizes specified
for specific projects. Two sizes of units are usually manufactured. These are 30 mm thick units, 510 mm wide x 760
mm long and include dovetail slots spaced at 125 mm o/c, and 55 mm thick units, 815 mm wide x 1220 mm long
and include dovetail slots spaced at 180 mm o/c.
Bond
The mating surface of clay products is important for bond. Smooth, dense, heavily sanded or glazed surfaces are
usually not satisfactory where high bond is required. Textures that may be specified to give increased bond in-
clude a scored finish, in which the surface is grooved as it comes from the die; a combed finish, where the surface
is altered by parallel scratches; and a roughened finish, produced by wire cutting or wire brushing to completely
remove the smooth surface or die skin from the extrusion process.
When die skin or heavily sanded brick is used, a mechanical bond is required. The ties used may be those specified
for cavity wall construction, such as the 5 mm diameter Z-ties, rectangular shaped ties, prefabricated truss ties, or
wire ladder ties, shown in Figure 5.8.5. With the other brick surfaces mentioned above, ties are not required.
Where ties are required, there should be one for each 0.40 square metres of wall area. Ties in alternate courses
should be staggered. The maximum vertical distance between ties should not exceed 600 mm, and the maximum
horizontal distance should not exceed 900 mm. (See Figure 5.8.6.)
Additional bonding ties should be provided around all openings, spaced not more than 900 mm apart around
the perimeter and within 300 mm of the opening. Ties should be of corrosion-resistant or non-corroding metal
depending on the application. Reference should be made to CSA A370 Connectors for masonry and CSA A371
Masonry construction for buildings for guidance as to when ties should be non-corrosive or corrosion-resistant.

Figure 5.8.5 Wall ties Figure 5.8.6 Spacing and staggering of metal ties
(where required)
Corrosion resistance of corrosion resistant ties is usually provided by coating the metal with zinc or copper. To en-
sure adequate resistance to corrosion, coatings should conform to the following ASTM specifications:
1. Zinc coated ties—astm a 153, class B1, B2 or B3,
2. Zinc coated wire—astm a 116, class 2 or 3, and
3. Copper coated wire—astm b 277, grade 30HS
Non-corroding ties should be made of ASTM type 301 or 304 stainless steel, copper or bronze.
When ties are used, the brick joints are grouted and the ties placed into the horizontal joint as the wet grout is
placed. The required concrete reinforcement is placed after the brickwork grout has achieved its initial set. The
concrete is then placed and cured.
The backside of terra cotta units should have dovetail slots in order to develop adequate bond to the concrete.
Absorption
Brick with an initial rate of absorption (suction) less than 1 mg/min/mm2 net area when tested in accordance with
CSA A82.2 Methods of sampling and testing brick, is not required to be wetted. However, brick with high suction or
with an initial rate of absorption in excess of 1 mg/min/mm2 should be wetted to reduce the suction, and thereby
improve bond, prior to placement of the con-
crete. Compressive strength (MPa)
Terra cotta units must be soaked in water for at Designation Average of 5 brick Individual minimum
least one hour to reduce suction. They should Type I
be damp at the time of concrete placement. (exposed)
Properties A 18 to 30 16
Engineering properties of brick vary consid- B 30 to 42 27
erably depending on the source and grade C 42 to 55 38
of brick. Figure 5.8.7 shows the classification D 55 to 70 50
of brick by compressive strength. Figure 5.8.8 E Over 70 63
shows the physical requirements of the brick.
As the temperature or firing period is increased, Type II
clay products achieve darker colours, and (not exposed) 11 and over 10
increased compressive strength and modulus Note: This classification conforms essentially to that given in the current
of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity of brick National Building Code of Canada that relates compressive strength
ranges from 10,000 to 35,000 MPa and Poisson’s to the load requirements of masonry. Type I Brick, A, B, C, D, and E are
suitable for exposed masonry, and when load-bearing capacity is not
ratio from 0.04 to 0.11. In general, the modulus critical, the selection may be made according to colour and texture.
of elasticity of brick increases with compressive
strength up to a value of approximately 35 MPa. Figure 5.8.7 Classification of brick by compressive strength

Minimum compressive Maximum water

Maximum saturation
strength (brick flatwise) absorption by 5-h boiling
coefficient
Designation (MPa) gross area (per cent)
Average of Average of Average of
Individual Individual Individual
5 brick 5 brick 5 brick
Type I Brick
18 16 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
(Exposed)
Type II Brick
11 10 No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit
(Not Exposed)
Note: The saturation coefficient or C B Ratio is the ratio of absorption by 24-h submersion in cold water to that after
5-h submersion in boiling water.
Figure 5.8.8 Physical requirements
After this, there is little change.

The average coefficient of thermal expansion of brick is 10 x 10-6 mm/(mm . °C). The thermal expansion of clay
units is not the same as the thermal expansion of brick-faced precast elements due to the joints.
Clay bricks, when removed from the kiln after firing, will begin to increase in size as a result of absorption of atmo-
spheric moisture. This increase is permanent. The design coefficient for moisture expansion of clay bricks can vary
between .0002 and .0005 mm/mm and must be considered in the design of brick or tile faced concrete elements.
Figure 5.8.9 shows the relationship of compressive strength of structural clay tile to absorption. For the same tile
design, this relationship might be expected to be reasonably constant; however, the same relationship would not
be expected to hold for tile of different designs or from different sources.
Relative temperature and moisture movements of concrete, brick, tile and mortar are shown in Figure 5.8.10.
The modulus of elasticity of structural tile varies from 12,000 to 43,000 MPa and Poisson’s ratio from 0.05 to 0.10.
Tile has an average coefficient of thermal expansion of 5.9 x 10-6 mm/(mm . °C).
The compressive strength of terra cotta units usually ranges from 55 to 76 MPa, and the average coefficient of ther-
mal expansion is 7.2 x 10-6 mm/mm/°C).
All clay products are subject to local variation and the designer should obtain values from all suppliers being
considered.
Double wythe insulated veneer elements

Clay products can be combined with insulation and back-up concrete to construct double wythe fully insulated pre-
cast concrete wall panels similar to the stone faced elements mentioned earlier. A suggested solution for anchor-
age for gravity, seismic and lateral loads is shown in Figure 5.8.11.

Figure 5.8.9 Compressive strength and absorption of structural clay tile
Figure 5.8.10 Relative temperature and moisture movements of concrete, brick, tile and mortar

Figure 5.8.11 Anchor details for brick veneer for double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels
5.9 PRECAST CONCRETE USED AS FORMS

5.9.1 General
Architectural precast concrete elements may be used as exterior form-
work for cast-in-place concrete. Advantages include:
1. Architects are free to choose the shapes, form and finish of a structure,
with the minimal restrictions that apply to precast concrete. The use
of precast concrete ensures a uniform, high quality facade with the
desired shapes, colours and textures. Precasting makes it possible to
inspect the exterior finish at ground level, prior to the cast-in-place
concrete being placed. The removal of the exterior form, the patching
of form anchor holes and the presence of these surface imperfections
is eliminated,
2. The Engineer may employ the precast concrete form as a portion of
the structural support system. Structural continuity may be achieved by
effectively tying the precast forms to the cast-in-place concrete backup.
Ductility can be readily achieved in high seismic zones [8,9], and
Toronto City Hall Historic Project
3. The Contractor and Owner can benefit from reduced construction time opened in 1965. East Tower (27
due to the savings in the erection and removal of complex formwork. Storeys) and West Tower (20 Storeys)
The precast concrete panels can be manufactured in advance of con- were constructed using architectural
crete placement to permit greater flexibility and continuity in concrete precast panels with strips of Italian
operations. The precast units can be erected quickly as large sections marble embedded in the exterior.
rather than small individual pieces as in conventional construction. Panels were erected as exterior
formwork for the cast-in-place office
5.9.2 Design structural frames.
For the design of formwork, reference should be made to ACI Commit-
tee 347, Recommended Practice for Concrete Formwork, (ACI 347). [9]

5.9.3 Construction Considerations

Realistic assumptions are required to implement this design concept effectively. The support and bracing of pre-
cast elements prior to and during the placement of concrete must be determined prior to the completion of the
design. A mock-up may be necessary to validate the proposed construction procedures. The mock-up may also
assist in determining the appropriate element shape, size, finish, joint placement and connection design.
5.10 REFERENCES
1. Architectural Precast Concrete Walls: Best Practice 8. Mantell, C.L., Engineering Materials Handbook,
Guide 2017, Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete McGraw-Hill Book Co., Toronto, Ontario
Institute, Ottawa, CA
9. ACI Committee 347, Precast Concrete Units Used as
2. PCI Architectural Precast Concrete, MNL-122 – 3rd Forms for Cast-in-Place Concrete, ACI JOURNAL,
Edition 2007 – Precast / Prestressed Concrete Institute, Proceedings V.66, No. 10, October, 1969, pp 798-813.
Chicago, IL
10. Kulka, Felix, Lin, T.Y., and Yang, Y.C. Prestressed Concrete
3. PCI Precast Concrete Drafting Handbook, Revised Building Construction Using Precast Wall Panels, PCI
2nd Edition - (MNL 119), Precast/Prestressed Concrete JOURNAL, V.20, No. 1, Jan - Feb, 1975, pp 62-72.
Institute, Chicago, IL
11. Maintenance and Inspection Manual for Precast
4. Speyer, Irwin J., Considerations for the Design of Concrete Building Enclosures 2016, RDH Building
Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings to Withstand Science, Inc., Waterloo, ON
Abnormal Loads, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 2, Mar-Apr
12. Meeting and Exceeding Building Code Thermal
1976, pp. 18-51.
Performance Requirements 2017, RDH Building Science
5. Latta, J.K., Precast Concrete Walls - A New Basis for Inc., Waterloo, ON
Design, Canadian Building Digest, CBD 94, Oct. 1967.
6. Neville, A.M. – Properties of Concrete, Pitman
Publishing Limited, London, U.K.
7. McDaniel, W. Bryant, Marble-Faced Precast Panels, PCI
JOURNAL, V, 12, No. 4, August, 1967, pp 29-37.
Marble-Faced Precast Panels, National Association of
Marble Producers, Downsview, Ontario. 1966.

CHAPTER 6
RELATED CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................................................6-3
6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE..........................................................................................................................6-3

6.1.1 Notation.....................................................................................................................................................6-3
6.1.2 Glossary......................................................................................................................................................6-3
6.1.3 General.......................................................................................................................................................6-4
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy....................................................................................................................6-8
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value..........................................................................................................................6-10
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient....................................................................................................6-15
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES........................................................................................................................6-18

6.2.1 Notation...................................................................................................................................................6-18
6.2.2 Definitions................................................................................................................................................6-19
6.2.3 General.....................................................................................................................................................6-19
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics............................................................................................................................6-19
6.2.5 Airborne Sound.......................................................................................................................................6-19
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission....................................................................................................................6-22
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit Dwellings...............................................................................................6-24
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise..............................................................................................................6-25
6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and Masonry Walls..............................................................................6-25
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in Buildings.......................................................................................6-28
6.2.11 Sound Leaks.............................................................................................................................................6-29
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete..............................................................................................................6-29
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers...........................................................................................................................6-29
6.2.14 Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC).........................................................................................6-30
6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE.......................................................................................................................................6-35

6.3.1 Notation...................................................................................................................................................6-35
6.3.2 Definitions................................................................................................................................................6-35
6.3.3 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................6-36
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests..................................................................................................................................6-37
6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission...........................................................................................................6-40
6.3.6 Balanced Design......................................................................................................................................6-44
6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity...........................................................................................................6-44
6.3.8 PCI Manual 124, Design for Fire Resistance for Precast/ Prestressed Concrete................................6-56
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES.................................................................................................6-56

6.4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................6-56
6.4.2 Vibration Limits........................................................................................................................................6-57
6.4.3 Natural Frequency...................................................................................................................................6-58
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration..................................................................................................................6-58
6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic Activities...................................................................................6-61
6.4.6 Stadium Seating......................................................................................................................................6-62
6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical Equipment......................................................................................6-64

CHAPTER 6 Related Considerations
6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION........................................................................................6-65

6.5.1 Terms and Definitions..............................................................................................................................6-65
6.5.2 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................6-67
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems..............................................................................................................6-68
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment............................................................................................................6-68
6.5.5 Energy Use...............................................................................................................................................6-69
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete.............................................................................................................6-74
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection...................................................................................................................6-77
6.5.9 Summary of Precast Benefits..................................................................................................................6-79
6.5.10 LCA Study—Life Cycle Assessment of Precast Concrete Commercial Buildings..............................6-80
6.5.11 Product Category Rules and EPDs.........................................................................................................6-83
6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS COORDINATION...........................................6-84

6.6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................6-84
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution............................................................................................................6-84
6.6.3 Electrified Floors......................................................................................................................................6-84
6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat.........................................................................................................................6-84
6.6.5 Ductwork..................................................................................................................................................6-85
6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof Units..............................................................................................6-86
6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems..................................................................................................................................6-86
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings............................................................................................................................6-87
6.7 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................6-89

INTRODUCTION
Engineered precast structures must consider, first and foremost, the analysis and design of elements, structures,
and connections; These guidelines were covered in previous chapters. In a balanced design designers must also
consider other factors, some of which are discussed in this chapter. These include:
1. The building envelope, particularly considerations for rain penetration, vapour diffusion, air leakage, and
thermal resistance (See Section 6.1),
2. Acoustical considerations such as airborne sound transmission, typically defined by the sound transmission
class (STC) and apparent sound transmission class (ASTC) (See Section 6.2),
3. Fire resistance and the design for heat transmission, for floors, roofs, walls and ceilings (See Section 6.3),
4. Acceptable vibration limits, particularly for sensitive occupancies such as office, residential, and sporting
facilities (See Section 6.4),
5. Sustainable design, including environmental impacts and life cycle assessment of materials and assemblies
from cradle to cradle (See Section 6.5), and
6. Mechanical, electrical and other subsystems coordination (See Section 6.6).
6.1 THE BUILDING ENVELOPE

6.1.1 Notation
A = surface area of component (m2)
I = temperature index
Q = heat loss rate (W)
RSI = sum of the thermal resistance of the layers, (m2)(°C)/ W
T = the temperature of the indoor surface of the vapour barrier, °C
Th = the indoor design dry-bulb temperature, °C
Tc = the outside winter design temperature, °C
iT = difference in temperature across the assembly, °C
6.1.2 Glossary
C =
thermal conductance; The time rate of heat flow through the unit area of a layer of material induced by a
unit temperature difference between the layer surfaces (W / (m2)(°C)).
J = joule; Unit of energy or work, defined here as a flow of energy equivalent to the work done when the
point of application of one Newton moves a distance of one metre in the direction of the force, (Nm).
k =
thermal conductivity; The time rate of heat flow through a homogeneous material under steady-state
heat-flow conditions. A property of homogeneous materials with units of W / ((m)(°C)). This is termed I in
most documents using SI units.
Q = total energy for heating or cooling; Expressed in joules (J) or gigajoules (109 J).
q = rate of heat flow; (J / s or watts).
RH = relative humidity; The ratio of the water vapour pressure present in air to the water vapour pressure pres-
ent in saturated air at the same temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Ts =
dew point or saturation temperature; The highest temperature at which condensation of water vapour in
air can occur as the air is being cooled.
U =
overall thermal transmittance (U-value); A measure of the rate at which heat is transferred through a
building assembly subject to a temperature difference – W / ((m2)(°C)).

UT = Where there are two or more paths of heat flow that have different thermal resistances, a sum of heat
flow per unit temperature difference through each section (U.A) is calculated and divided by the total
area to yield the average rate of heat transfer per unit temperature.
R = thermal resistance (RSI value); The inverse of the overall thermal transmittance. ((m2)(°C)/ W).
RT = thermal resistance of an assembly; Parallel paths with different areas and thermal resistances is defined
as the (areal) thermal resistance and equals:
A1 A2 An
= + + +
R1A T R2 A T Rn A T
R1, R2, ... , Rn are the thermal resistances (RSI values) of individual areas of an assembly.
A1, A2, ... , An are the areas of individual sections of an assembly.
AT = The total area of the assembly.
M = water-vapour permeance; The time rate of water vapour flow through a layer of material expressed in
ng/((Pa)(s)(m2)) (i.e., nanograms of water per second through unit area of the layer for each pascal of
water-vapour pressure difference across the layer).
V =
water vapour resistance; The reciprocal of M if a single layer of material is involved, or the sum of all the
V values for all the layers if an assemblage of layers is involved. The unit of water vapour resistance is
((Pa)(s)(m2)) / ng.
the water vapour permeability of a material expressed in terms of unit thickness with units ng / (Pa . s . m).
µ =
The permeability of a material will vary with barometric pressure, temperature and relative humidity.
National Energy Code Definitions
Adjusted energy consumption is an estimate of the annual sum of the energy consumption for lighting, service
water heating and space conditioning of the proposed building design.
Building energy target is the annual adjusted energy consumption of a mathematical replica of the proposed
building, using the same energy sources for the same functions and having the same environmental requirements,
occupancy, climate data and operational schedules, but made to comply with all the applicable prescriptive re-
quirements of the National Energy Code.
Fenestration is all building envelope assemblies that transfer visible light, including windows, skylights, clerestories,
glass blocks, sliding or swinging glass doors and glazed inserts in doors.
Fenestration-to-wall ratio is calculated as the total area of fenestration divided by the sum of all exterior wall areas
including the fenestration areas.
6.1.3 General
Basic information is presented here for the design and construction of precast concrete wall and roof assemblies to
meet energy-related performance criteria and to assess some of the structural implications of envelope design.
The elements and assemblies that form a building envelope are usually required to attain a specified thermal and
structural performance.
The structural performance limits specify maximum dimensional changes, in particular, temperature deformations
from localized daily and seasonal climatic variations.
The thermal performance limits specify the maximum energy flow for heating, cooling and operation of a building.
The limits may be prescribed by regulations or in regulatory documents. The selection of a limit for the thermal
performance of a building may be affected by factors such as building occupancy, energy budget and life cycle
costing.
Except where noted, the information and design criteria that follow are derived from:

• National Energy Code for Buildings–2015, Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes / National
Research Council of Canada.
• 2013 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals - SI Edition, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Basic information about building envelopes is included in this section. Consult the references for information about
comprehensive treatment of the mechanics of heat and moisture flow, all relevant performance data, or detailed de-
sign procedures necessary to establish an optimum level of thermal resistance. The publication “Architectural Precast
Concrete Walls: Best Practice Guide” (2017) [9] provides a comprehensive overview of the building science consider-
ations for precast wall assemblies. The publication “Meeting and Exceeding Building Code Thermal Requirements”
[10] provides guidance on how to meet the requirements of the energy code with precast wall assemblies.
Moisture control
Moisture problems in building envelopes are mainly due to outside and inside moisture moving with three transport
mechanisms: rain penetration, air leakage and vapour diffusion. Often serious failures involve two or more of these
mechanisms. Blown and drifted snow can also enter and melt inside a building envelope.
Rain penetration control

Detailed requirements for high-performance precast concrete building enclosures relating to the control of rainwater pene-
tration are defined in the CPCI technical guide High Performing Precast Concrete Building Enclosures: Rain Control [11].
Both single wythe conventional and double
wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels
provide better resistance to rain penetration
and air leakage if they are designed as perfect
barrier – drained joint systems. The primary
characteristics of these systems are depicted
in Figures 6.1.1 and 6.1.2. Rain penetration
is controlled using a two-stage drained joint
system between panels.
Rain control performance of precast concrete
systems is not improved by drainage behind
the panels. Problems can occur when precast
concrete is connected to structural compo-
nents from the exterior, since the required
structural connections must penetrate both
the water and the air barrier, making it difficult
to seal the penetrations. Air gaps can create
air flow behind the airtight concrete panel,
which will carry moist interior air through any
flaws in the wall system behind the panel.
Vapour diffusion control

The principal functions of a vapour barrier are:
1. To retard the passage of moisture as
it diffuses through the assembly of
materials in a building envelope,
2. To control the location of the dew Figure 6.1.1 Conceptual arrangement of two-stage joint
point in the assembly, and between precast concrete panels. [11]

Figure 6.1.2 Conventional Architectural Precast Concrete Panel. Detail at horizontal joint and floor
intersection demonstrating high-performance continuity of the water, air, and thermal control. Fully-
drained and vented rain control at all joints. [11]
3. To ensure there is a manageable flow of moisture across the assembly.

The vapour barrier is usually placed toward the warm side of the insulation.
A vapour barrier is important, particularly in high humidity buildings such as computer centres, museums, hospitals
and swimming pools. While a vapour barrier need not be perfectly continuous, care should be taken to minimize
the occurrence of imperfections such as unsealed laps, cuts and pin holes.
Air leakage control

The principal function of an air barrier is to prevent air flow from outside to inside, inside to outside, inside to inside
if near the inside, or outside to outside if near the outside of a wall assembly. Moisture-laden air passing through an
insulated cavity may deposit much more moisture than would diffuse through the vapour barrier at that location in
the same time period.

Air leakage through openings in a building envelope is driven by one or more of the following forces:
Stack effect results from warmer or moister inside air having a lower density than the cooler drier outside air. This
difference in density creates a slight outward positive pressure at the top of a building and a slight inward negative
pressure at the base as the denser air attempts to displace the less dense air.
Wind can cause infiltration on the windward sides and exfiltration on the leeward side of buildings. Pressure distri-
bution on the windward facade will vary from a maximum at the centre and diminish toward the perimeter. Pressure
on walls parallel to the wind flow direction is normally negative but a slight change in direction can result in positive
pressure. Flat roofs will generally experience exfiltration due to negative wind pressure above them. The difference
in wind pressure across the building envelope will be greater in tall buildings since the wind velocity is dampened
near the ground.
Mechanical system pressurization caused by the intake and exhaust of air from buildings may cause significant
pressure differences across the building envelope, that will vary with the time of day according to the building ven-
tilation requirements and with the weather.
Air barrier system design requirements:
1. There must be continuity throughout the building envelope,
2. The air barrier system must transfer loads to the structure and be rigid enough to avoid displacement. The
insulation must be in intimate contact with the air barrier or have its own convection barrier that prevents
convection,
3. The air barrier system should be virtually air-impermeable with an air flow of less than 0.02 L/s m2 at 75 Pa
when tested according to ASTM E 2178 or E 283. Precast concrete, polyethylene, roofing membranes,
gypsum board, metal and glass qualify as air-impermeable materials whereas concrete block, acoustic insu-
lation, open cell polystyrene insulation and fibreboard are not, and
4. The air barrier assembly must be durable and constructed of materials known to have excellent fatigue
resistance and long service life.
While it is preferable that an air barrier system be placed close to the warm side of an insulated assembly, it is not
an essential requirement, as it is with a vapour barrier. If the air barrier is positioned on the outside of the insula-
tion, the air barrier should be 10 to 20 times more moisture permeable than the vapour barrier material to allow
any vapour to escape through the wall assembly.
A single material such as the inner wythe of a double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panel can serve
as both the air and vapour barrier in a building.
Architectural precast wall panels can provide an attractive, economical, long-lasting exterior cladding for buildings.
With appropriate design, insulated precast panels can also provide a high performance wall system.
Condensation control
Condensation of water on the inside of inadequately insulated walls is another moisture-related problem. This
problem can be eliminated by using the proper amount of insulation for energy conservation and by paying proper
attention to the prevention of thermal bridging. Lowering humidity levels can reduce condensation.
Ventilation
The provision of adequate ventilation in buildings is very important, particularly in those buildings designed to limit
infiltration. Serious health, safety and durability problems may result if proper ventilation is not provided. Ventila-
tion provided by mechanical systems can be closely estimated with conventional calculation procedures. Special
calculation procedures are necessary to predict ventilation under limiting conditions in buildings where natural
ventilation is employed.

Joint design
Junctions that are considered to be most critical in building construction are:
1. Roof / wall connection,
2. Wall / foundation connection,
3. Wall / window or door connection,
4. Soffit connections,
5. Corner-detail connections, and
6. Wall panel joint connections.
One-stage joints, usually formed using a single field-molded sealant installed close to the exterior surface of pre-
cast panels, are not recommended. These joints have a low initial cost but must be regularly maintained. Fatigue
and exposure to weather and ultraviolet light can cause sealant failures. Even a small break in the sealant can allow
water penetration.
Two-stage joints, sometimes called ventilated or pressure equalized joints, use the PER (pressure equalized rain-
screen) principle. A typical joint consists of a rain barrier near the exterior face and an airseal near the interior face
of a panel. The rain barrier is designed to shed most of the water from the joint. The wind-barrier or airseal main-
tains the pressure difference across the wall assembly. In between is an equalization chamber which must be ven-
tilated and drained to the outside. The airseal, on or near the interior of the wall, is protected from the elements
(weathering and ultraviolet light). See Figures 6.1.1 and 6.2.2.
A building designer can greatly improve the ease of installation and effectiveness of the jointing system by locating
the precast panel joints where they are easily accessible during construction.
6.1.4 Heating and Cooling Energy

In most buildings, the main contributors to the cost of space conditioning (heating or cooling or both) are internal
heat gains, transmission heat loss, air leakage across a building enclosure and solar gains. Proper attention in the
design of the enclosure of a building must be made to provide comfort, durability and the appropriate levels of
thermal resistance. The relative significance of transmission and air leakage will vary from building to building, as
will the cost of insulation and the benefits derived.
The emphasis in the following sections is on controlling transmission heat loss. However, heat loss due to air leak-
age is often of similar significance. Careful attention to prevent moisture penetration from the exterior is essential.
The number, orientation and thermal resistance of windows must be analyzed to save energy.
Heat loss due to transmission through precast concrete elements and assemblies will comprise only a portion of
the total transmission heat loss in a building envelope and may constitute only a small proportion of the total space
conditioning energy requirements over a year. Use a cost benefit analysis to determine the amount of insulation
that can be economically justified or that is required to achieve the desired levels of comfort and durability.
The publication “Meeting and Exceeding Building Code Thermal Requirements” [10] provides guidance on how to
meet the requirements of the energy code with precast wall assemblies.
Economic considerations
Energy costs can be a significant part of life-cycle costs. The owner and designer must consider the long-term im-
pact of energy costs during the planning stages of a building. More than half of the true total costs incurred during
the economic life of a building may be attributable to operating and energy costs. Life-cycle costing is a sound
means of assessing the cost of all elements involved in constructing and operating a building throughout its life. It
is a means of analyzing and appraising alternative solutions to design questions so that rational economical choices
can be made; comfort, rentability and what insulation levels to provide.

Heating and cooling calculations

Heating and cooling calculations are used to provide predictions of peak loads and annual energy usage.
Peak load estimates are required to size HVAC equipment and to design distribution systems. Energy can be saved
by lowering peak loads. Increasing a building’s thermal mass can lower and shift peak loads that can reduce equip-
ment size. Smaller equipment running continuously uses less energy than large equipment run intermittently to
respond to peak loads. Energy is saved by lowering peak loads.
The energy saved as a result of reduced annual loads is also important. Annual load calculations will become im-
perative as design standards switch from prescriptive to performance requirements.
Calculation of both peak and annual loads in all but the simplest of buildings are complex and require special
expertise and computer analysis.
Factors to consider
Regulations may prescribe minimum requirements for thermal insulation to limit the rate of heat flow through a
building envelope. To comply, it is usually necessary to evaluate heat flow through each component of a building
using a steady-state procedure. Thermal resistance values for floors, walls and roofs may be prescribed.
The National Energy Code for Buildings gives designers the option of proposing alternative measures provided
they can demonstrate the building will not use more energy than if the mandatory requirements of the code had
been used.
Some factors which should be considered when calculating energy loads are:
1. Geographic location: latitude, longitude and building exposure (landscaping),
2. Occupancy: demands, requirements, number, activities and hours of occupancy,
3. Building: site, orientation, plan, configuration, insulation, insulation location, envelope mass, mass of the
construction and contents, window design, shading and surface colour and texture,
4. Climate: dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, wind speed and direction, solar conditions and cloud
cover,
5. Heat loss mechanisms: transmission, air leakage and ventilation,
6. Heat gain: transmission, solar radiation, air leakage and ventilation,
7. Internal heat gain: occupants, lights, appliances, machines, power and equipment,
8. Environmental (comfort): window area, indoor temperature, indoor relative humidity and indoor air quality,
and
9. Schedules: occupancy, lighting, ventilation, equipment, changes in thermostat set points and changes in
humidity.
Equipment efficiency must also be considered when computing energy consumption. This is particularly important
when making life-cycle cost studies involving factors such as mass, optimum insulation, glass area, environmental
factors, energy type and energy costs.
Thermal inertia effects

The mass of heavy materials like precast concrete wall, floor and roof construction can reduce the annual heating
requirements of a building. The effect that mass and its thermal capacitance have on peak loads and annual energy
requirements is primarily governed by:
1. Location and storage characteristics of the mass,
2. Effectiveness of thermal coupling between the heat source and the mass,
3. Ratio of internal heat gain to heat loss,

4. Hours when internal gains occur,

5. Solar radiation through glass, and
6. Number of air changes.
Mass and the heating season

For thermal mass to contribute during the heating season, concrete surfaces must be inside the exterior insulation
and subjected to conditions that permit the construction materials to absorb solar heat or radiation and heat from
light or equipment and occupants. Mass inside the insulation is only effective if the temperature set point of the air
is allowed to vary considerably. Temperature variations can have an effect on comfort if they occur during working
hours. Furnaces can be turned down at night to allow the absorbed heat to be released to nearby cooler surfac-
es or space. This process of absorption and release is dependent upon the location of the mass in the structure
relative to the space being heated, the sources of heat and the insulation. Double wythe insulated precast concrete
wall construction is an excellent way to combine mass and insulation in walls.
Mass and the cooling season

Mass on the outside of building envelopes can absorb solar gain. Heat absorbed by the mass is released later to
the outside during cooler hours, usually at night. The outdoor air temperature averaged over the cooling season is
generally below the indoor air temperature. With the exception of peak periods, the net heat flow through the walls
is outward, not inward. Thermal coupling between the interior mass of the building and cool night-time outside
air is also important as is forced ventilation to flush out excess heat stored within the structure during the day. The
mass of precast concrete building construction can substantially reduce the need for mechanical cooling.
Evaluation of mass effects

Computer solutions are essential to fully evaluate the effect of thermal mass on heating and cooling loads. Com-
puterized solutions, however, are not essential to determine what reduction can be made in insulation requirements
when mass is present.
Fenestration
Fenestration is a term used for any light-transmitting opening in a building wall, floor or roof. Windows are the most
important form of fenestration that designers must consider. Regulatory documents, such as the National Energy
Code for Buildings prescribe restrictions on the amount of glass area to be provided.
Windows are a dominant source of heat gain. A change in orientation can result in load reductions when thermal
storage is utilized. Unshaded glazing located within 45° of South will receive maximum heat gain.
Shading devices can reduce solar radiation in the summer and allow solar radiation for winter heating. Overhangs
can be designed to provide shading for windows when the summer sun is at a higher altitude and direct sun on the
windows in winter when the sun altitude is much lower. Precast concrete is ideal for the construction of sun shades.
Economic considerations
Designers of building-envelope assemblies must consider the potential for providing the necessary overall energy
efficiency by insulating different building assemblies in the most effective manner. The design requirements and
level of insulation chosen for each assembly should be reviewed and economically evaluated.
The cost of adding additional insulation to roofs is usually less than for walls. Regulations generally permit a reduc-
tion in the required thermal resistance of one assembly, providing that of another assembly is increased, so that the
total calculated heat loss through the entire envelope is no greater than if the minimum prescribed values for each
assembly were used.
6.1.5 Calculation of RSI-Value

The RSI-value is a measure of the thermal resistance of a building component or assembly in a direction normal to
the surface. For an assembly, this resistance is the sum of the resistances of each layer, including air gaps when they
are present, and air films contiguous to each outer surface. RSI-values are measured in units of m2 °C/ W.

Thermal resistance values of selected construction materials and of air surface films and gaps are listed in Figures
6.1.3 and 6.1.4. Examples 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 demonstrate RSI-value calculations for walls, floors and roofs. These are
not total wall systems. Other R-values that are evaluated are ‘Clear-wall, ‘Overall’ and ‘Effective’. For further de-
scriptions and considerations see [10]. RSI-values for fenestration, and joint areas also have to be calculated.
The basic equation for calculating the rate of heat transfer through a portion of an enclosure is:
A( T)
Q=
RSI
Example 6.1 Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panel
Given: Solution:
R-value
Component (layer)
m2 °C /W
Surface air film (exterior) 0.030
75 mm normal density concrete 0.039
50 mm rigid polystyrene
1.285
insulation type I
150 mm normal density concrete 0.078
12 mm (non-vented) air space 0.160
10 mm gypsum board 0.062
Surface air film (interior) 0.120
Total RSI-value 1.774
Problem:
Find the RSI-value of the wall assembly.
Thermal bridges
Paths of high conductivity called thermal bridges may lead to localized cold areas where surface condensation may
occur. In precast concrete applications, these thermal bridges sometimes occur in double wythe insulated precast
concrete wall panels where connections, metal shear ties or solid concrete sections penetrate the insulation layer.
Because of thermal mass and other variables, measured values differ from calculated values of heat flow through
these thermal bridges.
Depending on the type and amount of conductive material used in the shear ties, the reduction of overall resis-
tance values may be calculated but is often ignored if the relative area of the ties is small and the insulation is
installed tight against the outline of the penetration. The influence of metal shear ties is negligible and usually
ignored.

Thermal Thermal
resistance Density resistance
2 3 2
m °C /W (kg/m ) m °C /W
(R-value) (R-value) Density
Material Per Material Per 3
For For (kg/m )
100 100
thick- thick-
mm mm
ness ness
thick- thick-
listed listed
ness ness
Concrete Siding (flat surface)
Density as indicated 0.35 1000 Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
0.29 1200 Wood shingles (400 mm,
0.22 1400 190 mm exposure) 0.153
0.17 1600 Asbestos-cement (6 mm,
0.13 1800 lapped) 0.037
0.091 2000 Asphalt roll siding 0.026
0.064 2200 Wood (11 mm, medium
0.052 2320 density) 0.052 640
0.045 2400
Finish flooring
Insulating concretes Carpet and fibrous pad 0.366
Density as indicated 1.03 300 Carpet and rubber pad 0.226
0.84 400 Cork tile (3 mm)
0.68 500 Tile (asphalt, linoleum,
0.61 600 vinyl, rubber, asbestos,
0.53 700 ceramic) 0.009
0.47 800 Terrazzo (25 mm) 0.014
0.40 900 Hardwood (19 mm) 0.12
(1)
Hollow core slabs Acoustical tile
Concrete (normal density) Mineral fibreboard
150 mm thick 0.19 2400 Wet-felted (13 mm) 0.24
200 mm thick 0.24 2400 Wet-felted (19 mm) 0.36
250 mm thick 0.31 2400 Wet-moulded (13 mm) 0.21
300 mm thick 0.34 2400 Wet-moulded (19 mm) 0.31
Wood or cane (13 mm) 0.22
Concrete (semi-low
Fibreboard (19 mm) 0.33
density)
150 mm thick 0.30 1900
200 mm thick 0.35 1900 Building board
250 mm thick 0.43 1900 Asbestos-cement board 0.17 1900
300 mm thick 0.46 1900 Gypsum plasterboard 0.62 800
Particleboard (mat-
0.87
formed)
Woods Plywood or wood panels 0.87 545
Hardwoods (maple, oak,
0.63 720
etc.)
Softwoods (fir, pine, etc.) 0.77 500 Stucco
Stucco 0.14 1860
Roofing
Asbestos-cement shingles 0.037 1900
Asphalt roll roofing 0.026 1120
Asphalt shingles 0.078 1120
Built-up roofing (19 mm) 0.058 1120
Slate (12 mm) 0.009
Figure 6.1.3 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials
(continues next page)

Thermal Thermal
resistance resistance
2 2
m °C /W m °C /W
(R-value) Density (R-value) Density
3 3
Material Material
Per For (kg/m ) Per
For
(kg/m )
100 thick- 100
thick-
mm ness mm
ness
thick- listed thick-
listed
ness ness
(4)
Insulation Flat glass (winter)
Rigid Vertical panels (exterior)
Glass fibre 2.77 64-144 Single glass 0.16
Cane fibre 1.73 Double glass
Mineral fibre 1.82 240 6.4 mm air space,
Cork 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.30
Perlite 1.94 280 12.7 mm air space,
Fibreboard 1.94 255 6.4 mm glass 0.36
Phenolic foam 3.04 60 Triple glass
(2)
Polystyrene (expanded) 6.4 mm air space,
Type 1 2.57 3.2 mm glass 0.45
Type 2 2.77 12.7 mm air space,
Type 3 2.98 6.4 mm glass 0.57
Single glass w/storm
Type 4 3.47
sash
25.4 mm to
Polyurethane 4.20 24
101.6 mm
Wood (shredded) 1.69 350 air space,
Cellular glass 1.82 135 3.2 mm glass 0.35
Polyisocyanurate 4.20
(3) Horizontal panels
Batt
(exterior)
Glass fibre 2.08 Single glass 0.14
Mineral fibre 2.08 Double glass
Loose fill 6.4 mm air space,
Cellulose 4.20 37-51 3.2 mm glass 0.27
Mineral fibre 2.91 130-240 12.7 mm air space,
Perlite (expanded) 1.94 80-130 6.4 mm glass 0.30
Vermiculite 1.44 64-96
Glass fibre (pouring wool) 2.22 190 Plastic domes
Glass fibre (blowing wool) 1.46 40 Single wall 0.15
Double wall 0.25
(1) R-value listed is for hollow core slabs with the cores empty. Consult manufacturers for R-values of insulation
filled cores and for the exact mass of concrete to be used. (Core configuration may also affect the thermal
resistance values listed.)
(2) Complying with CAN/ULC-S701-11 Standard for Thermal Insulation, Polystyrene, Boards and Pipe Covering.
(3) See Figure 6.1.6 for adjusting R-values when batt insulation compression is anticipated.
(4) R-values include air films and gaps. Emissivity of uncoated glass surface = 0.84.
Figure 6.1.3 Thermal resistance and density of various building and insulating materials

Thermal
resistance Example 6.2 Hollow core slab floor system
Air 2
m °C /W
(R-value) Given:
Surface films
Internal surface:
Still air (vertical)
Heat flow horizontal 0.120
Still air (horizontal)
Heat flow up 0.110
Heat flow down 0.160
External surface:
Moving air (any position)
winter 0.030
summer 0.044
Spaces (with non-reflective
surfaces)
12 mm and greater
Vertical Problem:
Heat flow horizontal 0.160 Find the RSI-value of the floor assembly.
Horizontal Solution:
Heat flow up 0.150 R-value
Heat flow down 0.180 Component
m2°C /W
Non-vented air
spaces (with reflective surfaces)
10 mm stucco exterior finish 0.014
12 mm and greater
Vertical (heat flow horizontal) 100 mm urethane insulation 4.200
1 side faced 0.330 Vapour barrier 0.000
2 sides faced 0.450 Hollow core slab (equiv. area) 0.240
Horizontal (heat flow up)
50 mm normal density concrete
1 side faced 0.280 0.026
topping
2 sides faced 0.360
Surface air film (interior) 0.160
Horizontal (heat flow down)
1 side faced 0.980 Total RSI-value 4.670
2 sides faced 1.034
Figure 6.1.4 Thermal resistance for air films

and spaces

Example 6.3 Double tee roof system

Given: Solution:
R-value
Component
m2°C /W
Built-up roofing and gravel 0.058
100 mm ridge fibreglass insulation 2.770
Vapour barrier 0.000
50 mm normal density tee flange 0.026
(Non-reflective) air space 0.150
Acoustical tile (13 mm wet-molded
0.210
mineral fibreboard)
Problem: Surface air film (interior) 0.110

Find RSI-value of roof assembly. Total RSI-value 3.354
6.1.6 Calculation of Temperature Gradient

The calculation of the temperature gradient through a roof or wall assembly can be used to help determine wheth-
er there may be a problem with condensation or differential thermal movement. The temperature gradient alone is
not sufficient to accurately locate the dew point (condensation point) within the assembly. However, an approxima-
tion of its location can be made which is useful in estimating where condensation can occur from exfiltrating air. For
vapour diffusion, the solution involves the calculation of vapour pressures within the assembly.
The calculation of heat flow through walls and roofs can become very complicated. The assumed steady-state con-
ditions are seldom reached, due to fluctuations in the temperatures that a building envelope is exposed to and the
heat storage capacities of the building components and contents. Simplified procedures introduce inaccuracies,
but the results obtained can be a valuable guide for the design of walls and roofs.
The ability to calculate the thermal gradient allows a designer to estimate the magnitude of the movements caused
by external temperature changes, estimate the location of condensation and freezing planes in the wall and to
perform an initial assessment of the suitability of wall and roof assemblies.
Figure 6.1.5 lists dew-point temperatures for various relative humidities and several indoor temperatures. This chart
can be used once a thermal gradient is determined.

Relative Indoor temperature

humidity (%) 15°C/59°F 18°C/64.4°F 21°C/69.8°F 24°C/75.2°F 27°C/80.6°F
10 14 12 11 8 7
20 7 4 2 0 +2
30 2 0 +3 +6 +8
40 +2 +4 +7 +9 + 12
50 +5 +8 + 11 + 13 + 16
60 +8 + 11 + 13 + 16 + 18
70 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 18 + 21
80 + 12 + 14 + 17 + 20 + 23
90 + 14 + 17 + 19 + 22 + 25
100 + 15.6 + 18.3 + 21.1 + 23.9 + 26.7
Figure 6.1.5 Dew-point temperatures (°C)
Computation
Thickness R Value Temp.
Interface Layer Nature of layer 2 ( T/åR)R = T
(mm) m °C /W (°C)
(°C)
A + 22.0
1 Interior surface film 0.120 (34/2.331) (0.120)= 1.8
B + 20.2
2 2 coats enamel paint 0.000 (34/2.331) (0.000)= 0
C + 20.2
3 Gypsum drywall 13 0.081 (34/2.331) (0.081)= 1.2
D + 19.0
4 Glassfibre batt insulation 89 1.851 (34/2.331) (1.851)= 27.0
E 8.0
Air space (non-vented &
5 25 0.171 (34/2.331) (0.171)= 2.5
non- reflective)
F 10.5
6 Precast concrete (normal 150 0.078 (34/2.331) (0.078)= 1.1
3
G density - 2320 kg/m ) 11.6
7 Exterior surface film 0.030 (34/2.331) (0.030)= 0.4
H 12.0
Summation R= 277 2.331 T= 34.0
Figure 6.1.6 Calculation of thermal gradient

Example 6.4 Thermal gradient through a wall section
Problem:
Find the thermal gradient through the wall section.
Solution:
A readily understandable record of the necessary
computation can be provided by labeling each
layer and each interface as shown in the vertical
wall section and by tabulating the calculation
procedure as shown in Figure 6.1.6. Given that
the rate of heat flow (i.e. Q / A) is constant and
given that Q / A = iT / RSI, then for the assembly
as a whole, Q / A = 34 / 2.33. Knowing one
interface temperature and the RSI value for each
layer, starting from the interior, the temperature
at the other interface can readily be found by
determining the temperature drop across the layer,
i.e., (34 / 2.33) RSI.
Assuming the interior relative humidity is 40%,
from Figure 6.1.5 the dew point is just above
7°C. An examination of the temperature gradient
indicates that there should be no condensation
on the inside wall surface since the inside surface
temperature of 20.2°C is considerably above the
dew point temperature.
Without further knowledge about vapour
pressures, it is safe to predict that immediately
behind the wall finish, where it is 19.0°C, there
Given: should also be no condensation problem.
The wall assembly shown, with an overall RSI- A dew point is likely to exist within the insulation.
value of 2.33, is subjected to indoor and outdoor
In this case, condensation would probably occur
temperatures of 22°C and –12°C, respectively, (a
where there is a decrease in the rate of flow of
temperature difference of 34°C). moisture, where the resistance to moisture flow per
unit distance increases. The extent of a problem
will depend upon the effectiveness of the air
barrier and vapour retarder.
6.1.7 Temperature Index

The temperature index, I, will allow the prediction of the condensation resistance of a wall assembly for other sets
of operating systems; indoor relative humidity, RH, and outdoor dry-bulb temperature. The wall system should be
designed to provide an I value greater than the minimum I to control condensation.
The temperature index, I, is defined as:
I = (T – Tc) / (Th – Tc)(100%)

Example 6.5
The following procedure illustrates how to select 3. Using Figure 6.1.7:
a temperature index, I, for a given assembly at a
(a) Enter the value of relative humidity,
given location in Canada.
RH = 30%, found in Step 1 on the vertical
1. Select the inside relative humidity to be main- scale.
tained without causing condensation.
(b) Move horizontally to the selected outside
• Select maximum RH = 30%. winter temperature, Tc = –15°C. Interpolate
• The indoor dry-bulb temperature is taken linearly for in-between values.
as 20°C.
(c) From the intersection of each maximum
2. Select the outside winter design temperature, allowable RH and Tc, move vertically
Tc, for the location where the assembly will downward to find the minimum required
be installed. This value can be found in the temperature index, I, for each case.
Supplement to the National Building Code of
• Here Min. I = 48%.
Canada.
Figure 6.1.8 shows the temperature index, I, for
• Assume at a location Tc = –15°C.
some locations in Canada.
Outside
Inside Inside
design
design design
City temp. I (%)
conditions conditions
(2½%)
Th (°C) RH (%)
Tc (°C)
Vancouver 20 35 -7 41
Saskatoon 20 35 -35 71
Winnipeg 20 35 -33 70
Toronto 20 35 -18 58
Montreal 20 35 -23 63
Halifax 20 35 -16 57
Figure 6.1.7 Relationship of temperature index St. John’s 20 35 -14 53
and relative humidity for different winter design Figure 6.1.8 Temperature Index (I)
temperatures
6.2 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES

6.2.1 Notation
TL = transmission loss (dB)
m = surface mass (kg / m2)
f = frequency (Hz)
fmam = the mass-air-mass resonance frequency (Hz)
m1 = the surface mass of the first layer (kg/m2)
m2 = the surface mass of the second layer (kg/m2)
d = separation of first and second layers (m)

6.2.2 Definitions
Hertz (Hz) – A measure of sound wave frequency, i.e., the number of complete vibration cycles per second.
STC – Sound Transmission Class
IIC – Impact Insulation Class
6.2.3 General
The basic purpose of architectural acoustics is to provide a satisfactory environment where desired sounds are
clearly heard by the intended listeners and unwanted sounds (noise) are isolated or absorbed.
Under most conditions, the architect/engineer can determine the acoustical needs of a space and design a build-
ing to satisfy those needs. Good acoustical design utilizes absorptive and reflective surfaces, sound barriers and
vibration isolators. Some surfaces must reflect sound so that the loudness will be adequate in all areas where
listeners are located. Other surfaces can be designed to absorb sound to avoid echoes, sound distortion and long
reverberation times. Sound is isolated from rooms where it is not wanted by selecting appropriate wall, floor and
ceiling construction. Vibration generated by mechanical equipment must be isolated from the structural frame of a
building.
Information is provided on the acoustical properties of some of the more common precast concrete products used
in building construction. This information can be incorporated into the acoustic design of a building to demon-
strate compliance with local bylaws or other minimum acoustic requirements. (See Figure 6.2.6.)
The services of a competent acoustic design consultant or specialist are recommended for buildings or occupan-
cies that require more sophisticated acoustical analysis, such as churches, concert halls, auditoriums, recording
studios, etc.
6.2.4 Architectural Acoustics

The science of architectural acoustics is used to control sound propagation within buildings. The objective is to
provide environments where occupants hear what they want to hear and are not seriously bothered by unwanted
sounds.
Sound control in buildings can be divided into two categories:
1. Sound distribution within an occupancy—wanted sounds are heard properly by the recipients, without being
blurred by reverberation or masked by noise. This can involve the appropriate shaping of the room boundaries
and the use of sound absorbing surfaces. Typical concrete products do not provide good sound absorption,
and other materials may be necessary. This is a specialized topic and is not covered here.
2. Sound insulation between occupancies—noises originating in one location should not intrude into adjacent
occupancies. This involves the provision of adequate barriers to sound transmission. Typical concrete elements
are sufficiently massive to form an effective part of a sound insulation design. The following information deals
primarily with sound insulation.
6.2.5 Airborne Sound

Airborne sound reaches a partition by propagating from the source through the air. When sound waves strike a par-
tition, the variation in sound pressure causes the partition to vibrate. This sets the air on the other side in motion,
thereby generating sound. A very small fraction of the vibrational energy carried by the sound waves is transferred
to the partition. The amount of energy transferred depends on the construction of the partition.
Sound transmission loss

When sound propagates between two rooms through a common partition, the principal factor controlling the
sound pressure level in the room where the sound is received is the sound transmission loss (TL) through the parti-
tion.

The sound transmission loss, expressed in decibels (dB), is a measure of the ratio of the energy striking the parti-
tion relative to the energy that is transmitted through it. The greater the sound insulation provided by a partition,
the higher its TL. The sound transmission loss through a partition varies with frequency, usually increasing as the
frequency increases.
The sound pressure level in the receiving room also increases as the area of the common partition increases, and
decreases as the amount of sound absorbing material increases. These two effects are secondary. Sound transmis-
sion loss is measured in specially constructed reverberation rooms in accordance with ASTM E90. [12] Measure-
ments can also be made in buildings by following ASTM E336. [13]
Mass Law
The mass law is a semi-empirical expression that can be used to predict transmission loss for thin, homogeneous
single-leaf panels.
The mass law is expressed as:
TL = 20 log((m)(f)) – 48
The mass law predicts that the transmission loss will increase by 6 dB for each doubling of the surface mass or
frequency. To increase the TL by 3 dB requires an increase in the mass by a factor of 1.4. A change of less than 3 dB
is considered insignificant.
Transmission loss also depends on material properties, such as stiffness. The transmission losses of two single-leaf
walls are illustrated in Figure 6.2.1. For the 16 mm gypsum board, below about 2 kHz, agreement with the mass law
is good. At higher frequencies, there is a dip in the TL curve, called the coincidence dip, where the wavelength of
the flexural vibrations in the wall coincides with the wavelength of the sound in the air.
The frequency where the minimum value of TL occurs in the coincidence dip is called the critical frequency. The
critical frequency depends on the material stiffness and thickness. The stiffer or thicker the layer of material, the
lower the critical frequency. The mass law only applies at
frequencies below approximately one half of the critical
frequency.
For gypsum board, the critical frequency is given by
fc = 39,000/t, where t is the thickness in mm. For solid,
normal density concrete, the critical frequency is given
by fc = 18,700/t. For example, a 150 mm thick concrete
slab weighing 345 kg/m2 has a coincidence frequency at
125 Hz. As shown in Figure 6.2.1, the transmission loss for
the 150 mm concrete slab is well below that predicted by
mass law over most of the frequency range shown.
Sound Transmission Class

To simplify acoustical design, it is convenient to replace
the detailed TL data by a single-number rating known as
the sound transmission class (STC). [14]
The STC is determined by comparing the TL values in
the 16 one-third octave bands from 125 to 4000 Hz with
a reference contour covering the same frequency range.
The reference contour is adjusted until the TL curve has
an average deficiency of no more than 2 dB. (A deficiency
occurs when a TL value lies below the STC contour). Ad- Figure 6.2.1 Transmission loss curves for single-
ditionally, no measured TL value may lie more than 8 dB leaf partitions—15.9 mm gypsum board and 150 mm
below the STC contour. The sound transmission class is concrete. The thick solid lines are measured data. The
then given by the 500 Hz value for the fitted STC contour. dotted lines are mass law predictions for each material.

Figure 6.2.2 shows transmission loss data and the

position of the reference contour after the fitting
process is complete. The higher the STC rating –
the better the sound insulation provided by the
partition.
Sound transmission class is intended for rating par-
titions for sounds, such as speech, that have most
of their energy in the middle and high-frequency
range. Nevertheless, it is widely used for rating the
airborne sound insulation of partitions, doors, and
windows against other types of noise such as trans-
portation noise, music, and machinery noise.
When the noise to be attenuated has a strong
low-frequency content, the perceived noise reduc-
tion can be less than the sound transmission class
indicates. In such cases, it is better to estimate the
loudness of transmitted sound using the noise and
transmission loss information down to the lowest
frequency where data is available.
Figure 6.2.2—Example of fitting the STC contour
Single-leaf walls to measured data for a 150 mm thick concrete slab.
The term single-leaf partition refers to all types of
Deficiencies are shown by the shaded area.
solid homogeneous panels where both faces are
rigidly connected. Examples are concrete, concrete
block, brick, plywood and gypsum board.
The transmission loss of a single-leaf partition depends mainly on its surface mass (mass per unit area). The heavier
the partition, the less it vibrates in response to sound waves and therefore less sound radiates from the side oppo-
site the sound source.
Two leaf walls

A two-leaf partition contains two single-leaf layers with an airspace in between. Such partitions usually provide
substantially higher sound insulation than single-leaf partitions with the same total mass. The resulting STC will not
be as high as the sum of the STCs for the individual leafs.
The sound insulation provided by a two-leaf partition depends on 4 main factors:
1. Mass per unit area of component leafs: In general, the heavier the component leafs, the higher the sound insu-
lation provided by a two-leaf partition.
2. Mechanical connection between the two leafs: Rigid mechanical connections between the two leafs, permit
sound to travel efficiently from one leaf to the other, reducing the sound insulation of the construction. If pos-
sible, mechanical connections should be avoided, for example, by constructing the two leafs to stand inde-
pendently of each other. Where mechanical connections are required, they should be sufficiently resilient, to
avoid reductions in TL.
3. Sound absorptive material in airspace between leafs: The addition of sound-absorptive material in the cavity of
a double-leaf partition can improve the sound insulation by 10 or more points. The two leafs must not be rigidly
connected to each other to achieve this improvement. Where the two leafs are rigidly connected by structural
supports, the addition of sound-absorptive material within the cavity will provide only a small improvements in
the sound insulation.
• Porous fibrous materials (such as glass, mineral or cellulose fibre) provide significant improvement. The type
and density of the fibrous material do not influence the STC much.

• Closed-cell foam materials (such as foamed polystyrene), are poor absorbers of sound and do not improve
the sound insulation.
• The airspace between leafs should be filled with about three-quarters of sound-absorptive material. Using
more than this will provide little additional increase in sound insulation. The fibrous material should not be
so densely compressed that it forms a solid bridge between leafs and reduces the sound insulation provid-
ed by the partition.
• The position or arrangement of the sound absorptive material inside the cavity has no significant effect
provided the whole area of the partition is covered. For example, in staggered stud construction, it does not
matter whether the material is against one face or zigzags between the studs.
4. Depth of the airspace between the two leafs: One potential disadvantage of cavity wall or floor systems is that
air trapped in the cavity between the two leafs can act as a spring and transfer vibration energy from one layer
to the other. This interaction between the leafs causes a resonance called the mass-air-mass resonance and an
associated dip in the transmission loss curve. The TL can be reduced to less than that for a single-leaf of the
same total weight that in turn can lower the STC rating.
The frequency of the mass-air-mass resonance can be calculated from:
m1 + m2
fmam = K
dm1 m2
K = 60 for an empty cavity
K = 43 for a cavity filled with sound absorbing material
Adding sound absorbing material to the cavity will lower the resonance frequency resulting in two values for the
constant K.
The improvement in TL due to the double-layer construction begins about two-thirds of an octave above fmam.
Therefore, to maximize the improvement due to the cavity, the mass-air-mass resonance frequency should be as
low as practical; that implies large air spaces or heavier materials. Usually, designing for a mass-air-mass resonance
of 80 Hz, means that the presence of a cavity will improve the TL from 125 Hz upward, thereby ensuring an increase
in the STC.
For a given total weight, the mass-air-mass resonance is lowest when m1 = m2. Having both layers with the same
weight and stiffness could, however, lead to low TL values around the coincidence dip.
Many common partitions have the mass-air-mass resonance in the frequency range of common low-frequency
noise sources. The deficiencies in their low-frequency transmission loss are clear when a stereophonic sound sys-
tem plays in an adjacent room; the melody line is barely audible, but bass sounds are easily heard.
6.2.6 Impact Sound Transmission

Noise from footsteps and other impacts is a common source of annoyance in buildings. Impact noise is more diffi-
cult to control than airborne sound because energy transfer is much more efficient when the vibrating or impacting
source touches and directly excites the surfaces of a building.
Laboratory and field test methods give single number ratings for the transmission of impact sound through
floors. [16, 17] These tests use a standardized tapping machine with five steel-faced hammers that strike the floor
at a rate of 10 times per second. Sound pressure levels are measured in the room below the floor in the frequency
range 100 to 3150 Hz. The resulting data is fitted to a reference contour to obtain a single number rating— impact
insulation class (IIC). [18] Some examples of test results are shown in Figure 6.2.3.
The higher the IIC rating, the greater the impact noise insulation provided by the construction. The IIC value is
determined by those values lying above the reference IIC contour once the fitting process is complete. As with the
STC, the average deficiency must not exceed 2 dB and no single deficiency can exceed 8 dB.

The IIC should be about 55 or more for reasonable

protection against impact noise. Figure 6.2.3 shows
that a bare concrete floor, that has an IIC rating
controlled by the high frequencies, can be unac-
ceptable. Adding carpet or carpet with an under-
pad makes very large differences to the IIC. Most of
the high frequency noise is reduced and the IIC is
controlled by the lower frequencies.
Improving IIC ratings for concrete floors

Bare concrete floors or those with hard finishes,
such as tile or hardwood, provide low impact sound
insulation. The thickness of a slab makes little differ-
ence. The IIC ratings are usually between 25 and 35.
This is an example of a construction material that
provides good insulation against airborne noise
but does not necessarily provide good insulation
against impact noise. Also, good impact noise
insulation does not necessarily mean good airborne
sound insulation.
A soft, resilient floor covering cushions impact
forces and reduces the energy transferred to the Figure 6.2.3 Tapping machine data for a 150 mm bare
building structure. The more resilient or soft the concrete floor tested bare (IIC 25), with a carpet (IIC 68),
floor covering is, the greater the increase in the IIC. and with a carpet and foam underpad (IIC 86).
The improvement in IIC depends on the charac-
teristics of the floor structure, so different carpets
and underpads give different results. Typical soft carpets and underpads used in a home give IIC ratings around 80.
Vinyl floor coverings and similar products improve the IIC of the bare slab by only 5 to 10 points.
A ceiling supported on resilient hangers below a concrete slab will also increase the IIC rating. The improvement
depends on the method of support, the cavity depth, the weight of the ceiling and the amount of sound absorbing
material present in the cavity. Test data is needed to establish ratings for such floors.
Floating floors can improve the IIC ratings for a concrete slab by about 30 to 40 points. The value of IIC obtained
depends on the properties of the resilient material used to support the floating layer, the depth of the cavity be-
low the floating slab, the weight and properties of the slab and whether or not there is sound absorbing material
present in the cavity. The IIC ratings are not as good as those provided by a soft carpet and underpad, but still very
good for use in multifamily homes.
Lightweight joist construction

Wood-joist and truss floors perform quite differently than solid concrete floors. When finished with carpet and un-
derpad, the IIC rating of lightweight wood-joist and truss floors can be quite high. However, such lightweight floors
may transmit enough low-frequency noise to be judged unacceptable by many occupants.
This conflict between subjective reactions and IIC ratings arises because the impact insulation class rating system
does not consider low-frequency sound below 100 Hz. The ratings for lightweight wood-joist and truss floor sys-
tems tend to be optimistic in their evaluation of impact sound insulation. Occupants living below such floors often
complain of “thumps”, creaking sounds, or rattling sounds when people walk on the floor above.
Similar low frequency problems can occur with relatively thin concrete floors supported on steel joists. Lightweight
floors vibrate more in response to impacts and thus generate more sound.

Heavy concrete floors typically generate about 10 dB less noise at low frequencies than do lighter joist or truss
systems. For this reason, heavier construction is usually preferable in critical locations.
6.2.7 Sound Insulation in Multi-unit Dwellings

Several factors determine whether noise from adjacent units will bother other occupants of multi-unit dwellings:
• the airborne sound transmission and impact sound transmission characteristics of party walls and floors
• the noise level in the adjacent spaces
• the background noise level in the occupant’s own dwelling
• the sensitivity of the occupant
The last three factors vary widely. The sound insulation value of a floor or wall partition must be selected to provide
the desired level of insulation. Sound insulation requirements for multi-unit dwellings are usually based on surveys
and experience.
Recommended sound insulation criteria for multi-unit dwellings

Mandatory minimum sound insulation requirements between adjoining units are generally specified in building
codes. The National Building Code of Canada (2005) specified a minimum STC of 50 for party walls and floors.
A more detailed approach that considers the sound insulation needed between various activity spaces in adjacent
units is given in Figure 6.2.4 and Figure 6.2.5. These tables give recommended effective sound insulation values for
walls and floors between units in terms of STC and IIC ratings, respectively.
Note: The National Building Code of Canada (2015) requires an apparent sound transmission class (ASTC)
rating of 47. ASTC is further described in section 6.2.14
A B C
Separated spaces
Bedrooms Living, etc. Service spaces
A Bedrooms 50 – –
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50 –
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer,
C 55 50 45
storage, utility space
D Service spaces common to two or more
dwelling units
(a) Typically quiet, e.g., corridors, 50 50 45
stairways, storage spaces
(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage 70 65 60
disposal areas (including garbage
chutes), mechanical equipment
rooms, furnace rooms, laundries,
squash courts, party rooms
Note: Values are given for separation of specific spaces. The higher requirement should be used when two or more categories are combined in
one unpartitioned space.
Figure 6.2.4 Recommended minimum sound transmission class (STC) requirements for airborne sound insulation
of walls and floors separating spaces.

Room below
A B C
Upper room Bedrooms Living, etc. Kitchen, etc.
A Bedrooms 50 45 45
B Living, dining, family rooms 55 50 45
Kitchen, bathroom, hallway, foyer, storage,
55 50 45
C utility space
D Service spaces common to two or more dwel-

ling units
(a) Typically quiet, e.g. corridors, stairways, 55 50 45
storage spaces
(b) Typically noisy: garages, garbage disposal 65 60 50
areas (including garbage chutes), mechanical
equipment rooms, furnace rooms, laundries,
squash courts, party rooms)
Note: The higher requirement should be used when two or more of the categories are combined in one unpartitioned space.
Figure 6.2.5 Minimum requirements for impact insulation class (IIC) floors separating spaces. Values are given for
separation of specific spaces.
The values given in Figure 6.2.4 and Figure 6.2.5 represent recommended insulation values. Flanking transmission
at the junctions of the construction components can reduce noise insulation drastically. This is further described in
Section 6.2.14. Field testing of sound insulation at an early stage while construction is in progress can allow chang-
es to be made before the construction is completed. Therefore, selection of tested building components meeting
these ratings will not guarantee the recommended insulation values will be achieved in a finished building.
Influence of building layout on sound insulation requirements

A simple means of controlling noise in buildings is to separate noisy areas from quiet areas as much as possible.
For example, in a typical apartment, the noise levels vary widely from one room to another. Kitchens are often
noisy; living rooms may be the source of sounds from speaking, radios or TV. A carefully chosen layout will reduce
the required noise reductions between spaces and therefore reduce the sound insulation needed for the building
components.
6.2.8 Insulation from Outdoor Noise

Insulation from outdoor noise has become a major consideration in building acoustics, particularly in the vicinity
of major roads, railways and airports. Detailed procedures have been prepared by Canada Mortgage and Housing
Corporation for the site planning and design of residential buildings. Usually, the sound insulation of a building
facade is largely determined by the performance of the windows and doors. The effective performance of the
composite wall can be calculated.
6.2.9 Concrete Floors and Concrete and Masonry Walls

Precast concrete floor and roof slabs are often supported on concrete and masonry bearing walls. Non-load bear-
ing masonry partition walls are often installed in precast concrete structures. Information on the acoustical perfor-
mance of concrete and masonry assemblies is given in this section.
Single-leaf concrete walls and floors

Figure 6.2.6 gives representative STC values for common concrete wall and floor assemblies. Simple concrete par-
titions can provide STCs from 45 to 55. Hollow core slabs have slightly lower values than solid slabs. For STCs much
greater than 55, the weight required may be prohibitive. Surface mass must be doubled for an increase of 6 dB.

Multi-layer partitions with a central massive wall and one or more leafs attached to each side are often used where
high STC ratings are required. This is discussed below.
Single-leaf masonry walls

Concrete block provides approximately the same sound insulation as a solid concrete or brick wall of the same
surface mass, provided all cracks, openings and voids are properly sealed.
Solid and hollow concrete blocks are manufactured in a variety of thicknesses, core sizes, aggregates, and den-
sities. Representative values of the sound transmission class (STC) for block walls are given in Figure 6.2.7. These
values apply only when the wall surfaces are properly sealed and the mortar joints are sound.
Assembly No. Description STC IIC

Wall Systems
2
1 100 mm flat panel, 240 kg/m 49 -
2
Assembly 2 with "Z" furring channels, 25 mm insulation and 12 mm
3 2 62 -
gypsum board, 390 kg/m
Assembly 2 with wood furring, 12 mm insulation and 12 mm gypsum board,
4 2 63 -
390 kg/m
Assembly 2 with 12 mm space, 40 mm metal stud row, 75 mm insulation (1)
5 63 -
and 12 mm gypsum board
2
2
7 355 mm prestressed tees with 100 mm flange, 360 kg/m 54 -
Floor-Ceiling Systems
2
8 203 mm hollow core prestressed units, 280 kg/m 50 28
2
9 Assembly 8 with carpet and pad, 285 kg/m 50 73
203 mm hollow core prestressed units with 12 mm wood block flooring
10 2 51 47
adhered directly, 290 kg/m
Assembly 10 except 12 mm wood block flooring adhered to 12 mm sound-
11 2 52 55
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete, 300 kg/m
2
12 Assembly 11 with acoustical ceiling, 305 kg/m 59 61
Assembly 8 with quarry tile, 30 mm reinforced mortar bed with 10 mm
13 2 60 54
nylon and carbon black spinerette matting, 400 kg/m
Assembly 13 with suspended 16 mm gypsum board ceiling with 90 mm
14 2 61 62
insulation, 435 kg/m
2
15 355 mm prestressed tees with 50 mm concrete topping, 365 kg/m 54 24
2
Assembly 15 with resiliently suspended acoustical ceiling with 40 mm
17 2 59 51
mineral fiber blanket above, 375 kg/m
2
2
19 100 mm flat slabs, 240 kg/m 49 25
2
20 130 mm flat slabs, 310 kg/m 52 24
2 (1)
21 130 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 315 kg/m 52 68
2 (1)
22 150 mm flat slabs, 360 kg/m 52 34
2 (1)
23 200 mm flat slabs, 480 kg/m 55 34
2
24 250 mm flat slabs, 600 kg/m 58 31
2 (1)
25 250 mm flat slab concrete with carpet and pad, 605 kg/m 59 74
(1) Estimated values.
Figure 6.2.6 Airborne sound transmission loss (STC) and impact insulation class (IIC) ratings from tests of
precast concrete assemblies. [39]

The sound insulation provided by a hollow concrete

Normal weight
block depends on both the density of the block Lightweight block
block
material and its porosity. The more porous the block,
the more sound will leak through the block structure. Block Weight Weight
Improvements of 5 to 10 STC points are common after thickness per block, STC per block, STC
sealing using concrete paint, epoxy paint, or a skim (mm) (kg) (kg)
coat of plaster. Gypsum board attached directly with 90 7 43 10 44
screws or dabs of glue to the block surface is not an
140 10 44 15 46
effective seal because it is able to vibrate as a sepa-
rate layer. 190 13 45 17 48
When gypsum board is used to finish a masonry wall, 240 15 47 21 49
at least one face of the block should be sealed. This
290 18 48 25 51
can be an advantage when gypsum board is added
on resilient supports to finish a wall. Covering a flaw Figure 6.2.7 Sound transmission class (STC) ratings
with gypsum board does not eliminate the detrimental for normal and lightweight hollow concrete block walls
effects of the flaw. sealed on at least one side. The block face dimensions
are 190 x 390 mm.
Two-leaf masonry walls
Two-leaf concrete or masonry walls are capable of providing very high sound insulation because they comprise
two heavy layers separated by an airspace. The insulation attained can be limited by the practical difficulties of
constructing two leafs that are structurally isolated.
Depending on the height, masonry walls may require metal ties for structural reasons. Ties transmit sound ener-
gy from one leaf to the other. The detrimental effects of mechanical ties can be minimized by the use of special
ties with interlocking hooks or resilient couplings. During construction, the airspace between two leaf masonry
walls can become filled with mortar droppings or rubble. This can bridge the gap between the walls and reduce
the sound insulation. These construction defects are usually concealed and impossible to correct after the wall is
complete.
Sound energy is transmitted along floors and ceilings, along walls abutting the periphery of cavity walls, and
through other parts of the structure. These flanking paths can bypass a cavity wall and reduce its effective TL.
This kind of flanking is illustrated in Figure 6.2.8. Physical breaks in the floor, ceiling, and abutting walls are need-
ed to reduce transmission along these paths.
In summary, two-leaf concrete walls can provide very high
sound insulation but great care and experience are needed
in the overall design and construction. In most cases, it is
more practical to attach gypsum board or other lightweight
panels on resilient mounts as described below.
Concrete or masonry walls with added gypsum board

A common method for improving the sound insulation of an
existing concrete or masonry wall is to add a layer of gypsum
board on one or both sides of the wall. It is essential to first
seal masonry walls.
The gypsum board is best supported using:
Figure 6.2.8 Flanking paths under a cavity block • Steel or wood studs not in contact with the wall,
(or concrete) wall resting on a continuous slab
• resilient metal furring attached to the wall, or
of concrete. Any solid connection between the
walls will reduce the sound insulation. See Section • wood furring and resilient metal channels attached to the
6.2.14 for further discussion on ASTC and Flanking wall
Transmission.

Wood furring alone attached to the wall with nails, screws and other fasteners is often used to attach gypsum
board to the wall. This practice is not recommended as these types of rigid connections provide a path for vibra-
tional energy and the benefits of the added gypsum board may be lost.
The measured improvement in sound transmission class (STC) rating that can result from the attachment of 16 mm
gypsum board in a variety of ways to concrete and masonry walls is given in Figure 6.2.9. The STC ratings for com-
plete wall systems can be calculated by adding the improvements given in Figure 6.2.9 to the STC rating of the
concrete walls from Figure 6.2.6 or the masonry walls from Figure 6.2.7.
Multi-element partitions
Components having low values of sound insulation, such as windows and doors, reduce the overall sound insula-
tion. When a partition comprises two or more different components, for example, a wall containing a door or win-
dow, the effective value of airborne sound insulation is determined by the areas and sound transmission properties
of the individual components.
The STC rating for a multi-element partition can meet the design criterion by selecting the areas and transmission
losses of the individual components. It is usually uneconomical to require that all components have the STC rating
required for the composite structure. Instead, sound transmission through the weaker components, is compensat-
ed for by improving the stronger components, usually the wall, beyond the overall design criterion. There are limits,
however, to what can be achieved.
Calculations should be made for each of the individual TL values at each frequency band, and then the STC is
derived for the resultant TL curve.
Without fiberglass in cavity With fiberglass in cavity

Gypsum board attachment
one side both sides one side both sides
Directly on concrete block +0 –1
On 13 mm resilient steel channels +2 –1 +4 –1
On 40 mm wood furring +3 +4 +5 +9
On 50 mm resilient steel furring +2 +2 +9 + 14
On 65 mm steel studs +8 +7 + 10 + 22
On 75 mm resilient steel furring +7 + 11
Note: When the cavity behind the gypsum board is too small, the STC is actually lowered relative to the bare block case. Note
also the very large increases in STC when the cavity is large and filled with sound absorbing material.
Figure 6.2.9 Increase in STC ratings when a single layer of 16 mm gypsum board is added to one or both sides of
a concrete block or a concrete wall, with and without fiberglass batts filling the cavity between gypsum board and
the concrete. The same values can be used for 13 mm gypsum board without serious error.
6.2.10 Control of Structureborne Noise in Buildings

Structureborne sound arises when a machine or vibrating device is rigidly attached to a building structure. Struc-
tureborne sound may be controlled at its source, along its transmission path, and at its point of reception. Control
at the point of origin is best.
The following techniques are recommended to effectively control structureborne noise:
• Provide vibration isolation between machines and a structure by mounting the machines on soft rubber or
neoprene pads, on springs or on an inertia block that rests on springs.
• Reduce the power of a source of vibration by changing its operating conditions or by selecting different
models that introduce less vibration into the structure. Well-balanced rotating machinery will generate less
vibration than reciprocating equipment.

• Locate the source of vibration as far as possible from areas where low noise levels are required. For exam-
ple: Locate elevators and garbage chutes away from bedrooms in apartments. Don’t place a gymnasium
above a school library.
• Use breaks (for example, expansion joints) in an otherwise solid building construction to impede the trans-
mission of structureborne noise.
Plumbing noise
The plumbing system in a building can be considered as an extended machine and source of vibration. The same
considerations given above apply. Wherever possible, pipes and appliances should not be directly attached to the
structure of a building. Resilient collars and supports should be used. Quiet faucets and toilets are available but
may cost more than the standard devices.
6.2.11 Sound Leaks

Common causes of sound leaks in buildings:
• cracked or incomplete mortar joints in masonry walls
• unsealed gaps around power outlets
• gaps under gypsum board walls where caulking has been omitted
• openings around pipes where they penetrate walls
• cracks around the edges of doors and windows
To eliminate sound leaks:
• Inspect and repair all mortar joints in concrete block walls and seal the surface
• Apply non-hardening caulking to seal all holes and fissures in party walls or floors
• Apply rubber gaskets or non-hardening caulking to seal openings around pipes and conduits. (This pre-
vents the pipes forming a solid link and an easy path for vibration between the two sides of a wall)
• Apply weather-stripping to windows and doors
• Repair and seal holes made during installation of services
Although the area of a leak can be quite small, the TL is roughly zero. The STC is determined largely by the leak
area unless the area of the leak relative to that of the wall is very low. For example, if the leak area is 0.0001 times
the wall area, the STC can never exceed 40 no matter how good the wall construction. The higher the acoustical
isolation required, the more important it is to eliminate all sound leaks.
6.2.12 Sound Absorption of Concrete

Normal density concrete is not an efficient sound absorber. An absorptive surface such as a sprayed or trow-
elled-on acoustical plaster can be placed over the concrete. Layers of fibrous sound absorbing materials can be
attached and protected by a durable covering.
Thin layers of material attached directly to the surface of a wall are relatively inefficient at lower frequencies. To
improve low-frequency absorption, thick porous layers, resonant cavity systems, porous layers behind a perforated
screen, sound absorbing material mounted on furring or a suspension system that leaves space behind. Manu-
facturers’ trade literature will provide sound absorption characteristics for sound absorbing materials on typical
mounting systems.
6.2.13 Highway Noise Barriers

Noise barriers are solid obstructions built between a highway and homes along a highway. Effective noise barri-
ers can reduce noise levels by 10 to 15 dB, cutting the loudness of traffic noise in half, see Figure 6.2.10. Barriers
can be formed from earth berms or from vertical walls that take less space. Walls are usually limited to 8 meters in

height for structural and aesthetic reasons. Precast con-

Reduction
crete is often used to construct noise barriers that are Reduction in Degree of Difficulty
in Acoustic
visually pleasing and blend in with their surroundings. Sound Level to Obtain Reduction
Energy
Wall material selection is based on a number of factors: 5 dBA 70% Simple
aesthetics, durability, maintenance, cost, public com-
ments, etc. The material chosen should be rigid and of 10 dBA 90% Attainable
sufficient density (approximately 20 kg/sq m minimum 15 dBA 97% Very Difficult
– requiring at least 2.6 mm steel, 36 mm wood or 9 mm
precast concrete) to provide a transmission loss of 20 dBA 99% Nearly Impossible
10 dBA greater than the expected reduction in the noise Figure 6.2.10 Barrier attenuation [40]
diffracted over the top of the barrier.
Noise barriers do have limitations. For a noise barrier to work, it must be high enough and long enough to block
the view of a road. Noise barriers do little good for homes on a hillside overlooking a road or for buildings that rise
above the barrier. A noise barrier can achieve a 5 dB noise level reduction when it is tall enough to break the line-
of-sight from the highway to the receiver and it can achieve an approximate 1.5 dB additional noise level reduction
for each meter of height after it breaks the line-of-sight (with a maximum theoretical total reduction of 20 dBA). To
avoid undesirable end effects, the barrier should extend 4 times as far in each direction as the distance from the
receiver to the barrier.
Other factors that affect sound barrier noise reduction are reflections from the ground on either side of the barrier
and the bending of sound wave paths due to wind or temperature effects. Having a sound absorptive face on the
barrier that faces the traffic increases sound attenuation. Computer programs [20] are used to estimate the effec-
tiveness and environmental impact of busy roads, highways and sound barriers.
Proposed barrier structures may be tested to determine the sound transmission through a sound wall. Where it is
required to have a sound absorptive face towards the traffic, measurements of the sound absorption coefficients
are made. Typical values are STC 20 and Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) 0.7.
Sound attenuation is not the only consideration. Barriers must be structurally sound to withstand wind loads, snow
plow loads, weathering, and corrosive attack. Further information about transportation noise and highway barriers
can be found in journals focused on this topic. [21]
6.2.14 Apparent Sound Transmission Class (ASTC)

Note: The following section in italics is used with permission from the NRC Publication, RR-331 Guide to
Calculating Airborne Sound Transmission in Buildings [41]
http://nparc.cisti-icist.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/view/object/?id=1334f20f-8ad9-401d-a303-abda1cb943b4
The simplest approach to sound transmission between adjacent rooms in buildings considers only the sound
transmission through the wall or floor separating adjacent spaces. This perspective has been entrenched in North
American building codes, which for many decades have considered only the ratings for the individual separating
assembly: Sound Transmission Class (STC) or Field Sound Transmission Class (FSTC) for airborne sources or Impact
Insulation Class (IIC) for footstep noise.
Implicit in this approach is the simplistic assumption that sound is transmitted only through the obvious separating
assembly the separating wall assembly when the rooms are side-by- side, or the floor/ceiling assembly when rooms
are one-above-the-other. If the sound insulation is inadequate, this is ascribed to errors in either design of the sep-
arating assembly or the workmanship of those who built it, and remediation focuses on that assembly.
In reality, there are many paths for sound transmission between adjacent rooms, including both direct transmission
through the separating assembly and indirect structure-borne paths; The structure-borne paths usually significantly
affect the overall sound transmission.
Airborne sound in a source room excites vibration of the wall and floor assemblies that form the bounding surfaces

of the room. The apparent transmission loss (ATL) between adjacent rooms includes the combination of direct air-
borne transmission through the separating assembly and structure-borne flanking transmission via the three pairs
of wall and floor surfaces (one in the source room and the other in the receiving room) that are connected at each
of the four edges of the separating assembly.
For design or regulation, there is well-established terminology to describe the overall sound transmission including
all paths between adjacent rooms. ISO ratings such as the Weighted Apparent Sound Reduction Index (R’w) have
been used in many countries for decades, and ASTM has recently defined the corresponding Apparent Sound
Transmission Class (ASTC), ASTM E336.
Although measuring the ASTC in a building (following ASTM Standard E336) is quite straightforward, predicting
the ASTC due to the set of transmission paths in a building is more complex. However, standardized frameworks
for calculating the overall sound transmission have been developed. These start from standardized measurements
to characterize sub-assemblies, and have been used for more than a decade to support performance-based Euro-
pean code systems.
In 2005, ISO published a calculation method, ISO 15712-1, “Building acoustics - acoustics Estimation of acoustic
performance of buildings from the performance of elements”. The detailed calculation process of ISO 15712-1 is
focused on the balance between the input sound power and power losses (due to internal losses, sound radiation,
and power flow into adjoining assemblies). This balance alters both direct transmission through each floor or wall
assembly, and the strength of structure-borne transmission via the flanking surfaces.
Section 4.1 of ISO 15712-1 defines a process to estimate apparent sound transmission by combining the sound
power transmitted via the direct path and the twelve first-order flanking paths (3 at each edge of the separating
assembly, as illustrated in Figure 6.2. 11).
Figure 6.2.11 Transmission Paths used in ISO 15712-1, as shown in Figure 1.5 of NRC Publication, RR-331 Guide
to Calculating Airborne Sound Transmission in Buildings
Even though ASTM standard E336 recognizes the contribution of flanking to apparent soundtransmission, there are
no ASTM standards for measuring the structure-borne flanking transmission that often dominates sound transmis-
sion between rooms, nor is there an ASTM counterpart of ISO 15712-1 for predicting the combination of direct and
flanking transmission.

In the absence of suitable ASTM standards, the National Research Council has published the Guide to Calculating
Airborne Sound Transmission in Buildings (2013). The guide uses the procedures of ISO 15712-1 and data from
the complementary ISO 10848 series for some constructions, but connects this ISO calculation framework to the
ASTM terms and test data widely used by the North American construction industry, to calculate an ASTC rating
for various assemblies. In this guide, ASTC is determined from the apparent sound transmission loss for the set of
frequency bands from 125 to 4000 Hz, following the procedure in ASTM E413.
ASTC Design Example for Hollowcore Flooring

The following ASTC design example is for rooms one-above-the-other separated by a 203 mm hollowcore floor,
with a 150 mm thick solid concrete wall. The hollowcore concrete floor is unlined (bare) and assumed to have a
mass of 338 kg/m2 and the wall is assumed to have a mass of 345 kg/m2.
On the first page of the ASTC example, all of the pertinent physical characteristics of the assemblies and junctions
can be found. This is followed by a table summarizing the key steps in the simplifeid calculation. In this example,
the Apparent Transmission Loss (ATL) between two rooms is the resultant of the direct transmission loss through
the separating floor (Direct STC in situ) and the flanking sound transmission loss of the three flanking paths for
each junction at the four edges of the separating element (Junctions 1, 2, 3 and 4). ATL, in this simplified method, is
the ASTC.
4
ATL = –10 . log10 (10–0.1 TLDd + ∑ (10–0.1 TLFf + 10–0.1 TLFd + 10–0.1 TLDf ))
. . . .
edge=1
For this example, the resulting “Direct STC” is 56, and the Flanking STC for each junction is 57.3, 57.7, 57.3 and
58.3. The resulting ASTC due to direct and total flanking is 50. ASTC is typically 6 to 8 less than STC.

The following example is used with permission from the NRC Client Report "Simplified ASTC Calculation
Method with 4 Simplified ASTC Examples Containing Hollow Core Floor Assemblies” [42]
Client Report A1-004972.4 | Construction | Acoustics Laboratory
http://www.cpci.ca/en/resources/technical_publications/
ASTC EXAMPLE Hollow Core Vertical 1: (SIMPLIFIED METHOD)
• Rooms one-above-the-other
• Hollow Core Concrete Floor with Concrete Walls with Rigid Junctions
Illustration for this case

Separating floor/ceiling assembly with:
• Bare hollow core concrete floor, 203 mm thick, with mass 338 kg/m2 (e.g. –
normal weight concrete)
Junction 1 or 3: X-Junction of separating floor / flanking wall with:
• Rigid mortared X-junction with concrete wall assemblies
• 150 mm thick concrete walls above and below floor with mass 345 kg/m2
• Hollow cores perpendicular to junction and continuous across junction
Junction 2: T-Junction of separating floor / flanking wall with:
• Rigid mortared T-junction with concrete wall assemblies.
• Hollow cores parallel to junction.
Junction 4: X-Junction of separating floor / flanking wall with:
• Rigid mortared X-junction with concrete wall assemblies.
• Hollow cores parallel to junction
Acoustical Parameters
For 150 mm concrete walls:

2
Mass/unit area (kg/m ) = 345 (Wall at junction 1 & 3) X-junction of separating floor of 203 mm thick
hollow core concrete with 150 mm thick
345 (Wall at junction 2 & 4) concrete wall. (Side view of Junctions 1 & 3).
Hollow cores perpendicular to junction.
For 203 mm hollow core concrete floor:
2
Mass/unit area (kg/m ) = 338 (Separating Floor)
2
Separating partition area (m ) = 20
Junction 1 & 3 length (m) = 5.0
Junction 2 & 4 length (m) = 4.0
10*log(S_partition/l_junction 1 & 3) = 6.0
10*log(S_partition/l_junction 2 & 4) = 7.0
Kij[dB]
Mass
Path Path Path Reference
ratio
Ff Fd Df
For Junctions 1 & 3: 2 1 1 1
0.98 0.0 8.7 8.7 ISO 15712-1, Eq. E.3
Rigid X-junction
For Junction 2: 2 1 1 1
0.98 0.0 5.7 5.7 ISO 15712-1, Eq. E.4
Rigid T-junction
For Junction 4: 2 1 1 1
0.98 0.0 8.7 8.7 ISO 15712-1, Eq. E.3
Rigid X-junction
T-Junction of separating floor of 203 mm thick
1 hollow core concrete with 150 mm thick
Experimental measurements on hollow constructions have indicated that hollow concrete wall. (Side view of Junction 2). Hollow
core floors will have Kij values which differ from the Kij values of solid concrete cores parallel to junction. Junction 4 has same
floors. Until measurement data can be collected, conservative estimates for the Kij details, but X-junction.
values will be used in the examples.
2
Mass ratios included for completeness of ASTC example. Not used for Kij
calculation (see note 1).

Client Report A1-004972.4 | Construction | Acoustics Laboratory
ASTC EXAMPLE Hollow Core Vertical 1: (Continued) (SIMPLIFIED METHOD)

• Rooms one-above-the-other
• Hollow Core Concrete Floor with Concrete Walls with Rigid Junctions
ISO Symbol Reference STC, _STC ASTC

Separating Partition (203 mm hollow core concrete floor)
Laboratory STC for Dd R_s,w TLF-14-034 56
STC change by lining on D R_D,w None 0
STC change by lining on d R_d,w None 0
Direct STC in situ R_Dd,w ISO 15712-1, Eq. 24 and 30 56 + MAX(0,0) + MIN(0,0)/2= 56.0
Junction 1 (Rigid X-junction, 203 mm hollow core concrete separating floor / 150 mm concrete flanking wall)
Laboratory STC for F1 R_F1,w RR-333, TLF-97-107a 52
STC change by lining R_F1,w None 0
Laboratory STC for f1 R_f1 RR-333, TLF-97-107a 52

STC change by lining R_f1,w None 0
Flanking STC for path Ff R_Ff,w ISO 15712-1, Eq.28a and 31 52/2+52/2+MAX(0,0)+MIN(0,0)/2+0+6= 58.0
Flanking STC for path Fd R_Fd,w ISO 15712-1, Eq.28a and 31 52/2+56/2+MAX(0,0)+MIN(0,0)/2+8.7+6= 68.7
Flanking STC for path Df R_Df,w ISO 15712-1, Eq.28a and 31 56/2+52/2+MAX(0,0)+MIN(0,0)/2+8.7+6= 68.7
Junction 1: Flanking STC for all paths Subset of Eq. 1.1 -10*log10(10^-5.8+10^-6.87+10^-6.87)= 57.3
Junction 2 (Rigid T-junction, 203 mm hollow core concrete separating floor / 150 mm concrete flanking wall)



Total Flanking STC (4 Junctions) Subset of Eq. 1.1 -10*log10(10^-5.73+10^-5.77+10^-5.73+10^-5.83)= 51.6
ASTC due to Direct plus Total Flanking Subset of Eq. 1.1 -10*log10(10^-5.6+10^-5.16)= 50

6.3 FIRE RESISTANCE

6.3.1 Notation
Note: Subscript θ indicates the property as affected by elevated temperatures.
Ap = area of prestressed reinforcement
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement
As– = area of reinforcement in negative moment region
a = depth of equivalent rectangular compression stress block
b = width of element
c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
dp = distance from centroid of prestressed reinforcement to the extreme compression fibre
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete
fpr = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at nominal resistance
fprθ = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at elevated temperature
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressed reinforcement
fpuθ = tensile strength of prestressed reinforcement at elevated temperature
h = total depth of an element
kp = factor for type of prestressing steel
l = span length
M = service load moment
Mn = nominal flexural resistance
Mn+θ
= positive and negative nominal flexural resistance at elevated temperatures, respectively
M–nθ
u = distance from prestressed reinforcement to the fire exposed surface
w = uniform total load
wd = uniform dead load
w l = uniform live load
x = horizontal distance
a1 = stress block intensity factor
b1 = stress block depth factor
θs = temperature of steel reinforcement
θc = resistance factor for concrete
θp = resistance factor for prestressed reinforcement
6.3.2 Definitions
Type S concrete – Type of concrete in which the coarse aggregate is granite, quartzite, siliceous gravel or other
dense materials containing at least 30 per cent quartz, chert or flint.
Type N concrete – Type of concrete in which the coarse aggregate is cinders, broken brick, blast furnace slag,
limestone, calcareous gravel, trap rock, sandstone or similar dense material containing not more than 30 per cent
of quartz, chert or flint.
Type L concrete – Type of concrete in which all the aggregate is expanded slag, expanded clay, expanded shale or
pumice.

Type L40S concrete – Type of concrete in which the fine portion of the aggregate is sand and low density aggre-
gate and in which the sand does not exceed 40 per cent of the total volume of all aggregates in the concrete.
Fire endurance – A measure of the elapsed time during which a material or assembly continues to exhibit fire resis-
tance under specified conditions of test and performance. As applied to elements of buildings it shall be measured
by the methods and to the criteria defined in ULC S-101 (defined in ULC).
Fire resistance – The property of a material or assembly to withstand fire or to give protection from it. As applied
to elements of buildings, it is characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to continue to perform a given structur-
al function, or both (defined in ULC S-101).
Fire resistance rating, sometimes called fire rating, fire resistance classification, or hourly rating, – A legal term
defined in building codes, usually based on fire endurances. Fire resistance ratings are assigned by building codes
or building officials for various types of construction and occupancies and are usually given in half-hour increments.
Lightweight aggregate concrete – Concrete made with lightweight, coarse and fine aggregate (expanded clay,
shale, slag, or slate, or sintered fly ash) and having a 28-day air-dry unit weight of 1500 to 1700 kg/m3.
Sand-lightweight concrete – Concrete made with lightweight, coarse aggregate (expanded clay, shale, slag, or
slate, or sintered fly ash) and normal weight fine aggregate and having a 28-day air-dry unit weight of 1700 to 1900
kg/m3.
Note: CSA A23.3 uses the term: low-density concrete.
6.3.3 Introduction
Precast concrete elements can be provided with the degree of fire resistance required by building codes, insurance
companies, and other authorities. The fire resistance of building assemblies is determined from standard fire tests
defined in ULC standard CAN/ULC S101-04, Standard Methods of Fire Endurance Tests of Building Construction
and Materials. [43]
Engineers can use the tabulated information provided in Volume 2, Appendix D of the National Building Code of
Canada to ensure that fire resistance requirements are satisfied. This information is based on the results of standard
fire tests of assemblies.
In the absence of fire test results or tabulated data, the
fire resistance of precast concrete elements and assem-
blies can be determined in most cases by calculation.
These calculations are based on engineering principles
and take into account the conditions of a standard fire
test. This is known as the Rational Design Method of
determining fire resistance. It is based on extensive
research conducted by the National Research Council
of Canada, the Portland Cement Association and many
laboratories in Europe and the U.S.
While every attempt has been made to present in-
formation that is factual and is in usable format, the
material presented herein does not have official status.
Acceptance of designs based on this information rests
entirely with the authority having jurisdiction.
Fire tests and heat transmission are discussed in Sec-
tions 6.3.4 and 6.3.5. Calculations using the Rational
Design Method for common situations are presented
in Section 6.3.7. Brief explanations of the underlying
principles are also given. For additional examples, de- Figure 6.3.1 Standard time temperature curve

sign charts, and a complete explanation of the method, refer to the PCI Manual 124, Design for Fire Resistance for
Precast/ Prestressed Concrete [44].
High strength concretes with compressive strengths up to 70 MPa, will perform under fire conditions as described
herein provided minimum cover and other dimensional requirements are adhered to. ULC provides certification of
fire resistance ratings of some building assemblies for precast concrete manufacturers that subscribe to the service.
These certifications are based on standard fire tests. ULC certification is not required by NBCC.
6.3.4 Standard Fire Tests

The fire resistance of building components is measured in standard fire tests defined by ULC S101. During these
tests, the building assembly, such as a portion of a floor, wall, roof or column is subjected to increasing tempera-
tures that vary with time as shown in Figure 6.3.1.
This time-temperature relationship is used as a standard to represent the combustion of about 4.5 kg of wood with
a heat potential of 200 MJ/kg/m2 of exposed area per hour of test. The fuel consumption to maintain the standard
time-temperature relationship during a fire test depends on the design of the furnace and on the test specimen.
When fire tested, assemblies with exposed concrete members, such as double tees and hollow core slabs, require
considerably more fuel than other assemblies due to their favorable heat absorption capacity. This fact is not rec-
ognized when evaluating fire resistance by current standard test methods.
ULC S101 specifies the minimum size of assemblies, the magnitude of applied load, the region of the assembly to
be exposed to the fire, and the end point criteria on which fire endurance is based.
The Standard, ULC S101, specifies the minimum sizes of specimens to be exposed in fire tests. For floors and roofs,
at least 16.8 m2 must be exposed to fire from beneath, and neither dimension can be less than 3.66 m. For tests
of walls, both loadbearing and non-loadbearing, the minimum specified area is 9.3 m2 with neither dimension less
than 2.75 m. The minimum length for columns is specified to be 2.75 m, while for beams it is 3.66 m.
The maximum permissible superimposed load as required or permitted by nationally recognized standards is ap-
plied during fire tests of floors, roofs, beams, load-bearing walls and columns. A load other than the maximum load
may be applied, but the test results then apply only to the restricted load condition.
Floor and roof specimens are exposed to fire from below, beams are exposed from the bottom and sides, walls are
exposed from one side, and columns are exposed on all sides.
Restrained assemblies
ULC S101 distinguishes between restrained and unrestrained assemblies and defines them as follows:
“Floor and roof assemblies and individual beams in buildings shall be considered thermally re-
strained when (1) the surrounding or supporting structure is capable of resisting, without col-
lapse, thermal expansion such as would be induced in an environment described by the Standard
Time-Temperature Curve, or, (2) the assemblies or beams have structural continuity over supports.
Constructions not complying with either of these two conditions or a combination thereof are as-
sumed to be free to expand and rotate and should be considered as thermally unrestrained.”
While the focus of this definition is mainly on the axial resistance of the supporting or surrounding structure to
thermal expansion, unlike other materials, the intent of restraint can be expanded for concrete members to include
rotational restraint and continuity as well – see the sub-section on continuous elements under Section 6.3.7.
ULC S101 includes a guide for classifying types of construction as restrained or unrestrained and is reproduced in
Figure 6.3.2. The guide indicates that cast-in-place and many precast concrete assemblies can be considered to be
restrained.

Fire endurance, fire-resistance rating, and end point criteria

The fire endurance of an assembly is the period of time which elapses before a prescribed condition of failure or
end point is reached during a standard fire test. A fire-resistance rating is a legal term for the fire endurance re-
quired by a building code or authority having jurisdiction.
The following end point criteria are defined by ULC S101:
1. Loadbearing specimens must sustain the applied loading. Collapse is an obvious end point (structural end
point).
2. Holes, cracks, or fissures through which flames or gases hot enough to ignite cotton waste must not form
(flame passage end point).
3. The temperature increase of the unexposed surface of floors, roofs, or walls must not exceed an average of
140°C or a maximum of 180°C at any one point (heat transmission end point).
4. In alternate tests of large steel beams (not loaded during test), the end point occurs when the steel tempera-
ture reaches an average of 538°C or a maximum of 649°C at any one point.
Unrestrained and restrained assembly classifications can be derived from fire tests of restrained specimens. When
based on results of fire tests of restrained specimens, additional end point criteria for unrestrained floor, roof, and
beam classifications are:
1. Structural steel elements spaced more than 1.22 m on centres: temperature of the steel at any one section
must not exceed an average of 593°C or a maximum of 704°C.
2. Structural steel elements spaced 1.22 m or less on centres, e.g., multiple open-web steel joists: average tem-
perature must not exceed 593°C.
3. Concrete structural elements: average temperature of the bottom reinforcement at any section must not
exceed 427°C for cold-drawn prestressing steel or 593°C for reinforcing bars.
Additional end point criteria for restrained assembly classifications are:
1. Beams more than 1.22 m on centres: the steel temperatures in (1) and (3) above must not be exceeded for
classifications of 1 h or less; for classifications longer than 1 h, these temperatures must not be exceeded for
the first half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever is longer.
2. Concrete beams 1.22 m or less on centres and slabs are not subjected to steel temperature limitations.
3. Structural steel members spaced 1.22 m or less on centres: the steel temperature in (2) above must not be
exceeded for classifications of 1 h or less; for classifications longer than 1 h, that temperature must not be
exceeded for the first half of the classification period or 1 h, whichever is longer.
Note that there are no limiting temperatures for reinforcing steel or prestressing steel for restrained classifications
of slabs. Also, there are no limiting steel temperatures for unrestrained assembly classifications derived from fire
tests of unrestrained specimens. Restrained assembly classifications cannot be obtained from fire tests of unre-
strained specimens.
Walls and partitions must meet the same structural, flame passage, and heat transmission end points described
above. In addition, they must withstand a hose stream test (simulating, in a specified manner, a fire fighter’s hose
stream).

STEEL OR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

A) One Bay Structures:
(i) Floors, roofs or beams should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED

unless:
(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members;
or
(b) The supporting members are designed and detailed to resist thermal thrust
from the floor or roof system.
B) Multi-Bay Structures:
(i) Floors, roofs or beams in interior bays should be considered as THERMALLY

RESTRAINED, provided that:
(a) Open web steel joists, steel beams, or metal decking have a positive
structural connection with the structural concrete slabs they support. Such a
connection need not develop full composite action.
(b) Cast-in-place floor and roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat-slabs,

pan-joists and waffle slabs) are integral with or secured to the framing
members.
(c) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems are secured to the framing
members so that the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof system
is resisted by the framing system or adjoining floor or roof construction. For
example, resistance to potential thermal expansion is considered to be
achieved with either of the following:
(A) Continuous structural concrete topping is used; or
(B) The space between the ends of precast units or between the ends of
units and the vertical face of supports is filled with concrete or mortar;
or the space is the lesser of 25 mm or 0.25% of the length for normal
weight concrete members or the space is the lesser of 15 mm or
0.1% of the length for structural lightweight concrete members.
(ii) Floors, roofs or beams in exterior bays (exterior bays are defined as those having
an exterior support in the direction of the span or spans of the floor, roof or beam in
question) should be considered as THERMALLY UNRESTRAINED unless:
(a) They have structural continuity (see Clause A1.5) with supporting members,
or
(b) The supporting framing members are designed and detailed to resist thermal
thrust from the floor or roof system.
WOOD CONSTRUCTION
All types of wood construction shall be considered to be thermally unrestrained.
* Reproduced from ULC 5101
Figure 6.3.2 Construction Classifications, Restrained or Unrestrained*

Fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies

The first fire test of a prestressed concrete assembly in North America was conducted in 1953 at the National Bu-
reau of Standards. Since that time, more than 150 prestressed concrete assemblies have been subjected to stan-
dard fire tests in North America. Although many of the tests were conducted for the purpose of deriving specific
fire ratings, most of the tests were performed in conjunction with broad research studies whose objectives have
been to understand the behaviour of prestressed concrete members subjected to fire.
The knowledge gained from these tests has resulted in the development of:
1. lists of fire resistive prestressed concrete building components and
2. procedures for determining the fire endurance of prestressed concrete elements by calculation.
Many different types of prestressed concrete elements have been fire tested. These elements include joists, double
tees, mono-wing tees, single tees, solid slabs, hollow core slabs, rectangular beams, ledger beams, and I-shaped
beams. In addition, roofs with thermal insulation and both loadbearing and non-loadbearing wall panels have also
been tested. Nearly all of these elements have been exposed directly to fire, but a few tests have been conducted
on specimens that received additional protection from the fire by spray-applied coatings, ceilings, etc.
Fire tests of flexural elements

Reports of a number of tests sponsored by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) have been issued by
Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. (UL). Most of the reports have been reprinted by PCI, and the results of the tests
are the basis for UL’s listings and specifications for non-proprietary products such as double tee and single tee
floors and roofs, hollow core and solid slabs, and prestressed concrete beams.
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) conducted many fire tests of prestressed concrete assemblies. PCA’s
unique furnaces made it possible to study in depth the effects of support conditions. Four series of tests dealt
with simply supported slabs and beams; two series dealt with continuous slabs and beams; and one major series
dealt with the effects of restrained thermal expansion on the behavior during fire of prestressed concrete floors
and roofs. PCA has also conducted a number of fire tests of prestressed and reinforced concrete assemblies. Test
results that have been published as Research and Development Bulletins are available from PCA. [45], [46]
Fire tests of walls and columns

A test was conducted by Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. on a double tee wall assembly for research purposes in
which fire was applied to the flat surface of the 50 mm thick flange. A gravity load of about 145 kN/m was applied
at the top of the wall. The wall withstood a 2-hour fire and a subsequent hose stream test followed by a load test
with the design load doubled. No distress was observed. The heat transmission requirement was exceeded for
most of the test because the flange was only 50 mm thick. By providing adequate flange thickness or insulation, the
heat transmission requirement would have been met in addition to the structural requirement.
Fire tests of reinforced concrete columns have been conducted by PCA and the National Research Council of Can-
ada. While no tests have been conducted for prestressed concrete columns, results from these tests are considered
to be equally applicable to prestressed concrete columns with adjustments made for the difference in thermal
properties between mild reinforcing steel and prestressing strand as may be appropriate.
6.3.5 Designing for Heat Transmission

ULC S101 imposes heat transmission criteria for floor, roof, and wall assemblies. Thus floors, roofs, or walls requiring
a fire-resistance rating must satisfy the heat transmission requirements as well as the various structural criteria. The
heat transmission fire endurance of a concrete assembly is essentially the same whether the assembly is tested as a
floor, oriented horizontally, or as a wall, tested vertically. Because of this, and unless otherwise noted, the informa-
tion which follows is applicable to floors, roofs, or walls.
Single course slabs or wall panels

For concrete slabs and panels, the temperature rise of the unexposed surface depends mainly on the thickness,
relative density, and aggregate type of the concrete. Other less important factors include unit weight, moisture

condition, air content, and maximum aggregate size.

Within the usual ranges, water-cementitious materi-
als ratio, strength, and age have insignificant effects.
Figure 6.3.3 shows the fire endurance (heat transmis-
sion) of concrete slabs or wall panels as influenced
by aggregate type and element thickness. For a
hollow core slab, this thickness may be obtained by
dividing the net cross sectional area by its width. The
curves represent air-entrained concrete made with
air-dry aggregates having a nominal maximum size of
20 mm and fire tested when the concrete was at the
standard moisture condition, 75% R.H. at mid-depth.
On the graph, concretes are designated as Types L,
L40S, N, and S, see Section 6.3.2 – Definitions.
Ribbed panels
Heat transmission through a ribbed panel is influ-
enced by the thinnest portion of the panel and by
the panel’s equivalent thickness. Equations for calcu-
lating the equivalent thickness are given in Volume
2, Appendix D of the NBCC. An illustrated example
is shown in Section 1.4 of the Cement Association of
Canada (CAC) Concrete Design Handbook. Figure 6.3.3 Fire endurance (heat transmission) of
Multi-course-assemblies concrete slabs or wall panels
Floors and roofs often consist of concrete base slabs
with overlays or undercoatings of other types of con-
crete or insulating materials. In addition, roofs generally have built-up roofing. Walls may consist of more than one
wythe, with or without an internal air space.
The fire resistance of multi-course assemblies is outlined in Volume 2, Appendix D of the NBCC. An illustrated
example is shown in Section 1.4 of the CAC Concrete Design Handbook.
Sandwich panels
Sandwich wall panels are made by sandwiching insulation material between two concrete wythes.
It should be noted that cellular plastics melt and are consumed at about 200 to 300°C. Additional thickness or
changes in composition will have a minor effect on the fire endurance of sandwich panels. [47]
The fire resistance of sandwich wall panels is equivalent to the fire resistance of a solid panel with a thickness equal
to the sum of the thickness of the two wythes. For further information, see Chapter 2 of the Supplement to NBCC.
Wall openings
NBCC limits the area of unprotected openings (windows and doors) in exterior walls which are required to be fire
resistive. Percentages of unprotected opening areas are tabulated for various combinations of area of building
face, height-length ratio, and spatial separation.
The percentage of openings permitted increases:
1. as the spatial separation increases,
2. as the area of the exposed building face decreases, and
3. as the ratio of either height-length (H/L) or length-height (L/H) increases, i.e., a greater percentage is permit-
ted for H/L or L/H of 10:1 than for H/L or L/H of 3:1

For example, an exposed face of an office building, without sprinkler protection, having an area of 350 m2, an
L/H = 2:1, and a limiting distance of 7 m can have a maximum of 16 percent of unprotected openings. If the ratio of
L/H or H/L were 10:0 or more, the area of unprotected openings could be increased to 30 percent, or if the limiting
distance were 12 m and the L/H were 10:1, the area of unprotected openings permitted is 59 percent of the ex-
posed face.
NBCC also permits a higher limit on the unexposed surface temperature if the area of unprotected openings is less
than the maximum allowed, and thus somewhat thinner panels can be used.
An equivalent opening factor is applied in the following formula to determine the corrected area of openings:
Ac = A + Af Feo
Ac = corrected area of unprotected openings including actual and equivalent openings
A = actual area of unprotected openings
Af = area of exterior surface of the exposing building face exclusive of openings, on which the
temperature limitation of the standard fire test is exceeded
Feo = equivalent opening factor
Figure 6.3.4 shows the relation between Feo (as defined in NBCC and panel thickness for three types of concrete).
Figure 6.3.4 Equivalent opening factor Feo, for concrete wall panels*
To illustrate the use of Figure 6.3.4, suppose that for a particular building face, a 2 h fire-resistance rating is required
and the area of unprotected openings permitted is 57 percent. Suppose also that the actual area of unprotected
openings is 49 percent and that the window wall panels are made of Type N concrete. Determine the minimum
thickness of the panel.
In this case, Ac = 57 percent, A = 49 percent,
Af = 100 – 49 = 51 percent, hence:
Ac A 57 49
Feo = = = 0.16
Af 51
From Figure 6.3.4, for Feo = 0.16 at 2 h, the minimum panel thickness is 54 mm. Thus, if the panel is 54 mm thick or
thicker, the code requirements will be satisfied.

Treatment of joints
Joints between wall panels are similar to unprotected openings, and can be treated in the manner discussed for
wall openings. In many cases, joints need not be fire-protected, however, in other cases, openings, including joints,
must be protected.
Fire tests of wall panel joints [48] have shown that the fire endurance, as determined by a temperature rise of 181°C
over the joint, is influenced by joint type, joint materials, joint width, and panel thickness. When the proper thick-
ness of insulating materials is provided within the joint, it is possible to attain fire endurance equal to that of the
wall panels.
Figure 6.3.5 is based on results of fire tests of panels with butt joints. The tabulated values apply to one-stage butt
joints and are conservative for two-stage and ship-lap joints.
Panel Thickness of ceramic fibre felt (mm) required for fire resistance ratings
equivalent thickness and joints widths shown
(mm) Joint width = 10 mm Joint width = 25 mm
Type N concrete* 1h 2h 3h 4h 1h 2h 3h 4h
100 6 – – – 19 – – –
125 0 19 – – 13 58 – –
150 0 0 32 – 6 32 89 –
175 0 0 0 25 6 19 51 96
*
Panel equivalent thicknesses are for Type N concrete. For Type S concrete change 100, 125, 150, and 175 in
column 1 to ‘‘110, 135, 165, and 190,’’ respectively. For Type L40S or L concrete change 100, 125, 150, and
175 in column 1 to ‘‘85, 105, 125, and 145.’’
The tabulated values apply to one-stage butt joints and are conservative for two-stage and ship-lap joints.
Figure 6.3.5 Protection of joints using ceramic fibre felt
Joints between adjacent precast floor or roof elements may be ignored in calculating the slab thickness provided
that a concrete topping at least 40 mm thick is used. Where no concrete topping is used, joints should be grouted
to a depth of at least one-third the slab thickness at the joint, or the joints made fire-resistive in a manner accept-
able to the authority having jurisdiction.

6.3.6 Balanced Design

A balanced design approach to fire safety is a philosophy of fire protection based on hazard and risk assessments
applied to buildings on an individual basis. A balanced design approach to fire safety recognizes the importance of
fire resistive compartmentation, smoke detection and automatic suppression in buildings to reduce the risk of inju-
ry, loss of life and property damage from the effects of fire. The use of the components of balanced design, singu-
larly or in combination, is dependent upon the building’s occupancy, construction and type of hazards that may be
present. Each of the protection components of a balanced design approach has both strengths and weaknesses.
It is essential to understand the building’s fire protection requirements to avoid compromising lives and property,
and avoid unnecessary redundancy in fire protection features. This approach provides code officials and authorities
having jurisdiction with the latitude to determine an appropriate level of protection based on specific conditions
for particular building types and occupancies.
Multi-unit dwellings, high-rise buildings and high hazard occupancies are examples where all of the components of
a balanced design approach may be necessary. Open parking structures may not require all the balanced design
approach components. The balanced design approach applies in either case. A design based on hazard and risk
assessments is applied on an individual basis to determine the fire protection requirements.
Post earthquake fires continue to be a serious threat, particularly in densely populated urban areas. Although
earthquake resistant automatic sprinkler systems exist, it is probable that the public water supply system will fail,
rendering the automatic suppression systems inoperable. When compartmentation has been traded-off in favour
of an automatic suppression system, fire can quickly spread through a building destroying everything in its path.
Fire resistant elements, designed to maintain structural integrity in the event of an earthquake, can be constructed
to stop or retard the spread of fire, permit safe occupant evacuation and provide an acceptable environment for
fire fighting operations.
Automatic suppression systems are not always effective for the following reasons: sprinkler valves may be shut
off before or during a fire; water supply may be insufficient; clogged piping; system may be out of service due to
freezing, earthquake, explosion, or lack of maintenance; inadequate sprinkler protection (coverage); broken piping
or fittings; and sprinkler head obstructions. In arson related fires, automatic suppression systems can be rendered
inoperable by simply closing a valve. Compartmentation and inherent fire resistant construction is very difficult if
not impossible to disable.
Permitting trade-offs between fire resistant construction or compartmentation or automatic suppression general-
ly leads to protection imbalances as there are no established equivalency relationships between the elements of
balanced design. Statistics show that the total dollar property loss for sprinklered buildings average about twice
the dollar amount for unsprinklered buildings – probably because of trade-offs such as a reduction in fire resistance
ratings, or an increase in allowable area and height of the building or permitting a larger percentage of exterior
wall openings.
6.3.7 Designing for Structural Integrity

It was noted above that many fire tests and related research studies have been directed toward an understanding
of the structural behaviour of prestressed concrete subjected to fire. The information gained from that work has led
to the development of calculation procedures which can be used in lieu of fire tests. The purpose of this section
is to present an introduction to these calculations. The method of support is the most important factor affecting
structural behaviour of flexural elements during fire. The discussion that follows deals with three conditions of sup-
port: simply supported elements, continuous slabs and beams, and elements in which restraint to thermal expan-
sion occurs. Refer to PCI MNL-124 [44] for additional examples and more detailed information.
The fire endurance of concrete walls, as determined by fire tests, is normally governed by the ULC criteria for tem-
perature rise of the unexposed surface rather than by structural behavior during fire tests. This is due to low stress
levels, even in concrete bearing walls, and that reinforcement does not perform a primary structural function. The
amount of cover protection required by code usually exceeds that required for fire protection so there is reserve
structural fire endurance within a concrete wall.

Unrestrained elements
Expansion can occur without restriction when an
unrestrained prestressed concrete slab is exposed to
fire from below and the ends of the slab are free to
translate and rotate. With the underside of the slab
exposed to fire, the bottom will expand more than
the top, causing the slab to deflect downward. The
strength of the steel and concrete near the bottom will
decrease as the temperature rises. When the strength
of the steel diminishes below that required to support
the slab, flexural collapse will occur. The applied mo-
ment remains constant during the fire exposure, but
the resisting moment capacity is reduced as the steel
weakens.
Figure 6.3.6 illustrates the behaviour of a simply-sup-
ported slab exposed to fire from below. The nominal
flexural resistance is constant throughout the span
because the strands are parallel to the axis of the slab.
Mn = Ap fpr (dp – a/2)
Mn = nominal moment resistance
Figure 6.3.6 Moment diagrams for simply-supported
fpr = stress in the prestressed reinforcement at nom- beam or slab
inal resistance
dp = distance from the extreme compression fibre to
the centroid of the prestressed reinforcement
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
= Ap fpr / (a1f’cb), where a1 is the stress block intensity factor, f’c is the specified compressive strength of the
concrete and b is the width of the compression face
In lieu of a more accurate determination of fpr based on strain compatibility, the following approximate value of fpr
may be used for bonded tendons if fpe is not less than 0.6fpy and c/dp is not greater than 0.5:
fpr = fpu (1 – kp c/dp)
fpu = tensile strength of bonded tendons
kp = factor for type of prestressing steel
= 2 (1.04 – fpy /fpu)
c = neutral axis depth at nominal resistance
As the material strengths diminish with elevated temperatures, the retained nominal flexural resistance becomes:
Mnθ = Ap fprθ (dp – aθ/2)
fprθ = fpuθ (1 – kp cθ/dp)
aθ = Apfprθ/(a1f’cb)
in which θ signifies the effects of elevated temperature. Note that Ap and dp are not affected, but fpr is reduced.
Similarly aθ is reduced, but the concrete strength at the top of the slab, f’c, is generally not reduced significantly be-
cause of its lower temperature. If, however, the compressive zone of the concrete is heated above 450°C, f’c should
also be reduced to calculate aθ.

Flexural failure can be assumed to occur when Mnθ is reduced to M. The material resistance factors, fp and fc are
not applied because a factor of safety is included in the required ratings. From this expression, it can be seen that
the fire endurance depends on the applied loading and on the strength-temperature characteristics of the rein-
forcement.
In turn, the duration of the fire before the critical steel temperature is reached depends on the protection of the
reinforcement.
To solve problems involving the above equations, it is necessary to use data on the strength-temperature relation-
ships for steel and concrete, and information on temperature distributions within concrete elements during fire
exposures. Figure 6.3.7 shows strengths of certain steels at elevated temperatures, and Figure 6.3.8 shows similar
data for various types of concrete.
Data on temperature distribution in concrete slabs during fire tests are shown in Figure 6.3.9. Similar data for
concrete beams and joists are more complex because beams are heated from the sides as well as from beneath.
Figure 6.3.10 shows temperature data for normal density concrete joists and beams at 2 h exposure. Note that the
temperatures are given for points along the vertical centreline of rectangular beams or of elements with tapered
sides.
Figure 6.3.7 Temperature-strength relationships for various steels

Figure 6.3.8 Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures
Figure 6.3.9 Temperatures at ‘u’ mm from hot face of concrete slabs during fire tests

Figure 6.3.10 Temperature – along vertical centre lines of stemmed units at 2h of exposure*
*From: FIP/CEB Report on Methods of Assessment of the Fire Resistance of Structural Members.

Example 6.6 Capacity of a hollow core slab exposed to fire

Given: Solution:
A 203 mm deep hollow core slab with a simply- 1. From Figure 6.3.9, estimate strand temperature at
supported unrestrained span of 8.5 m. 2 h for carbonate aggregate concrete with:
Concrete: u = 45 mm: θs = 400°C
f’c = 35 MPa a1 = 0.80 b1 = 0.88 2. From Figure 6.3.7, determine:
Normal density, Type N fpuθ = (0.54)(1860) = 1005 MPa
Prestressed reinforcement: 3. Determine Mnθ and wl :
7 – 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands A p fpu
c /dp =
kp = 0.28 1fc 1bdp + k p A p fpu
Ap = (7)(99) = 693 mm2 (693)(1005)
=
h = 203 mm (0.8)(35)(0.88)(1220)(158) + (0.28)(693)(1005)
u = 45 mm = 0.141
dp = 158 mm fpr = (1005)[1 (0.28)(0.141)] = 965 MPa
b = 1220 mm a = (693)(965)/[(0.8)(35)(1220)] = 20 mm
wd = 2.6 kN/m2 Mn = (693)(965)(158
6
20/2)/10 = 99.1 kN-m
l = 8.5 m 2 2
w = (8)(99.1)/[(8.5) (1.2*)] = 9.1 kN/m
Problem: *assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2
Determine the maximum superimposed load that can wl =w wd = 9.1 2.6 = 6.5 kN/m
2
be supported after 2 h exposure to a standard fire.
Example 6.7 Increasing fire endurance of a double tee by adding reinforcement

Given: Prestressed reinforcement:
A 2400 x 400 double tee floor with 50 mm compos-
6 – 13 mm 1860 MPa low-relaxation strands
ite topping and a simply-supported unrestrained
kp = 0.28
span of 9 m.
Ap = (6)(99) = 594 mm2
wd = 3.3 kN/m2
wl = 1.9 kN/m2
u = 133 mm
dp = 317 mm
Problem:
Determine the amount of additional non-pre-
stressed reinforcement required to provide a 2 h
structural fire endurance.
Solution:
Concrete: w = (2.4)(1.9 + 3.3) = 12.5 kN/m
f’c (precast) = 35 MPa a1 = 0.80 b1 = 0.88 1. Estimate strand temperature at 2 h from Figure
f’c (topping) = 20 MPa a1 = 0.82 b1 = 0.92 6.3.10. At centroid of strand:
Normal density, Type N bw = 100 + (133/350)(55) = 121 mm

Avg. θs = 545°C
Continues next page

Example 6.7 Increasing fire endurance of a double tee by adding reinforcement (continued from
previous page)
2. Estimate fpuθ from Figure 6.3.7: 5. Estimate temperature and strength of the rein-
fpuθ = (0.24)(1860) = 445 MPa forcing bars:
bw = 128 mm
3. Calculate Mnθ and compare with M:
s = 495°C (Figure 6.3.10)
Assume N.A. is in the topping.
fy = (0.70)(400) = 280 MPa (Figure 6.3.7)
c (594)(445) 2
= = 0.023 As = (2)(500) = 1000 mm
dp (0.82)(20)(0.92)(2400)(317) + (0.28)(594)(445)
fpr = (445) [1 (0.28)(0.023)] 6. Calculate Mnθ:
= 442 MPa Adjusted a = (594)(442) + (1000)(280)
a = (594)(442)/[(0.82)(20)(2400)] = 7 mm (0.82)(20)(2400)
OK, N.A. is in the topping. = 14 mm
6
Mn = (594)(442)(317 7/2)/10 = 82.4 kN-m Mn = [(594)(442)(317 14/2)
2 6
M = (12.5)(9) /8 = 127 kN-m > Mn + (1000)(280)(269 14/2)]/10
= 155 kN-m > 127 OK

4. Try adding one 25M Grade 400 MPa reinforcing
bar in each stem at u = 181 mm.
Continuous elements
Continuous elements undergo changes in stresses when
subjected to fire. These stresses result from temperature
gradients within the structural elements, or changes in
strength of the materials at high temperatures, or both.
Figure 6.3.11 shows a two-span continuous beam whose
underside is exposed to a fire test. The bottom of the
beam becomes hotter than the top and tends to expand
more than the top. This differential temperature effect
causes the ends of the beam to tend to lift from their
supports thereby increasing the reaction at the interior
support. This action results in a redistribution of moments,
i.e., the negative moment at the interior support increases
while the positive moments decrease.
During a fire, the negative moment reinforcement (Figure
6.3.11) remains cooler than the positive moment rein-
forcement because it is better protected from the fire. In
addition, the redistribution that occurs is sufficient to cause
yielding of the negative moment reinforcement. A relatively
large increase in negative moment can be accommodat-
ed throughout the test. The resulting decrease in positive
moment means that the positive moment reinforcement
can be heated to a higher temperature before failure will Figure 6.3.11 Moment diagram for two-span
occur. The fire endurance of a continuous concrete beam is continuous beam

significantly longer than that of a simply supported beam

having the same cover and the same applied loads.
It is possible to design the reinforcement in a continuous
beam or slab for a particular fire endurance period. From
Figure 6.3.11 the beam can be expected to collapse when
the positive moment capacity, Mn+θ, is reduced to the value
of the maximum redistributed positive moment at a dis-
tance x1 from the outer support.
Figure 6.3.12 shows a uniformly loaded beam or slab con-
tinuous (or fixed) at one support and simply supported at
the other. Also shown is the redistributed applied moment Figure 6.3.12 Uniformly loaded element
diagram at failure. continuous at one support
It can be shown that at the point of maximum positive
moment, x1:
lMn
x1 =
2 w l
At x = x2, Mx = 0 and x2 = 2 x1:

2M n
xo =
w l
wl 2 2 2Mn+
Mn = ± wl 2
2 wl
In most cases, redistribution of moment occurs early during a fire and the negative moment reinforcement will
yield before the negative moment capacity has been reduced by the effects of fire. The length of xo is increased,
i.e., the inflection point moves toward the simple support. If the inflection point moves beyond the cut off points of
the negative moment reinforcement, sudden failure may result. Figure 6.3.13 shows a symmetrical beam or slab in
which the end moments are equal:
Figure 6.3.13 Symmetrical uniformly loaded

element continuous at both supports

Mn = wl 2 / 8 Mn+
wx 22
= Mn+
8
8Mn+
x2 =
w
1
xo = (l x2 )
2
l 1 8Mn+
=
2 2 w
To determine the maximum value of xo, the value of w should be the minimum service load anticipated, and
(wl 2 /8 Mn–θ ) should be substituted for Mn+θ in the equation:
l 1 8Mn+
xo =
2 2 w
For a given fire endurance period, the value of Mn+θ can be calculated by the procedures given in the section on
unrestrained elements for simply-supported slabs. The value Mn–θ of can be calculated using the two preceding
equations:
wl 2 2 2Mn+
Mn = ± wl 2
2 wl
or
wl 2
Mn = Mn+
8
The necessary lengths of the negative moment reinforcement can be determined from:
2Mn
xo =
wl
or
1 8Mn+
l
xo =
2 2 w
Use of these equations is illustrated in the following example.
The amount of moment redistribution that can occur is dependent on the amount of negative moment rein-
forcement. Tests have demonstrated that the negative moment reinforcement will yield, so the negative moment
capacity is reached early during a fire test, regardless of the applied loading. The designer must ensure that a
secondary type of failure will not occur. To avoid a compression failure in the negative moment region, the amount
of negative moment reinforcement should be such that A23.3, Clause 18.7, Limits for Minimum Factored Flexural
Resistance, is satisfied before and after reductions in fy, b, d and f’c are taken into account. The negative moment
reinforcement must be long enough to accommodate the complete redistributed moment envelope and change
in the inflection points. The worst condition occurs when the applied loading is smallest, such as dead load plus
partial or no live load. It is recommended that at least 20% of the maximum negative moment reinforcement ex-
tend throughout the span.

Example 6.8 Design of a continuous hollow core floor system for a 3 h fire endurance
Given: Check Mn–θ, assuming that the temperature of the
1220 x 305 hollow core floor with 50 mm topping negative moment reinforcement does not rise
and a continuous span of 7.5 m. above 90°C. If greater than 90°C, the reinforcing
strength should be reduced according to Figure
Concrete:
6.3.7.
f’c (precast) = 35 MPa a1 = 0.80 b1 = 0.88
*Use 20% As throughout span.
f’c (topping) = 20 MPa a1 = 0.82 b1 = 0.92
Try WWF with an area of 59.8 mm2/m in both di-
Normal density, Type N
rections throughout plus WWF with an area of 123
Prestressed reinforcement: mm2 /m in both directions over the supports.
10 – 9 mm 1860 MPa stress-relieved strands Over supports:
kp = 0.28
As– = (1.2*)(59.8 + 123.0) = 220 mm2 /m
Ap = (10)(55) = 550 mm2
a–θ = (220)(400)/[(0.81)(28)(1220)] = 3 mm
wd = 8.4 kN/m2
Mn–θ = (220)(400)(330 – 13 – 3/2)/106 = 28 kN-m
wl = 7.2 kN/m2
u = 45 mm Notes: 330 mm is the depth to the WWF reinforce-
dp = 310 mm ment from the bottom most fibre. 13 mm is the
*assumed load factor on total specified load = 1.2 depth of the concrete above 750°C (neglected). 3/2
is half the depth of the stress block.
Problem:
Calculate the required amount of negative mo- With dead load + 50% live load; w = 12 kN/m2,
ment reinforcement to provide a 3 h fire endur- M = 101 kN-m/unit and Mr = 28 kN-m/unit
ance. (calculated at room temperature).
+
Solution: Mmin = 101 28 = 73 kN-m/unit
From Figure 6.3.9: θs = 480°C 7.5 8(73)
max xo = 0.5
From Figure 6.3.7: fpuθ = 0.36 fpu = 670 MPa 2 1.2 * (12)
Calculate values: fprθ = 658 MPa, aθ = 18 mm = 0.57 m = 570 mm
Mn+θ = (550)(658)(310 –18/2)/106
Use the lighter WWF throughout plus the heavier
= 108.9 kN
fabric for a distance of 900 mm in both directions
M = (1.2*)(8.4 + 7.2)(7.5)2 / 8 = 131.6 kN-m from the support. The WWF must extend into walls
Req’d Mn–θ = 131.6 – 108.9 = 22.7 kN-m/unit that must be designed for the moment induced at
Assume dθ = aθ /2 = 310 mm and fyθ = 400 MPa the top.
As– = (22.7)(106)/[(400)(310)] = 183 mm2/unit
Neglect concrete above 750°C in negative mo-
ment region, i.e. from Figure 6.3.9, neglect bottom
13 mm. Concrete within compressive zone will be
about 730 to 750°C, so use f’cθ = 28 MPa, a1 = 0.81
(see Figure 6.3.8).
Elements restrained against thermal expansion

If a fire occurs beneath an interior portion of a large reinforced concrete slab, the heated portion will tend to ex-
pand and push against the surrounding part of the slab. The unheated part of the slab exerts compressive forces
on the heated portion. The compressive force, or thrust, acts near the bottom of the slab when the fire first occurs
but, as the fire progresses, the line of action of the thrust rises as the mechanical properties of the heated concrete
change. This thrust is generally great enough to increase the fire endurance significantly.

The effects of restraint to thermal expansion can be

characterized as shown in Figure 6.3.14. The thermal
thrust acts in a manner similar to an external prestress-
ing force, which increases the positive moment capacity.
The increase in bending moment capacity is similar to
the effect of added reinforcement located along the line
of action of the thrust. It can be assumed that the added
reinforcement has a yield strength (force) equal to the
thrust. It is possible to determine the magnitude and
location of the required thrust to provide a given fire
endurance.
The above explanation is greatly simplified as restraint
is complex, and likened to the behaviour of a flexural el-
ement subjected to an axial force. Interaction diagrams
similar to those for columns can be constructed for a
given cross-section at a particular stage of a fire, e.g.,
Figure 6.3.14 Axially restrained beam during fire
2 h of a standard fire exposure.
exposure
The guidelines in ULC S101 for determining conditions
of restraint are useful for preliminary design purposes.
Interior bays of multi-bay floors or roofs can be considered to be restrained. With restrained members, fire endur-
ance is governed by heat transmission rather than by structural considerations.
Rational design method

An alternative method of calculating fire resistance is to treat the restrained precast element as unrestrained with
respect to its endurance to fire. The time the element is subject to fire is then multiplied by 1/2. For example, an
axially restrained precast concrete element subjected to a 3 hr fire, would be designed as an unrestrained element
subjected to a fire time of 1.5 hr. The rationale for this method is the ASTM E119 criteria for deriving unrestrained
member ratings from restrained fire tests.
Example 6.9 Design of a beam restrained against thermal expansion
This beam is part of a precast concrete frame,

well connected to meet lateral load and structural
integrity requirements. Consider the beam to be
restrained for fire endurance determination.
Concrete Properties:
f’c = 35 MPa Type N concrete – 2400 kg/m3
Steel Properties:
fpu = 1860 MPa
Ep = 190,000 MPa
fy = 400 MPa
Given:
300RB600 as shown restrained against thermal Problem:
expansion Determine the necessary reinforcement for a four
(4) hour fire rating.
Span = 10 m
Dead Load = 17 kN/m Use 8 – 13mm low relaxation strands as shown
Live Load = 15 kN/m above.
Continues next page

Example 6.9 Design of a beam restrained against thermal expansion (continued from previous page)
Solution: Additional reinforcement is needed to carry the

Since the member is restrained, use rational design specified loads.
procedures for an unrestrained member at 1/2 the
Try 2 – 15M bars at 150 mm from the bottom of
required 4 hour fire resistance time = 2 hr fire rating.
the beam.
(15 + 17)(10)2
M = = 400 kN-m Estimate the temperature and strength of the
s 8
1.5 reinforcing bars:
2400
E = (3300 fc + 6900) = 28,164 MPa u = 44 mm (same cover as prestressing strands)
c 2300
2 2 From Figure 6.3.9:
A = (8 strands)(99 mm /strand) = 792 mm
ps
(5)(50 mm) + (3)(100 mm) θs = 390°C
y = = 69 mm
s 8 From Figure 6.3.7:
d = 600 mm – 69 mm = 531 mm f = (0.79)(400 MPa) = 316 MPa
Minimum concrete cover is the least distance to the As = (2)200 = 400 mm
2
centre of the strand less half the strand diameter.

Calculate the new M
u = 50 – 12/2 = 44 mm (792)(983) + (400)(316)
adjusted a = = 108 mm
From Figure 6.3.9 for Type N concrete, strand tem- (0.80)(35)(300)
perature will be 390°C M = (792)(983)(531-108/2)
From Figure 6.3.7: + (316)(300)(450-108/2) = 409 kN-m OK

c A fpu Adding the 2 – 15M bars to the beam will achieve
=
dp a1fc 1bdp + kp Aps fpu the required 4 hr fire rating.
(792)(1041)
= = 0.198
(0.80)(35)(0.88)(300)(531) + (0.28)(792)(1041)
f = 1041[1-(0.28)(0.198)] = 983 MPa

(792)(983)
a = = 93 mm
(0.80)(35)(300)
M = (792)(983)(531–93/2)
= 377 kN-m < 400 kN-m
Shear resistance
Many fire tests have been conducted on simply supported reinforced and prestressed concrete elements and ele-
ments restrained against thermal expansion. Shear failures did not occur in any of these tests.
When beams that are continuous over one support are exposed to fire (e.g., as shown in Figure 6.3.11), both the
moment and the shear at the interior support increase. This redistribution of moment and shear results in a severe
stress condition. Of the several fire tests of reinforced concrete beams where this condition was simulated, shear
failure occurred in only one beam. [46] The shear reinforcement in that test was inadequate, even for service load
conditions without fire as judged by the shear requirements of CSA A23.3. It appears from available test data that
members that are designed for shear strength in accordance with CSA A23.3 will perform satisfactorily in fire situa-
tions, i.e. failure will not occur prematurely due to a shear failure.

Protection of connections
Many types of connections in precast concrete construction are not vulnerable to the effects of fire, and conse-
quently, require no special treatment. For example, connections such as the bearing between precast concrete
panels and concrete beams or footings that support them do not generally require special fire protection.
If panels rest on elastomeric pads or other combustible materials, protection of the pads is not generally needed
because deterioration of the pads will not cause collapse. Connections that can be weakened by fire and thereby
jeopardize a structure’s load carrying capacity should be protected to the same degree as that required for the
supported member. For example, an exposed steel bracket supporting a panel or spandrel beam will be weakened
by fire and may fail, causing the panel or beam to collapse. Such brackets should be fire protected.
The amount of protection depends on:
1. the stress-strength ratio in the steel at the time of the fire, and
2. the intensity and duration of the fire.
The thickness of protection materials required is greater as the stress level and fire severity increase.
6.3.8 PCI Manual 124, Design for Fire Resistance for Precast/ Prestressed Concrete
The PCI Manual 124, Design for Fire Resistance for Precast/ Prestressed Concrete [44] gives information on a num-
ber of additional topics including:
1. multi-coursed and ribbed wall panels
2. multi-coursed floor slabs
3. protection for exposed connections of precast assemblies
4. thickness requirements for precast concrete column covers
In many instances, the PCI MNL 124 contains more extensive data and discussion than comparable information
in Volume 2, Appendix D of the National Building Code of Canada. The manual discusses analytical methods of
achieving fire-resistance ratings for a larger range of precast concrete assemblies.
6.4 VIBRATION IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

6.4.1 Introduction
Aerobics, dancing and other rhythmic human activities are sources of annoying vibration in buildings.
The two main factors behind these problems are resonance (which occurs when a natural frequency of the floor
structure is equal to or close to a forcing frequency of the rhythmic activity), and the presence of other occupancies in
the building, such as offices or residences, where people are sensitive to the vibrations generated in the building by
others. Sections 6.4.2 to 6.4.4, based on [49] and [50], contain design recommendations to avoid these problems.
These recommendations are based on the following basic resonance model [50] for a floor panel:
A rhythmic activity generates a repeated force on the floor, at a step frequency of approximately 2.5 Hz.
For some activities such as dancing, the repeated force is nearly sinusoidal with time. For other activities
such as high-impact aerobics, the repeated force is not sinusoidal, but is a combination of sinusoidal
forces, one at the step frequency, the others at twice and, for aerobics, three times the step frequency.
The repeated force from a person walking across a floor is a combination of sinusoidal forces of the first
four multiples (harmonics) of the step frequency, approximately 2 Hz.
Figure 6.4.1 shows peak acceleration of a floor panel as a function of forcing frequency due to a contin-
uous sinusoidal force applied to the floor. The floor panel is assumed to have only one mode of natural

(free) vibration – its fundamental mode. The primary feature of the response in Figure 6.4.1 is resonance:
when the forcing frequency matches the natural frequency, the vibration builds up to a large magnitude,
controlled only by damping in the floor system. The peak acceleration at resonance shown in Figure
6.4.1 is given by a formula similar to Newton’s second law (force = mass x acceleration):
sinusoidal force
peak acceleration = Eq. (1)
mass 2
= model damping ratio
The curve shown in Figure 6.4.1 provides the basis for the vibration criteria used in this section. It must be empha-
sized that the calculations presented are very approximate. The actual natural frequency of a floor can be estimat-
ed to a reasonable degree of accuracy, but the calculations are based on damping and on human response, both
of which are subject to much variation. When in doubt about the acceptability of a proposed floor system, the best
way to decide is to compare it to existing similar systems that are known to be acceptable or unacceptable, using
the same method of analysis. See [51] for a general discussion on floor vibration for precast concrete.
Forcing Frequency/Natural Frequency
Figure 6.4.1 Resonance model (b = damping ratio)

Sometimes annoying floor vibration is generated by mechanical equipment. This can usually be corrected by iso-
lating the equipment as discussed in Section 6.4.5.
Design recommendations for lateral building vibration due to wind are given in reference [51].
6.4.2 Vibration Limits

Vibration is generally expressed in terms of peak acceleration as a fraction of the acceleration due to gravity, a/g,
where g = 9.81 m/s2. In an office environment, annoyance occurs when vibration exceeds approximately 0.5%g.
In an active environment such as a lively concert in a stadium, people will accept much greater vibrations, up to
approximately 18%g. Active participants of rhythmic activities will accept more than 18%g. Vibration limits are
recommended for design in Figure 6.4.2 for different occupancies. [49] These limits apply for vibration frequencies
between 2 and 10 Hz, the range of natural frequency for most precast floor structures, also the range of greatest
human sensitivity, hence the range for most annoying vibrations due to human activities.

Occupancies Affected Acceleration Limit

by the Vibration %g
Office and Residential 0.4 to 0.7
Dining and Weightlifting 1.5 to 2.5
Rhythmic Activity Area
Office or residential building 4.0 to 7.0
Stadium or arena 10 to 18
Figure 6.4.2 Recommended acceleration limits for vibration [49]
6.4.3 Natural Frequency

For vibration, the fundamental natural frequency of the floor structure, fn, is the most important property.
A simplified formula for estimating fn is given by [49]:
18
fn = Eq. (2)
i is the maximum deflection (in mm) of the floor structure under the weight supported.
For simply-supported slabs (e.g., hollow core or double tee slabs) on rigid supports, i is obtained from the sim-
ply-supported beam deflection formula. If the slabs are supported on simply supported girders, the deflection of
the girder under the weight it supports should be added to obtain the total deflection, i.e. i = ij + ig.
In a tall building the shortening of the supporting columns under the weight they support should also be added
to obtain i. [49] An example of resonant vertical vibration during aerobics due to axial spring action of columns is
given in [52]. Thus the fundamental natural frequency of the floor structure, fn, is affected by the total deflection of
the structure, not just the deflection of the slab itself.
The deflection, i, for a uniformly-loaded simple span floor panel is determined from:
5wl 4
= Eq. (3)
384EI
E = 1.2Ec for concrete. The factor 1.2 takes into account the rate-of-loading effect for dynamic vibration as com-
pared to static deflection. [50] Eq. (3) does not apply to two-way flat slabs or two-way beam and slab construction.
Floors with natural frequencies lower than 3 Hz are generally not recommended because people may more readily
synchronize their actions at lower frequencies, such as “rogue” jumping. [50] If the natural frequency is less than 3
Hz, a special evaluation should be carried out, considering the planned uses of the floor area.
6.4.4 Design for Walking Vibration

Floor vibration due to walking is rarely a problem for concrete construction.
The following design criterion [50] is used for walking vibrations of long-span floors with natural frequency less than
9 Hz is based on the resonance model, Eq. (1):
ap a0
Eq. (4a)
g g
2
ap = peak acceleration due to walking, m/s
2
a0 = acceleration limit, m/s
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s ) )
Where ap /g is calculated on the resonance model (Eq. 1):

ap 0.35fn
P0 e
= Eq. (4b)
g W
0.35fn
P0 e = the harmonic walking force at or near fn, kN
P0 = a constant force representing the walker, kN
fn = natural frequency of the floor structure, Hz
2
W = wBL = effective weight of the floor, where w is the weight per m of a floor panel, L m long and B m
wide. For hollow core slabs it is recommended to take B equal to L. For double tees, it is recommended
to vary B from 0.8L for 450 mm topped double tees and 0.6L for 800 mm topped double tees. For
continuous spans, W may be increased 50%. [50] At an unstiffened edge of a floor, the width B used for
estimating the floor weight should be halved. [50]
Compute ap/g and compare to the limit in Figure 6.4.3

Recommended values of P0 and b for several occupancies and the respective a0/g acceleration limits are given in
Figure 6.4.3.
Constant Damping Acceleration

Force Ratio Limit
P0, kN a0/g
Offices,
residences, 0.29 0.02 to 0.05* 0.5%
churches
Shopping
0.29 0.02 1.5%
malls
Footbridges
Indoor 0.41 0.01** 1.5%
Outdoor 0.41 0.01 5.0%
* 0.02 for floors with few nonstructural components
and furnishings, as can occur in electronic or
paperless offices, open work areas or churches;
0.03 for floors with nonstructural components and
furnishings, but with only small demountable
partitions; 0.05 for full-height partitions between
floors.
** 0.02 for drywall ceiling well-attached to a
footbridge deck
Figure 6.4.3 Recommended values of parameters in Eq. (4a and 4b)

Procedures for calculating W and fn for two-way floor systems are given in Reference [50]. Below is an example of
calculating peak acceleration for a one-way hollow core slab on stiff supports. See [50] for more detail.
Example 6.10 Hollow core floor – walking vibration
Determine if a 203 mm simply supported hollow Figure 6.4.4 shows the peak walking acceleration,
core floor system satisfies the vibration criterion ap, for simply-supported residential floors on stiff
given in Eq. (4) due to walking. The floor supports a supports as a function of span length. These calcu-
residential occupancy with full-height partitions. lations were also carried out for an open plan office
with low partitions, where the damping ratio can be
Concrete Floor Properties:
reduced in Figure 6.4.3 from 0.05 to 0.03. Top-
Unit width – 1.22 m; Span variable – L m
ping is usually applied for an office floor; with the
Concrete unit mass 2400 kg/m3 effective moment of inertia increased from 693x10-6
f’c = 35 MPa m4 to 1276x10-6 m4 and the weight of hollow core
increased from 2.7 kPa to 3.9 kPa, The calculated
Elastic Modulus:
acceleration for the topped office floor is approx-
E = 1.2Ec imately the same as for the untopped residential
1.5
2400 floor. Both floors are satisfactory for walking for
E = 1.2 (3300 35 + 6900)
2300 spans up to the maximum recommended (10 m).
If the office floor were untopped, however, Figure
= 33800 MPa 6.4.4 indicates unsatisfactory walking vibration for
6 2
= 33.8 10 kN/m spans above 7.5 m.
Moment of inertia: If the hollow core floor system is supported on
Untopped I = 693 x 106 mm4 x 693 x 10-6 m4 steel beams, the natural frequency of the floor sys-
Weight of slab: tem is decreased, and the system must be re-evalu-
Untopped = 2.7 kN/m2 ated. See [48], Example 5.2.2.
Floor panel properties Continuity of hollow core over supports will reduce
Supported weight: vibration by providing increased mass and, if adja-
wj = 1.22[2.7+0.2(flrg, etc.) + 0.3(live)] cent spans are unequal, increased natural frequen-
= 3.90 kN/m cy of the floor system. Procedures for estimating
these effects are contained in [50].
Deflection (Eq. 3):
(5)(3.90)(L4 )(1000) L4 See [50], Example 5.2.1, for the design of a precast
j (in mm) = = double tee mall footbridge with low damping (0.01
(384)(33.8 106 )(693 10 6 ) 461
in Figure 6.4.3) for walking vibration.
Natural frequency (Eq. 2):
fn = 18 L4 461 = 386 /L2
Panel width: B = L
2 2
Panel weight: W j = wBL = [3.9/1.22]L = 3.2L
2
Damping ratio: = 0.05 (Figure 6.4.3); bW = 0.16L
Acceleration (Eq. 4):

ap 0.29e 0.35fn 0.29e 0.35fn 1.81e 0.35fn
= = =
g W 0.16L2 L2

Figure 6.4.4 Walking vibration—203 mm hollow core on stiff supports
6.4.5 Design for Vibration Due to Rhythmic Activities

Resonance vibration due to rhythmic activities is often unacceptable. It is usually necessary to avoid resonance by
ensuring that the natural frequency, fn, is greater than the forcing frequency, ifstep. The following criterion [49] is
based on the curve in Figure 6.4.1 above resonance:
fn K i wp Eq. (5)
ifstep 1 +
ao / g wt
ao/g = acceleration limit (see Figure 6.4.2).
wt = total dead weight supported by the floor structure expressed as a UDL.
wp = weight of participants as an equivalent UDL over the floor span. This can be estimated from the UDL of
the participants over the area occupied by the participants as recommended in Figure 6.4.5.
th
ifstep = forcing frequency of the i harmonic as recommended in Figure 6.4.5. For aerobics, three harmonics
need to be considered because of its repeated impactive character. For lively concert, sports events or
dancing, the second harmonic in Figure 6.4.5 takes into account the impactive character of foot
stamping.
th
i = dynamic coefficient for the i harmonic of the step or jumping frequency, as recommended in Figure
6.4.5.

K = 1.7 for dancing, 1.7 for lively concert or sports event, 2.0 for aerobics.

To prevent resonance vibration, Eq. (5) is applied to the highest harmonic. However, if the dynamic loading for the
highest harmonic, aiwp, is sufficiently small compared to the mass weight, wt, then resonance may be acceptable,
in which case the above equation is applied to the second highest harmonic in Figure 6.4.5. The peak acceleration
due to harmonic resonance, based on Eq. (1), is obtained from [50]:
1.3 i w p
ap/g = Eq. (6)
2 wt
For rhythmic activities, b can be taken as 0.04 to 0.06 for design purposes. The more people on the floor the great-
er the damping ratio.
Forcing UDL of Participants on Dynamic
Activity Frequency Occupied Area Coefficient
f (Hz) wp (kPa) i
Dancing
2
first harmonic 1.5 to 2.7 0.6 (2.5 m per person) 0.50
2
second harmonic 3.0 to 5.0 0.6 (2.5 m per person) 0.05
Lively Concert/Sports Event
2
2
Aerobics
2
2
2
third harmonic 6.0 to 8.25 0.2 (3.5 m per person) 0.10
Figure 6.4.5 Recommended dynamic loading for rhythmic events [49]
6.4.6 Stadium Seating

Precast, prestressed concrete seating slabs, as shown in Example 6.11, are often used in stadiums and arenas and are
usually manufactured in units that are one, two or three seats wide. Connections are provided between the upper and
lower units to prevent differential deflection of the adjacent units.
These seating slabs are subjected to rhythmic excitation, as a crowd responds in unison to a cheer or song. The re-
sponse of the seating slabs is different from that of an ordinary flat floor. The seating slabs have a three-dimensional
nature, and vibrate and deflect about their weakest principal axis, as shown in the example. Furthermore, the bays in sta-
diums are often of non-uniform width. This causes each seating slab to have a different span and thus, a different natural
frequency that helps to prevent resonance.
Fifty-six different seating slabs made by PCI members have
been examined. All are known to have satisfactory performance
in service. This examination produced the following recommen-
dations:
1. The slabs should be sufficiently interconnected, with a min-
imum of three connections per bay, to prevent differential
deflection between adjacent units. If people sit on one slab,
with their feet resting on another slab below, they are much
more sensitive to differential deflections of the two units.
2. For bays of uniform width with an angle in plan, θ, less than
5 degrees (see Figure 6.4.6), the minimum natural frequency
requirement for the first harmonic should be satisfied. For
bays of non-uniform width with an angle in plan, θ, of 5
degrees or more, the minimum frequency requirement may Figure 6.4.6 Uniform and non-uniform width
be reduced 25 percent. bays in a stadium

Consult with local CPCI members for specific recommendations for stadium seating slabs.
Example 6.11 Stadium seats on stiff supports – lively concert/sports event
1.7 (0.25x1.5)cos220
fn 2.7 1 + = 3.5 Hz
0.15 5 + 1.5
The natural frequency for the precast seating is de-
termined from Eq. (3) using the principal moment
of inertia in the most flexible direction (slope of
22°), which is found by application of [54] to be
3350 x 10-6 m4— see Example A2 in [50]. Application
of Eq. (3) results in:
The precast stadium seating shown above is pro- 5 (6.5)(1.6)(L4 )(1000) L4

=
posed, where it is assumed that the risers are on = 384 (33.8 106 )(3350 10 6 ) 836
stiff supports. The weight of the seating, including (L in m, in mm)
non-structural components, is 5 kPa on a horizontal
E = 1.2Ec
projection. Determine the maximum acceptable
span for vibration acceptability during a lively con- where Ec = 33.8 x 106 kN/m4 from Example 6.10. For
cert or sports event using an acceleration limit of 10 a minimum natural frequency of 3.5 Hz that corre-
to 18%g, see Figure 6.4.2. sponds to a i of 26.5 mm from Eq. (2), application
of the above formula results in a maximum span of
For such an event, Figure 6.4.5 recommends a 12.2 m.
UDL of 1.5 kPa for the weight of participants and
two harmonic loads with forcing frequencies up to For stadia where lively concerts often occur, the
2.7 Hz for the first harmonic and up to 5 Hz for the owner may wish to limit the acceleration to 10%g ,
second harmonic. Because the seating vibrates in a and Eq. (5) is applied for ifstep = 5 Hz for the second
direction normal to the weak axis, these forces are harmonic in Figure 6.4.3:
multiplied by cos22°. 1.7 (0.05 1.5)cos220
fn 5.0 1 + = 5.4 Hz
First, apply Eq. (6) to see if second harmonic reso- 0.10 5 + 1.5
nance is acceptable: For a minimum natural frequency of 5.4 Hz, appli-
o
1.3 (0.05)(1.5)cos22 cation of Eq. (2) results in a i of 10.7 mm, and from
a/g = = 12%g
(2)(0.06) 5 + 1.5 the calculation above, the maximum span of 12.2 m
is reduced to 9.7 m.
which is marginally acceptable. For a stadium,
second harmonic resonance is much more likely to These calculations are based on the assumption
be annoying during a lively concert because of the that the risers are on stiff supports. For precast risers
duration of a song. For most stadia, lively concerts on flexible supports, the properties of the structure
are rare, and a 12%g vibration limit is expected to (natural frequency and mass) are altered, primarily
be acceptable. To limit accelerations in such stadia in a reduction of natural frequency. To investigate
to 15%g, Eq. (5) is applied for ifstep = 2.7 Hz for the this, a dynamic analysis of the supporting structure
first harmonic in Figure 6.4.5: is recommended, see [50].

6.4.7 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical Equipment

Vibrations produced by equipment and unbalanced operating or starting forces can usually be isolated from the
structure by mounting the equipment on a heavy concrete slab placed on resilient supports. This type of slab,
called an inertia block, provides a low centre of gravity to compensate for dynamic forces such as those generated
by large fans.
For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a “housekeeping” slab is sometimes used below the resilient mounts
to provide a rigid support for the mounts and to keep them above the floor so they are easier to clean and inspect.
This slab may also be mounted on pads of precompressed glass fibre or neoprene.
The natural frequency of the total mass on resilient mounts must be well below the forcing frequency generated by
the equipment. The required weight of an inertia block depends on the total weight of the machine and the unbal-
anced force. For a long-stroke compressor, five to seven times its weight might be needed. For high pressure fans,
one to five times the fan weight is usually sufficient.
A floor supporting resiliently mounted equipment must be stiffer than the isolation system. If the static deflection
of the floor approaches the static deflection of the mounts, the floor becomes part of the vibrating system, and lit-
tle vibration isolation is achieved. In general, the floor deflection should be limited to about 15% of the deflection
of the mounts.
Simplified theory shows that for 90% vibration isolation, the equipment plus blocking mass supported on resilient
mounts should have a natural frequency of about one-third the forcing frequency of the equipment.
The natural frequency of this system, can be calculated by [55]:
15.8
fom = Eq. (7)
m
m = static deflection of the mounts due to the weight supported (mm)
The minimum required static deflection of the mounts can be determined as follows:
2
47.4
m = Eq. (8)
f
f1 = 0.15 m Eq. (9)
f = forcing frequency of the equipment (Hz)
fl = static deflection of the floor system at the location of the equipment caused by the weight of the
equipment (including inertia block), (mm).
Example 6.12 Vibration Isolation
A piece of mechanical equipment has a forcing The maximum deflection of the floor structure
frequency of 15 Hz. Determine the approximate under the weight of isolated equipment is deter-
minimum deflection of the mounts due to the mined as follows:
weight supported and the maximum deflection of
ifl = (0.15)(10) = 10 mm
the floor structure due to the equipment.
The minimum static deflection of the mounts due
to the weight supported is determined as follows:
2
47.4
m = = 10 mm
15

6.5 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

6.5.1 Terms and Definitions
Admixtures – Those ingredients in concrete other than hydraulic cement, water, and aggregates that are added to
the mixture immediately before or during mixing.
Anthropogenic – Effects or processes that are derived from human activities, as opposed to natural effects or pro-
cesses that occur in the environment without human influences.
Blast-furnace cement – Mixture comprised of hydraulic cement and higher percentages of blast-furnace slag.
Durability – The ability of a structure or a structural element to maintain adequate performance for a given time
under expected actions and environmental influences, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna,
humans and their interrelations. [68]
Eco-toxicity – Adverse effects on plants and animals, populations, or communities.
Entrain – Trap and retain; gas bubbles in liquid or solid or air in concrete.
Environmental aspect – Element of an organization’s activities, products and services that can interact with the
environment.
Environmental burden – An adverse environmental impact.
Environmental conditions – Chemical, biological or physical influences on a structure that may deteriorate the
materials constituting the structure that may affect its reliability in an unfavorable way.
Environmental declaration – A presentation of environmentally relevant product information.
Environmental impact – Any change to the natural environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially
resulting from an organization’s activities, products or services.
Eutrophication – A process by which a water body becomes rich in dissolved nutrients.
Fly ash – Finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal that is transported
from the firebox through the boiler by flue gases. Fly ash is a by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants.
Functional unit – The quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference.
Heat capacity – Also called thermal capacity, is the ability of matter to store heat. It is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of one gram of a material one degree Celsius.
High performance concrete (HPC) – Concrete made with appropriate materials (superplasticizer, retarder,
fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume) combined according to a selected mix design and properly mixed,
transported, placed, consolidated, and cured to give excellent performance in some properties of concrete, such
as high compressive strength, high density, low permeability, long-term mechanical properties, early age strength,
toughness, volume stability, or service life in severe environments.
Hydraulic cement – Hydraulic cement is the most common type of cement in general use, as it is a basic ingredi-
ent of concrete and mortar. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminum. Hydraulic cement
and similar materials are made by heating limestone (as source of calcium) with clay or sand (as source of silicon)
and grinding the product. The resulting powder, when mixed with water, will become a hydrated solid over time.
Integral cost – The sum of environmental burden and economic cost.
Life cycle – Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation of
natural resources to final disposal.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) – A compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential
environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle.

Life cycle cost (LCC) – All costs associated with the product’s life cycle. These include all costs involved in acquisi-
tion (research & development, design, production & construction, and phase-in), operation, support and disposal
of the product.
Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI) – The phase of life cycle assessment involving the compilation and quantifica-
tion of inputs and outputs for a given product system throughout its life cycle.
Life Cycle Inventory Assessment (LCIA) – Characterization of the life cycle inventory (LCI) data in terms of their
potential environmental impacts, consisting of the following mandatory elements: selection of impact categories,
category indicators, and characterization models; classification of inventory data into specific impact categories;
and characterization of inventory data into common equivalence units.
Live load – All the loads in a building not part of the structure: furniture, people, snow, wind.
Off-gassing – Also known as outgassing, is the emission of chemicals from building materials, furniture, textiles,
bedding or other products in a home.
Pozzolan cement – A fine powdered material that is added to non-hydraulic lime mortars to accelerate the set.
The material possesses little or no cementitious value, but in a finely divided form it will react with calcium hydrox-
ide (lime putty) in the presence of moisture to provide a chemical set.
Precast element – A concrete unit cast and cured in a place other than the final location in a structure.
Note: The precast elements described in this section are assumed to be manufactured in a permanent produc-
tion facility in accordance with A23.4, as opposed to units cast at a building site.
Raw material – A primary or secondary material used to produce a product.
Recycling – The collection or processing of waste from a system, that results in a useful application of a product
either in the same system or in a different system.
Recycling is the reuse of materials that would otherwise be considered waste. Recycled materials can be derived
from pre-consumer waste (materials used in manufacturing) or post-consumer waste (materials discarded by the
consumer).
Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels – Insulated precast wall panels consist of two reinforced or
prestressed concrete wythes with a continuous layer of rigid insulation between.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) – A concrete mixture that can be placed purely by means of its own weight with
little or no vibration.
Supplementary cementing materials (SCM) – Fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, silica fume, and
natural pozzolans, such as calcined shale, calcined clay or metakaolin, are materials that, when used in conjunction
with hydraulic or blended cement, contribute to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or poz-
zolanic activity or both. These materials are generally categorized as supplementary cementing materials (SCM’s)
or mineral admixtures. Supplementary cementing materials are added to concrete as part of the total cementing
system. They may be used in addition to or as a partial replacement of hydraulic cement or blended cement in
concrete, depending on the properties of the materials and the desired effect on concrete. Types of supplementary
cementing materials are given in A23.1, Table 8.
Setting time – The time required for a specimen of concrete, mortar or cement paste, prepared and tested under
standardized conditions, to attain a specified degree of rigidity.
Slag – A by-product of smelting ore to purify metals. Slags can be considered to be a mixture of metal oxides. Slag
can contain metal sulphides and metal atoms in the elemental form. Slags are generally used as a waste removal
mechanism in metal smelting, however they can also serve other purposes such as assisting in smelt temperature
control and to minimise re-oxidation of the final bullion product before casting.

Slag cement – A supplementary cementitious material often included in contemporary concrete mixes. Slag ce-
ment is a hydraulic cement.
Surplus material – Material left over at the end of a production process.
Sustainable development – Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
The three pillars of sustainability are:
1. Environmental quality
2. Social equity and cultural issues
3. Economic constraints
Thermal inertia – A measure of the response of a material to temperature changes within a substance.
Triple bottom line – An expanded spectrum of values and criteria for measuring organizational (and societal)
success – economic, environmental and social. In practical terms, triple bottom line accounting usually means
expanding the traditional company reporting framework to take into account not just financial outcomes but also
environmental and social performance.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – Organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapour pressures
under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. VOCs are an important outdoor air
pollutant.
Waste – Unwanted or undesired material left over after the completion of a process.
6.5.2 Introduction
Sustainable design applies good design practices and good business principles in addition to preserving the natu-
ral environment. Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of people living today
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development requires
a long-term vision of industrial progress, preserving the foundations upon which quality of life depends: respect for
basic human needs and local and global ecosystems. [63]
The First International Conference on Sustainable Construction in 1994 defined sustainable construction as: The
creation and responsible maintenance of a healthy built environment, based on ecological principles, and by
means of an efficient use of resources. In keeping with this definition, architects, engineers, owners, contractors and
developers have a responsibility to design and select materials and systems that will provide a durable foundation
for sustainable communities. The production and use of concrete in all its forms is central because concrete is sec-
ond only to water as the most consumed substance on earth, with nearly three tons used annually for each person
on the planet.
Like all manufactured products, the production and use of concrete building systems imposes environmental bur-
dens. However, concrete offers a dramatic range of colours, finishes and unlimited design possibilities difficult to
match with other materials. Concrete structures can provide superior environmental and energy performance from
a life cycle perspective. Precast concrete offers a competitive building solution based on first cost, long-term eco-
nomic benefits, energy efficiency, lower maintenance and overall operating costs as well as opportunities for future
reuse should the occupancy of a building change.
The Canadian cement and concrete industry’s environmental record is continuously improving. The industry has
achieved the following:
• 30% reduction per tonne of cement in the consumption of coal, natural gas and petroleum coke since the
1970s
• 11% energy efficiency improvement between 1990 and 2001 [62]
• 8% decrease in direct emissions of CO2 per tonne of concrete product between 1990 and 2000, with a fur-
ther 2% decrease by 2010 [63]

• The introduction of Contempra cement which further decreases CO2 emissions by 10%
6.5.3 Green Building Rating Systems

When we consider the current and future use of precast concrete, it is useful to look at the green building rating
and assessment systems used to evaluate and reward buildings for their environmental performance. There are
several systems in use in North America and in the world that promote the construction of better buildings – better
for the environment, the owner and for the occupant. These systems allow many variables in a project to be quanti-
fied and assessed objectively.
In North America, BREEAM Green Leaf, the web-enabled Green Globes system, and LEED are the principal rating
systems used for assessing buildings where precast concrete is most likely to play an important role.
BREEAM Green Leaf is an environmental assessment protocol that was developed in response to a need for a
less expensive method that could be partially conducted in-house. The method originated in Canada and was
developed by ECD Energy, Environment Canada and Terra Choice. It combined a Canadian adaptation of the UK
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) set of environmental issues with
the Green Leaf Eco-Rating procedure. [61]
Green Globes, part of the BREEAM/Green Leaf suite of environmental assessment tools for buildings, is an online
building and management audit tool that helps property owners and managers to measure the environmental
performance of their buildings against best practices in areas such as energy, water, hazardous materials, waste
management and indoor environment. Using a confidential questionnaire, it generates an online report.
LEEDTM (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), developed by the United States Green Building Council
(USGBC), is being adopted as a green building design and rating tool by both the architectural and engineering
communities, with the LEEDTM Canada adaptation provided through the Canadian Green Building Council (CaG-
BC). Buildings are certified by the CaGBC based on a total point score, following an independent review and audit
of selected documents submitted by a design team. With four possible levels of certification (Certified, Silver, Gold
and Platinum), LEED is flexible enough to accommodate a wide range of green building strategies that best fit the
constraints and goals of particular projects.
All of these systems assess and reward performance with regard to design and construction management, site
selection, material selection and use, operational energy use, water use, and indoor environmental quality. Within
these broad categories there are specific criteria and requirements, from building reuse and waste management to
new building commissioning.
Precast concrete can be used in combination with a wide variety of other building materials to contribute to the
achievement of a desired level of certification in any of the systems. In LEED, for example, precast concrete solu-
tions can contribute to the achievement of points through Optimize Energy Performance, Building Reuse, Con-
struction Waste Management, Recycled Content, Local/Regional Materials and Innovation in Design – leading
toward a desired level of certification. The energy, material selection, construction waste management, and indoor
environmental quality criteria are the most critical. Each is examined in subsequent sections.
6.5.4 Life Cycle Cost and Assessment

Doing the right thing, the right way, at the right time, usually results in the lowest Life Cycle Cost (LCC). Generally,
design (D) accounts for around 2%, construction (C) around 23%, and operation and maintenance (O&M) around
75% of the total life-cycle costs of a building. Making the right investment up front will minimize O&M. Saving 10%
on C can cause O&M to escalate.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized method for examining a broad range of environmental impacts asso-
ciated with a process or a product over its complete life cycle.
It is a practical analytical tool used to quantify and interpret comprehensively the energy and material flows to and
from the environment over the entire life cycle of a product, process, or service (ISO 2006). By including the im-

pacts throughout the product life cycle, LCA provides a comprehensive view of the environmental aspects of the
product and a more accurate picture of the true environmental trade- offs in product selection.
When applied to buildings, LCA includes the following:
• resource extraction
• manufacturing and transportation of materials and pre-fabricated components
• on-site construction
• building operations, including energy consumption and maintenance, and
• end-of-life reuse, recycling or disposal
Only the LCA of a building can provide estimates of the full range of environmental burdens such as embodied
energy use and related fossil fuel depletion, other resource use, greenhouse gas emissions, and toxic releases to
air, water and land.
An inclusive LCA of a building is a complex task best handled with computer modeling tools. In Canada and the
U.S., the Athena Institute’s ATHENATM Environmental Impact Estimator [69] is available to perform a full life cycle
analysis at the whole building level.
Section 6.5.10 summarizes a state-of-the-art research study of “cradle-to-grave” life cycle assessment research
conducted on precast concrete commercial buildings [73].
6.5.5 Energy Use

There are two sides to energy use:
1. the embodied energy (an LCA term discussed in more detail below) associated with the manufacturing,
transportation, use and ultimate disposal of all the materials in a building, and
2. the energy used to heat, cool, light and generally operate a building.
Embodied energy represents the total energy used in making a product, including cement production, energy
used to extract and process aggregates, transportation energy, and energy used in a precast plant. Energy is re-
quired for machinery, concrete curing and for heating the plant.
It is possible to utilize manufacturing energy very efficiently as production of precast concrete elements takes place
mainly in enclosed factories. For example, the heat used for accelerating the strength development of concrete
can also be used in heating the plant. When producing massive elements, the exothermal reaction (hydration) of
the cement may also reduce heating requirements. The energy consumption in precast plants during the winter is
typically about 40% higher than the annual average. The energy consumption of the manufacturing process also
depends on the type of production.
Equipment, like cranes, transport equipment for aggregates and cement, bending equipment for reinforcement, vi-
brators etc., can, due to their repetitive operations, be reduced to what is absolutely necessary to perform the task.
The energy required to produce concrete can be improved by rationalizing energy consumption in plant produc-
tion.
Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCM) can significantly reduce the embodied energy of precast concrete
products by substituting waste materials for relatively high energy hydraulic cement. SCMs are mostly by-products
of other industrial processes; their judicious use in concrete production is desirable both for environmental and
energy conservation as well as for the technical benefits they can provide. SCMs are added to concrete as part of
the total cementitious system, either as an addition or partial replacement of hydraulic cement. The colour and
uniformity of SCMs must be investigated for architectural precast concrete applications.

When properly used, the SCMs can enhance the following properties of concrete:
• generally improve the workability and finishing of fresh concrete
• reduce bleeding and segregation of fresh concrete
• lower the heat of hydration, beneficial in mass pours
• improve the pumpability of fresh concrete
• generally improve the long term strength gain
• reduce permeability and absorption (especially silica fume)
• reduce alkali-aggregate reactivity
The effect of replacing cement with supplementary cementitious materials on the embodied energy of concrete is
appreciable. For example, a 1% replacement of cement with fly ash results in an approximately 0.7% reduction in
energy consumption per unit of concrete.
Silica Fume
Silica fume is a waste product recovered from the reduction of high-purity quartz with coal in electric furnaces in the
production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume improves the quality, strength and durability of concrete by
making the concrete much less permeable and more resistant to corrosion of the steel reinforcement.
Fly Ash
Fly ash is a pozzolan waste product collected from coal-fired power plants. Fly ash contains some heavy metal (nor-
mally more than silica fume), so the heavy metal content of the concrete will increase. Replacement of cement with
moderate quantities of fly ash can refine the pore structure of the concrete, making it more resistant to chloride
penetration. Not all fly ash is suitable for use in concrete. Fly ash shall conform to the requirements of CSA A3000
and shall be specified in accordance with Tables 7 and 8 in CSA A23.1.
Normally 10% to 20% of the cement can be replaced with fly ash to reduce the environmental burden of the con-
crete. Substitution with fly ash at levels exceeding 25% is considered to be a high volume SCM application. Appro-
priate testing to ensure the desired performance should be carried out. The substitution of cement with fly ash can
increase setting times and decrease early age strength. This may be an economic factor in precast concrete manu-
facturing if casting cannot be maintained on a daily cycle.
Although fly ash offers environmental advantages, it also improves the performance and quality of concrete. Fly ash
affects the plastic properties of concrete by improving workability, reducing water demand, reducing segregation
and bleeding, and lowering heat of hydration. Fly ash increases long-term strength, reduces permeability, reduces
corrosion of reinforcing steel, increases sulphate resistance, and reduces alkali-aggregate reaction. Concrete con-
taining fly ash, when substituted for cement, reaches its maximum strength more slowly than concrete made with
only hydraulic cement.
Blast Furnace Slag

Production of blast furnace slag consumes about 1/3 of the energy required to produce cement. Substitution of slag
at levels exceeding 35% for hydraulic cement in precast concrete is considered a high volume SCM application, and
its suitability for intended use must be prequalified. The addition of slag cement usually results in reduced need
for water, faster setting time, improved pumpability and finishability, higher 28-day strength, lower permeability,
resistance to sulfate attack and alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), and lighter color. Blast-furnace slag shall conform to the
requirements of CSA A3000 and shall be specified in accordance with Tables 7 and 8 in CSA A23.1.
One of the important lessons from LCA is that decisions should not be based on either embodied or operational
energy use in isolation. The key is to optimize total energy use over the full life cycle, recognizing that a higher em-
bodied energy may pay dividends in the form of lower maintenance and operating energy. Athena Institute studies
show that, over the lifetime of a building, operating energy is the more significant of the two. The embodied ener-
gy of the materials may represent only 3% to 13% of total energy use over a 75 to 80 year building life.

Thermal Mass
From an operating energy perspective, the ther-
mal inertia of heavy materials is well known, both
in warm and cold climates. Figure 6.5.1 shows the
comparative thermal inertia of various building
materials.
The heat capacity of concrete is about 2,400 KJ/
m3/°K. With an average concrete volume of 30 m3
for an apartment, energy in the order of 70 MJ will
be stored in the concrete frame for each degree
the temperature is raised or lowered. This ener-
gy can be released to contribute to heating or
cooling the space when the temperature changes.
To get an idea about how much energy this is, it
can be compared to the total energy consumption Figure 6.5.1 Thermal inertia of various materials [66]b
required to heat an apartment in a modern build-
ing: on an annual basis, this is a maximum of 150
kW/m2 (45 GJ for an apartment of 80 m2). The daily
energy consumption in the cold season is less than
250 MJ. [63]
Several systems have been developed to use ther-
mal mass in precast structures, see Figure 6.5.2.
Air is circulated in the voids of hollow core floor
and roof slabs. This system reduces the size of the
required mechanical system and creates energy
savings both for heating in the winter as well as
cooling in the summer. For heating, energy savings
in the order of 35% can be achieved with this
system. A reduction in cooling power consumption
can be about 40%. [65]
Figure 6.5.2 Precast hollow core air supply system that
The underside of concrete floor and roof slabs uses thermal inertia of concrete
should be exposed to get the full benefits of ther-
mal mass. Doing away with a suspended ceiling can
reduce the overall building height and can result in 5% to 7% savings in construction costs. Using the thermal mass
of concrete is extremely important from an environmental point of view as it provides a long-term economic gain
for a building owner through reduced life cycle costs.
The mass of concrete also provides excellent acoustic insulating properties for air-borne sound and makes con-
crete ideal for external walls in buildings facing roads with heavy traffic, as insulation between different areas in a
building and as a noise barrier beside railroads and roads.
6.5.6 Material Selection

Material selection and resource use is one of the key areas assessed in all rating systems. The choice of materials
and systems within a material category can have dramatic effect in terms of the environmental burdens captured in
a full life cycle assessment. Material selection impacts a number of more specific concerns, such as design efficien-
cy and related material use, recycled content, recyclability, and the potential for reuse. All these considerations are
either directly or indirectly taken into account in green building assessment and rating systems. While the systems
do not yet deal explicitly, or well, with building durability issues, it is obvious that material selection can also be a
key aspect of ensuring a building service life that exceeds the desired or planned service life. This is especially true
for materials that will be exposed to the elements or subjected to wear and tear from occupants.

LCA comparison of precast versus cast-in-place Hollow core Cast-in-place

systems floors and roofs are significant in terms Item
slab (MJ/m2) slab (MJ/m2)
of the environmental burden during the produc-
Cement 186 389
tion of the load bearing components of a struc-
ture. Optimization of floor and roof components Steel 45 60
can significantly reduce the environmental im- Other raw materials 15 23
pact of the overall structure construction. Figure Manufacturing pro-
128 32
6.5.3 shows that a precast concrete hollow core cess
slab system can offer clear embodied energy Transportation 28 42
advantages relative to a cast-in-place floor slab.
Total 401 560
Distances from a precast plant and a ready-mix
Figure 6.5.3 Energy consumption required to produce
plant to the building site are assumed to be the
concrete floors [65]
same. The higher energy consumption for the
cast-in-place slab is due to the larger volume of concrete needed per square metre of floor.
In Figure 6.5.4, the comparison is broadened to cover a number of physical characteristics and a range of environmen-
tal effects. The precast concrete hollow core floor slab is less environmentally intensive than its cast-in-place counter-
part, with the exception of greenhouse gas emissions where the precast system has slightly higher impacts.
CEM I, II, and II are European cement designations. CEM I (hydraulic cement) and CEM II (hydraulic composite)
cements, used for the hollow core slabs, and CEM III (Blast-furnace cement), used for the cast-in-place floor, can have
an impact on the results in the above table. The sensitivity analysis carried out shows that when using other data and
other assumptions, the environmental profile remains intact, and the hollow core floor scores even more favourably
in many cases. A floor of hollow core slabs
consumes 40% less concrete and 50% less
Hollow core Cast-in-place
steel compared to a cast-in-place reinforced
slab (per m2) slab (per m2)
slab. This amounts to savings of 14.4 t of
Concrete (kg) 263.7 423.0 concrete and 275 kg of steel for an average
Reinforcement (kg) 3.2 6.1 apartment unit.
Total mass (kg) 266.9 429.1
These results reflect the efficiency of mate-
rial use in a precast system with advanced
Eutrophication production processes using high strength
0.0356 0.0410
(kg P04-3 eq.) concrete and prestressing steel. Precast
Exhaustion (x10 ) -12 0.0468 0.0707 structures use less material to achieve the
Ecotoxicity (xl03 m3) 2.78 5.81 same load bearing capacity compared with
cast-in-place structures. Smaller precast
Greenhouse effect
55.2 53.4 cross sections result in less dead load to
(kg CO2 eq.)
carry. CSA A23.3 allows the use of a higher
Acidification (kg SO2 eq.) 0.252 0.306 concrete resistance factor for certified plant
Summer smog manufactured precast concrete elements.
0.0297 0.0460
(kg C2H4 eq.) The choice of one precast load bearing
system over another does not have a major
Human toxicity (kg) 0.318 0.411
impact on the environmental burden creat-
ed by the construction.
Use of primary energy (MJ) 461.0 643.0
Prestressing done by pretensioning pre-
Solid waste (kg) 36.3 58.8
stressing strands in the forms at a precast
Note: “eq.” = equivalents plant is highly efficient, reducing the
amount of embedded steel and improving
Figure 6.5.4 Comparison of different floor types from a study
structural performance.
in the Netherlands where an extensive investigation compared a
precast hollow core floor with a cast-in-place floor [65].

Example 6.13 Comparing a prestressed and non-prestressed reinforced concrete beam

A beam spanning 7.0 m is required to carry a dead In precast production the concrete cover to the
load of 30 kN/m and a live load of 25 kN/m. A reinforcement is better controlled. Protection of
cross section of 300x600 mm is chosen with top reinforcing steel from corrosion can be obtained by
reinforcement of 2-20M bars. The main reinforce- proper embedment in concrete. A protective iron
ment required for the reinforced beam is 4-30M oxide film forms on the bar as a result of the high
bars to carry the load, while a prestressed beam alkalinity of the cement paste. This protection is
needs 8-13 mm strands. The reduction in shear usually lost by leaching and carbonation. Concrete
reinforcement in the prestressed beam is neglect- with sufficiently low permeability and adequate
ed. The reinforcement required is 2800 mm2 for the cover will protect the reinforcement. Hairline and
reinforced beam compared with 792 mm2 for the structural cracking may allow oxygen and moisture
prestressed beam – a reduction in the area of the to reach the reinforcement, providing conditions
main reinforcement of about 70%. where rusting of the steel and staining of the con-
crete may occur. [66] Precast concrete being HPC,
Summary:
manufactured to better tolerances and prestressed
• Precasting allows optimized concrete mix de-
(with its lower usage of steel), provides better dura-
signs. Mixes are usually designed to reach 25-30
bility in harsh environments.
MPa in 12-16 hours for precasting a new element
each day. Building Reuse
Durability of the original structure is a key deter-
• Prestressing can significantly reduce the amount
minant of the potential for building reuse that in
of steel used.
turn has significant environmental implications.
• Post-tensioned concrete can be employed at a Buildings constructed from robust materials that
precast plant and is often used at the site to join withstand the elements and occupant use for a very
elements as moment connections, shear walls long time, are often prime candidates for refurbish-
and for stabilizing elevator and stair shafts in tall ment and continued service. Buildings constructed
buildings. from precast concrete fit these criteria. A precast
interior frame of a building can have a life expec-
Service Life
tancy of hundreds of years.
The durability, or service life, of a building element
is a function of the material and the environment. Adaptability is a key factor underlying the ultimate
Precast prestressed concrete will provide reliable service life of a building. If a structure is designed
long-term performance in extremely harsh condi- so that the interior of the building can be changed
tions that can destroy lesser materials. Precast is without major demolition, the building itself can
resistant to deterioration from weather extremes, have a long life. Long spans, common in precast
chemical attack, fire, accidental damage and the prestressed structures, are one way of assisting the
determined efforts of vandals. [66] adaptability of buildings. Increasing the load carry-
ing capacity of precast floor systems is not expen-
The production of precast concrete elements under
sive and can extend the useful life for a building by
controlled plant conditions allows for accurate
providing flexibility for future conversion to other
control; e.g. tolerances and concrete quality. The
uses. Secondary installations, such as precast con-
concrete used in precast components is usually
crete mezzanine floors in industrial buildings, can
denser, stronger and is generally of better quality
easily be installed, or removed, when occupancy
than concrete cast at the jobsite. Many codes do
requirements demand changes to a building.
not reflect the positive effect of high quality con-
crete or include requirements for smaller rebar cov- Precast buildings can also be disassembled and
er or increased life expectancy for higher grades of rebuilt at another location, providing yet another
concrete used in precast structures. means of extending service life.
The most common deterioration of concrete struc-
Continues next page
tures is the corrosion of the steel reinforcement.

Example 6.13 Comparing a prestressed and non-prestressed reinforced concrete beam (Continued
from previous page)
At the end of a building’s useful life, 100% of primary impact comes from volatile organic com-
concrete demolition waste can be recycled. After pounds (VOCs) that can be emitted from some
removal of the reinforcement, concrete can be products and produce negative health impacts.
crushed to produce aggregate that is primarily VOC emissions are minimized with the use of
used in pavement construction, as granular sub- precast concrete because they require no coatings
base, lean-concrete sub-base, and soil-cement or finishes in interior applications. If coatings are
aggregate. It has also been used on a limited required, precast concrete offers the advantage of
scale as replacement aggregate in new concrete being compatible with many low water-based VOC
production. materials. Exposed concrete floors can utilize low
VOC coatings and eliminate the need for carpeting
Recycled concrete aggregate has a higher absorp-
or other flooring products.
tion and lower specific gravity than conventional
aggregate, necessitating a more strict moisture Mould spores are a significant contributor to indoor
control in stockpiles. Concrete made with recycled air quality problems. Concrete does not sustain
coarse aggregate and conventional fine aggre- mould growth.
gate can obtain adequate compressive strength.
Sound attenuation is another key element in indoor
The use of recycled fine aggregate can result in
environmental quality. Concrete has excellent
minor reduction of compressive strength. The
acoustic insulation properties. Precast concrete is
drying shrinkage and creep is up to 100% higher
well suited for use as a noise barrier for external
than concrete with a corresponding amounts of
walls on buildings close to airports and areas with
conventional aggregate. For these reasons, large
heavy traffic. Sound barriers, positioned along the
scale use of recycled aggregate concrete has not
edges of major roads and highways, can reduce the
yet been achieved in Canada.
transmission of direct sound to residential areas –
Indoor Environmental Quality – Low Emitting see Section 6.2.
Materials (VOCs)
The materials used in construction can affect the
quality of a building’s indoor environment. The
6.5.7 Production of Precast Concrete

Environmental and manufacturing conditions at a precast plant are easily monitored. The production of precast
concrete elements takes place under controlled conditions in enclosed factories. This makes the control of waste,
emissions, noise levels, etc. easy compared with the same processes at a building site. The raw material consump-
tion is similar for similar qualities of concrete, regardless of whether the production takes place in a factory, at a
ready-mix plant or at a building site. The raw material waste in precast production is very small.
The use of new technologies like self-consolidating concrete (SCC) can significantly reduce noise and vibration in
the production process. The use of high-performance concrete (HPC) enables the design and production of more
reliable and more durable structures with function-optimized shapes. Cost and material savings in structural mate-
rial consumption and natural resources can be realized through controlled production.
Forms
Forms used in precast planks are normally made of either steel or plywood. Form use is usually significantly higher
than for cast-in-place construction. A large number of castings in forms are typical in the production of precast
concrete elements in plants with a saving of raw materials.
Plywood form use is limited to about 20 to 50 castings depending upon the complexity, maintenance and shape of
the form.

Standardized elements cast in steel forms are one step towards sustainable production. An unlimited number of
castings can be made by precasting using steel forms. Standardization of precast products will save cost. Attempts
by the precast industry to standardize precast cross sections are designed to save costs and increase market share
by getting the maximum number of casts out of every form.
Form oil
Mineral oil release agents can affect the health of workers, pollute the air, water and soil, be flammable, have poor
biodegradability and result in hazardous waste. New form oils have been developed, containing a mix of marine es-
ter, medical white oil and vegetable oil. These oils are easily biodegradable and are practically harmless. Precasters
use approximately 0.5 kg form oil per m3 of concrete. Mineral oils are still used, but as prices come down, precast-
ers can change to the new form oils.
Silicone
Silicone is frequently used to seal joints in forms. No scientifically based negative ecological findings have been
found regarding the life cycle of silicone sealants.
Chemical admixtures
Chemical admixtures can be divided into four main groups: water-reducing, air-entraining, retarders and accelerators.
In addition, there are several other types of admixtures for special applications. The purpose of admixtures is to
improve concrete quality both in the fresh and hardened state. The use of admixtures often has a beneficial effect on the
environment: better durability of concrete, less consumption of cement, less energy consumption during casting, etc.
Water-reducing admixtures are normally synthetic organic compounds; sulphonated naphthalene/ melamine
formaldehyde condensates, sulphonic acid esters, carbohydrate esters etc. The content of water reducing admixture is
typically 0.02% – 0.1% by the weight of concrete. Water-reducing admixtures do not contribute to emissions.
Air-entraining agents are used to improve the frost resistance of concrete. These admixtures are surface-active
organic compounds. Their amount in concrete is very small, 0.002% to 0.02% by the weight of concrete.
Retarders and accelerators are used to control the setting of the cement. Contents are typically less than 0.1% by
the weight of concrete.
Admixture quantities in precast concrete are very low, normally less than 0.1% by weight of concrete. The
quantities of admixtures used are too small to have any significant environmental impact. Most admixtures used in
prefabrication are non-toxic, organic compounds.
Reinforcement
The process of preparing mild steel reinforcement may be the same for a precaster as for a contractor at a build-
ing site, except that precasters will usually have less waste. This results in better utilization of the steel and less
consumption of natural resources. Mesh reinforcement in thin members is a very efficient use of materials. Precast
elements may require some extra reinforcement to resist lifting and handling stresses. A precast structure may need
some additional reinforcement to facilitate the force transfer in building connections. This may reduce some of the
advantages gained during production.
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)

Infrastructure components that commonly deteriorate over time, usually by corrosion, can force early rehabilitation.
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials may be used to reinforce these sections to allow the infrastruc-
ture to achieve its full lifetime. See CSA S806 for design and production procedures.
Glass, aramid and carbon FRPs are up to 6 times stronger than steel, one-fifth the weight, noncorrosive and
non-magnetic. Their high strength and light weight, and the fact that FRPs are now available in the form of thin
sheets, make them an attractive alternative and economical solution for strengthening existing concrete bridges
and structures. The use of FRP bars and tendons is considered to be one of the most promising solutions to overall
deterioration aggravated by corroding steel reinforcements in new structures and bridges. [66]

Colour pigments
Colour pigments are commonly used to manufacture coloured concrete. Pigments are normally iron oxides (e.g.
red and brown), chrome oxides (green) or cobalt oxides (blue). Pigment content varies normally between 2% and
4% of the cement by weight. Most pigments are insoluble and non-toxic.
Sandblasting, retarders and acid etching

Sandblasting is commonly used to create a coarse texture on the surface of concrete panels. The sand can be
collected and reused as road base. Retarders are applied to the forms to slow down the hydration process of the
concrete at the surface and allow washing of the concrete afterwards. This is a common method used to create
facades with exposed aggregate surfaces. Acid etching is also used in façade production, mainly to wash a panel
surface to give a coarse texture. Wash water containing acid residue is neutralized before disposal.
Other materials
In precast concrete production, special materials are occasionally needed such as epoxy, lacquer, varnish and paint.
Although some of these materials are slightly hazardous, they are normally used in very small amounts and their
effects can be controlled during prefabrication. Effective ventilation can be provided in areas where these materials
are used Waste is easily collected and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner.
Quality assurance
The production of precast concrete elements, using repetitious operations under controlled climatic conditions,
allows for accurate quality control (e.g: tolerances and concrete quality). This facilitates better use of materials and
less material consumption. The controllability of the production process allows for strict tolerances and the optimal
use of materials.
CSA A23.3 allows a reduced material factor fc for concrete in precast concrete members that are certified in ac-
cordance with CSA A23.4 in recognition of the good quality control and accurate placement of forms and rein-
forcement. The measures required to obtain accurate results and to check the results are part of the manufacturing
process.
Pollution
Most sources of pollution can be identified and controlled when precasting takes place in a plant. Pollution han-
dlers include exhaust fans at welding sites, with the air passing through filters; and closed systems for the transport
of cement, aggregates and fresh concrete.
Concrete production can create pollution mainly in the form of dust and noise. The fabrication of hollow core slabs
requires sawing the hardened concrete, producing dust and noise levels that can exceed 85 dB. Saw blades can be
cooled with water that can be filtered and reused. Saws can be encased in noise absorbing containers.
Solid waste from precast plants is very low, about 2.5% of the mass of concrete used in production. About 95% of
this waste can be further beneficially reused through crushing and recycling of hardened concrete, leaving approxi-
mately 3 kg/m³ of actual waste. [63]
The workplace environment

Enclosed precast plants make it easier to control the manufacturing environment and conditions. The environment
for workers is comparatively clean, normally not very noisy or dusty, free of toxic fumes, and generally provide com-
fortable temperatures and humidity. The most obvious advantage for the workers is their protection from adverse
weather conditions.
Open-air production facilities are typically located away from populated areas to provide a noise and dust pollution
buffer zone.
Production waste
Surplus materials are generated during the production of precast elements. Much surplus material is recyclable,
and consists mainly of:

• Hardened concrete with or without reinforcement

• Steel reinforcement and pieces of structural steel
• Plywood and other wooden materials
• Fresh concrete (from production and washing of equipment)
• Slurry from the sawing of concrete
• Insulating materials (mineral wool and polystyrene)
• Oil etc. From machinery
• Paper and other packaging materials
The amount of surplus material varies between factories and different types of production. Studies in the Scandina-
vian countries [65] have shown that the magnitude is typically about 100 kg of surplus material per cubic metre of
concrete produced. About 40% of the surplus material is fresh and hardened concrete and about 45% is wastewater
from washing equipment and sawing slurry generated during hollow core slab production.
It is possible to collect and sort different types of surplus materials in precast plants. Excess materials that can be
recycled and reused include steel, wood, insulating materials, oil, paper and other packaging materials. Wood can
be sorted out, cut and used as industrial firewood, or used for other construction purposes.
Fresh concrete
Most excess fresh concrete comes from the washing of equipment, cut-outs, leftover in the buckets etc. The sand
and gravel can be separated from fresh concrete and reused in the production of new concrete. The cement slurry
left after the removal of the sand and gravel can be left in basins for evaporation. Concrete leftovers from produc-
tion are often left to harden. [63]
Hardened concrete
Surplus concrete can be crushed into fragments that can either be used as road base, fill material or occasionally as
aggregates in new concrete. The advantage for the precaster is the known quality of the material being crushed so
it can be used with full confidence as recycled aggregate.
Recycling surplus hardened concrete costs about the same as for new crushed natural aggregates. Recycled
aggregates can be used in reinforced and prestressed concrete. The amount of recycled aggregate is about 5%
of the total amount of the aggregate in some precast plants. Tests have been made with 100% recycled crushed
hollow core slab concrete in hollow core production with no detrimental effects on the new hollow core slabs.
Removal and recycling of any embedded steel is easily carried out during the crushing operation.
6.5.8 Transportation and Erection

In precast construction, the rigging of scaffolding, formwork, storage areas etc. is either not necessary or done only
once. Scaffolding is generally not required for precast structures. Cranes are used to lift precast components into
their place in a structure.
Transportation
When a building uses precast elements, large parts of the building can be brought to the site with each transport.
Larger trucks consume less fuel per ton transported. Materials for formwork, scaffolding etc. are not required at the
site and do not need to be transported. Less fuel is required to transport precast concrete structures since they are
lighter than the equivalent amount of on site cast-in-place concrete.
This represents a significant reduction in the number of truck movements and reduced consumption of fossil fuels.
The amount of energy consumed during the transport of precast elements is about 0.00114 MJ/kg/km. This rep-
resents 5% to 10% of the total energy consumption during manufacturing of precast concrete elements.

Construction time
Precast construction leads to shorter time spent building the main parts of a structure. Components are manufac-
tured in a precast plant at the same time as the foundations are being constructed at the site.
Precast units are normally large pieces, so greater parts of a building are completed with each activity compared to
cast-in-place construction (formwork, scaffolding, reinforcement, concrete, etc.). Precast erection is fast and efficient,
generally carried out using mobile cranes.
Total precast bridge structures (abutments, wingwalls, girders and decks and traffic barriers) can dramatically speed
up construction and reduce inconvenience and detours for motorists.
Manpower
A normal erection team will consist of two or three erection workers and a crane operator. These few people can erect
a whole frame and the floors and roof together with the walls of a building often before any other trades are engaged
at the site.
The following are typical per working day erection times:
Erection of hollow core floor slabs 300 m2
Grouting of floor joints 500 m2
Erection of columns 8 pieces
Erection of beams 15 pieces
Erection of double tee slabs 20 pieces
Erection of walls 7 pieces
Stair and elevator shafts 2 floors
For commercial buildings (offices, shopping centres, schools etc.) about 100 m2 of a building can be erected each day,
including the erection of all components and all necessary connections. The corresponding figure for the erection of
apartment buildings is about 80 m2 per day. The difference is generally due to smaller pieces and stricter tolerance
requirements.
Waste
There is little waste to dispose of at a building site when the structure is precast. This was documented in a major
investigation carried out in Sweden in 1996 where about 400 apartments were to be built. [65] Ten similar buildings
were selected, each containing 11 apartment build-
ings; five were precast and five were cast-in-place.
Records were kept of the consumption of energy and
materials, productivity, construction time, working
environment, sick leaves, accidents, quality control,
installations, waste generation and cost. The final re-
sult was the amount of waste at the building site was
35% less for the precast buildings compared with the
cast-in-place buildings.
In 2001, close attention was paid to the waste gen-
eration at a major project in Oslo, Norway. [65] The
buildings contain about 150,000 m2 of floor space.
The structure was constructed using steel frames
with precast hollow core floor and roof slabs. The
delivery and erection of the steel frame and the slabs Figure 6.5.3 Waste generated at a building site over
were combined in the precast contract. The surplus time [65]
material generated at the site during the erection of

these components was only about 1 kg per m2 of hollow core slab. The surplus material consisted mainly of wood,
concrete and reinforcing steel from the grouting of the joints at the site. All surplus material, except some epoxy
resin, was recycled, and was not considered as waste.
Inconvenience to the public

Precast components can be brought to the site just-in-time by truck with a considerable reduction in traffic and less
obstruction for the public. No staging areas are required. The precast units are lifted directly from the trucks and
placed in the structure without any stockpiling on the jobsite.
6.5.9 Summary of Precast Benefits

The use of precast, prestressed concrete building elements can contribute directly to the triple bottom line. Pre-
cast systems help minimize cost and environmental impacts, while providing comfortable, safe buildings.
Economic benefits:
• Concrete is made using local materials – aggregates, sand,cement and water.
• Low transportation costs – precast concrete is produced locally. Structures weigh less than those built
using cast-in-place concrete.
• Precast is a cost-effective and competitive building material.
• Precast is a low maintenance building system.
• Lower operating costs – the thermal mass characteristics of concrete help to moderate heating and cool-
ing peaks and lower HVAC equipment requirements.
• The reflectance of precast surfaces can lower interior lighting costs.
• The reflectance of precast surfaces reduce the heat island effect, lowering cooling costs.
• Precast concrete is durable – buildings last longer, and are resistant to wear and tear, severe weather, rot,
insects and fire.
Environmental and social benefits:

• Excellent indoor air quality – precast contains no VOCs to contribute to sick building syndrome.
• Safety – precast offers superior fire, wind, vibration, and seismic resistance.
• The thermal mass of precast concrete contributes to operating energy efficiency and reduced heating &
cooling costs.
• Longer lasting concrete structures reduce energy needs for maintenance and reconstruction.
• Made-to-order precast concrete means less on-site construction waste and improved quality control.
• Precast needs no additional interior or exterior finishes.
• Precast can reduce transportation energy use and emissions.
• Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels – the desired R-value can be obtained by specifying
the appropriate type and thickness of incorporated insulation.
• Light reflectance – light coloured precast walls reduce interior lighting requirements, while lighter
coloured exterior walls help reduce the heat island effect in large metropolitan areas. Urban areas
have a higher concentration of structures and surfaces that absorb heat and tend to experience higher
temperatures than their rural neighbours. Buildings that are lighter in color reflect more light (high albedo
surfaces). This helps minimize the heat island effect that reduces the energy needed for cooling, and
lowers ozone levels. [67]

6.5.10 LCA Study—Life Cycle Assessment of Precast Concrete Commercial Buildings

In order to better understand precast concrete’s environmental performance in the context of building construc-
tion, use, and end-of- life, a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a typical precast commercial building with five variations
of building envelope in two Canadian locations was conducted. Since the LCA includes a comparative assertion
intended to be disclosed to the public, an independent external committee of LCA and technical experts critically
reviewed the methodology and results.
The LCA study Life Cycle Assessment of Precast Concrete Commercial Buildings [73] is a “cradle-to-grave” LCA of
precast concrete commercial applications in two Canadian locations, Toronto and Vancouver. The study was con-
ducted with a goal of gaining a better understanding of precast concrete‘s environmental life cycle performance
in Canadian mid-rise precast concrete buildings; It includes five variations of building envelope and follows LCA
standards, ISO 14040 and 14044 (ISO 2006). The study considers the impacts at each stage of a product’s life-cycle,
from the time natural resources are extracted and processed through each subsequent stage of manufacturing,
transportation, product use, recycling, and ultimately, disposal.
Environmental flows include emissions to air, land, and water, as well as the consumption of energy and material
resources.
Precast Product Inventory Analysis

Inventory analysis, or life cycle inventory (LCI), is the first step towards environmental impact assessment. The
inventory analysis for the study project involved collecting data for precast concrete products within a plant process
boundary as shown in Figure 6.5.4.
Cement Aggregate Supplementary

Manufacture Producon Cemenng
Materials
Transportaon Transportaon Transportaon
Handling Handling Handling

and Storage and Storage and Storage
Electricity
Handling
Fuels Transportaon and Storage
Plant Operaons Plant Waste
Handling Disposal
Admixtures Transportaon
and Storage
Reinforcing Transportaon Handling Gate-to-gate precast

and Storage concrete plant system
boundary
Water
Figure 6.5.4 The system boundary of precast concrete production defines the unit processes included in the
product system (this system boundary is a subset of the building system boundary and is included as the upstream
profile of precast concrete products).

Annual Energy Use

The buildings were modelled with EnergyPlus™ whole-building energy simulation software developed by the U.S.
Department of Energy. It simulates the complex interactions between climate; internal gains from lights, people,
and equipment; building form and fabric; HVAC systems; and renewable energy systems.
Annual energy use (by end-use), as determined by the energy simulation software, is presented in Figure 6.5.5
(Vancouver) and Figure 6.5.6 (Toronto). The results for both locations show the insulated precast envelope options
(P-P, Pi-P, and Pib-P) having the lowest overall site energy use by approximately 1% compared to curtain wall (CW-P)
or brick and steel stud (S-P).
Annual Site Energy Use (GJ)

Building CW-P S-P P-P Pi-P Pib-P
Heating 446 436 427 420 417
Cooling 118 115 115 114 114
Interior Lighting 610 610 610 610 610
Exterior Lighting 232 232 232 232 232
Interior Equipment 908 908 908 908 908
Elevators 165 165 165 165 165
Fans 72 71 71 70 70
Pumps 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Water Systems 54 54 54 54 54
Total 2606 2592 2583 2574 2571
CW-P = Curtain wall on precast structure; S-P = Brick and steel stud on precast structure
P-P, PiP-P and Pib-P are Architectural Precast, Insulated Precast and Insulated Precast with Brick Veneer; all on Precast Structure.
Figure 6.5.5 Annual Site Energy Use by End-Use, Vancouver
Annual Site Energy Use (GJ)

Building CW-P S-P P-P Pi-P Pib-P
Heating 735 730 705 702 701
Cooling 205 203 203 202 202
Interior Lighting 610 610 610 610 610
Exterior Lighting 233 233 233 233 233
Interior Equipment 908 908 908 908 908
Elevators 165 165 165 165 165
Fans 78 77 77 76 76
Pumps 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Water Systems 58 58 58 58 58
Total 2992 2984 2958 2954 2953
CW-P = Curtain wall on precast structure; S-P = Brick and steel stud on precast structure;
P-P, PiP-P and Pib-P are Architectural Precast, Insulated Precast and Insulated Precast with Brick Veneer all on Precast Structure.
Figure 6.5.6 Annual Site Energy Use by End-Use, Toronto

Life Cycle Modelling

The LCI and LCIA modeling software used was SimaPro version 7.3.0, 2011.36. Each building constituent element
(material, product, or process) is modelled independently from cradle-to-grave. These elements are then combined
to comprise a complete building subassembly. Finally, each of these building subassemblies is then combined to
model the complete building structure and envelope as constructed on-site. The buildings are modelled for 60 and
73 year service lives. 73-years is the median life for large commercial buildings supported by literature (US DOE
2008), however when performing an LCA of buildings in Canada, it is common practice to assume a 60-year life. For
example, the default life in the Athena® EcoCalculator [69] is 60 years.
The model also considers the environmental impact associated with maintenance for each material and assem-
bly. The primary source of information used for maintenance was the Athena® report, Maintenance, Repair and
Replacement Effects for Envelope Materials (Athena 2002), which describes: Maintenance stage activities for each
assembly, Material and energy usage, and the rate at which activities occur, and construction waste factors.
Global Warming Potential (GWP) - kg CO2eq. (x106)

Assembly
Toronto—60 years Toronto—73 years
CW-P 15.93 19.10
S-P 15.90 19.09
P-P 15.88 19.05
Pi-P 15.82 18.98
Pib-P 15.85 19.01
Vancouver—60 years Vancouver—73 years

CW-P 3.27 3.72
S-P 3.31 3.79
P-P 3.38 3.86
Pi-P 3.36 3.84
Pib-P 3.39 3.87
Figure 6.5.7 Precast scenarios LCIA results: global warming potential (GWP)

Total Primary Energy (TPE) - MJ (x106)

Assembly
Toronto—60 years Toronto—73 years
CW-P 553.2 669.8
S-P 551.5 668.0
P-P 547.8 663.4
Pi-P 546.1 661.5
Pib-P 546.4 661.7
Vancouver—60 years Vancouver—73 years

CW-P 204.3 245.6
S-P 204.0 245.6
P-P 203.8 245.3
Pi-P 202.9 244.2
Pib-P 203.1 244.4
Figure 6.5.8 Precast scenarios LCIA results: Total Primary Energy (TPE)
6.5.11 Product Category Rules and EPDs

Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are emerging in North America as the common methodology for
assessing the potential environmental performance of a product or process. The CaGBC LEED v4 Rating System
and Architecture 2030 are leading the demand for EPDs. EPDs list all of the impacts associated with a product,
from raw material extraction, processing and transportation to the manufacture of the product and transportation
to the construction site. In some cases the EPD report ends at the gate of the plant, and in other cases it continues
through occupancy and maintenance to the end of its useful life, as part of a complete system.
ASTM has published the Product Category Rules for Preparing a Environmental Product Declaration for Precast
Concrete (UN CPC 37550). These product category rules have been developed under the general program instruc-
tions for ASTM International’s Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) Program. The PCR are intended for use
by North American organizations and other interested parties for preparing EPDs for structural, architectural and
specialty precast concrete products, for industrial, commercial, residential and institutional applications, includ-
ing but not limited to; architectural and structural building products such as walls, columns, floors, roofs, facades,
bridge substructure and superstructure products, and underground utility and drainage products such as pipe,
utility structures, manholes, septic tanks and other related applications. The North American EPDs can be found at
http://www.sustainableprecast.ca/en/pcr_epd/.
The ASTM PCR document specifies rules, requirements, and guidelines for developing EPDs for precast concrete
and underlying requirements of related Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs). These PCR are valid for, and provide re-
quirements for, Business-to-Business (BtoB) EPDs, also known as cradle-to–gate or information module EPDs.
Precast manufacturers are able to provide the necessary data from a data collection software, the Athena Sustain-
able Precast Concrete Calculator (v3.0 or later). This recommended software, developed for CPCI by the Athena
Sustainable Materials Institute (ASMI), enables manufacturers to measure their “cradle-to-gate” life cycle environ-
mental footprint. Once a manufacturing facility enters their raw material usage, electricity, natural gas, gas, diesel,
heavy fuel oil and liquefied propane gas usage the software uses ASMI’s life cycle inventory database to calculate a
set of sustainability indicators – global warming potential (GWP), total primary energy (PE) and water usage for the
plant.

6.6 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND OTHER SUB-SYSTEMS COORDINATION

6.6.1 Introduction
Structural precast concrete is used in a variety of buildings. Precast’s integration with lighting, mechanical, plumb-
ing, and other services is important. Environmental demands are substantially increasing the ratio of mechanical
and electrical system costs to total building costs.
This section shows some methods that can economically satisfy mechanical and electrical requirements, and de-
scribes standard methods of providing for the installation of other sub-systems.
6.6.2 Lighting and Power Distribution

Designers can take advantage of the finished appearance, fire resistance, thermal mass and reflective qualities of
precast, prestressed concrete by leaving the columns, beams, and ceiling structure exposed for many applications.
The lighting system should parallel the stems of double tees to achieve uniform lighting free from distracting shad-
ows. A reflective paint and properly spaced high-output fluorescent lamps installed in continuous strips can achieve
a high level of illumination at a minimum cost. Lighting coffers can be enclosed with diffuser panels fastened to the
bottom of the tee stems to provide a flush ceiling, see Figure 6.6.1.
Figure 6.6.1 Metal panels attached to the bottoms of precast tee stems create ducts, and lighting diffuser panels
provide a flush ceiling.
6.6.3 Electrified Floors

Computers, communication systems, and other monitoring systems require adequate and flexible means of sup-
plying power and cable networks. When cast-in-place toppings are placed on prestressed floor elements, conduits
and floor outlets can be buried within the topping. Shallow depth electrical systems require as little as a 35 mm
topping. Tests on slabs with buried ductwork have shown that structural strength is generally not impaired by these
voids. Voids in hollow core slabs can be used as electrical raceways.
The high load-carrying capacity of prestressed concrete elements makes it possible to locate heavy transformers
near the areas of consumption at little or no additional expenses. Distribution feeds can be run between the legs of
double tee slabs.
6.6.4 Underfloor Radiant Heat

Underfloor radiant heat uses the floor to heat the building above by raising the floor temperature until the heating
output of the floor matches the amount of heat that the building is losing. Radiant heating systems use a boiler or
hot water heater to heat water (or an antifreeze solution) which is circulated through in-floor tubing.
Precast floor slabs are ideal for use with radiant heating. A topping slab containing radiant heating tubes is cast
over hollow core or double tee floor slabs, see Figure 6.6.2.

Figure 6.6.2 Radiant heat tubing on precast floor prior to pouring concrete topping slab.
6.6.5 Ductwork
The space between double tee stems and the voids in hollow core slabs may be used for distribution ducts for
heating, air-conditioning and exhaust systems. The underside of double tee slabs provided by the bottom of the
flange and the sides of the stems form a duct. The bottom of the duct can be completed by attaching a metal
panel to the tee stems (see Figure 6.6.1). Field installed connections generally offer the best economy and ensure
exact placement. Inserts should only be cast-in when they can be located at the design stage, well in advance of
casting the precast elements.
Hollow core slabs have round, oval or rectangular voids that can act as ducts or raceways for mechanical and
electrical systems. Openings, core-drilled from above or below in the field, provide for access and distribution.
The voids in the slabs can be aligned at bearing supports and connected to provide continuity of the system. The
enclosed space can be used as a plenum chamber with uniform pressure throughout its length. Diffusers can be
installed in floors or ceilings to distribute the air. Branch runs, where required, can be standard ducts installed along
beams or walls.
When ceilings are necessary, proper selection of precast components can result in shallow ceiling spaces as shown
in Figure 6.6.3. This figure also illustrates the flexibility of space arrangements possible with long span prestressed
concrete elements.
Figure 6.6.3 Where ceilings are required, ducts, piping and lighting fixtures can be accommodated within a
shallow depth.

Branch ducts of moderate size can be accommodated by providing block-outs in the stems of tees or beams. Such
block-outs should be modular and repeated in size and location to handle all conditions demanded by mechani-
cal, electrical, and/or plumbing runs. While this may lead to slightly larger openings in some cases, the end result
will usually be more economical. Sufficient tolerance should be allowed in sizing openings to provide for the field
assembly of ducts.
Prestressed concrete box girders have been used to serve a triple function as heating and air conditioning distri-
bution ducts, conduit for utility lines and structural supporting elements for roof deck units. Conditioned air can be
distributed within the void area of the girders and introduced into the building work areas through modular open-
ings cast in the sides and bottoms of the box girders. The system is balanced by plugging selected openings.
Vertical supply and return air trunks can be carried in either the building core or the exterior walls, with small ducts
branching out into the ceiling space. In some cases, exterior wall cavities have been replaced with three or four
sided precast boxes stacked to provide vertical runs for mechanical and electrical systems. These stacked boxes
can also be used as columns or lateral bracing elements for the structure.
6.6.6 Openings Through Floor and Roof Units

Large openings are usually provided using block-outs in the forms during precast manufacturing; smaller ones
(up to about 200 mm) are usually field cut. Openings in the flanges of stemmed elements should be limited to the
“flat” portion of a double tee flange. Angle headers are often used for framing large openings in hollow core floor
and roof systems, see Figure 6.6.4.
Figure 6.6.4 Large openings in floors and roof slabs made during manufacturing. Small openings are field drilled.
Some common types of openings are shown.
6.6.7 Other Sub-Systems

Suspended ceilings, crane rails, mechanical and electrical equipment and other sub-systems can be accommodated
with standard manufactured hardware items and embedded plates as shown in Figure 6.6.5.
Window or door assemblies, when properly protected, can be cast into panels at the plant. Aluminum frames should
be properly coated so that the aluminum will not react with the concrete. Glazing and doors can be installed prior to
or after panels are delivered to the job site. Repetition is a key to economy when manufacturing precast concrete wall
assemblies. Windows and doors should be located at identical locations in panels whenever possible.

Double wythe insulated precast concrete wall panels can provide the thermal resistance values required for mod-
ern energy efficient buildings, (see Section 6.1). The panels are normally cast on flat beds. Where exposed, the
inside surface of the panel can be given a troweled finish at the precast plant.
6.6.8 Total Precast Buildings

Many complete buildings have been built using precast and prestressed concrete components. This construction
can lead to more prefabrication of the building sub-systems, such as basic plumbing assemblies or electrical/me-
chanical assemblies plus lighting, for installation within the structure.
Electrical conduits and boxes can be cast in the precast wall panels for housing systems. This process requires coor-
dination with the electrical contractor. Savings on job-site labour and time are possible. The metal or plastic conduit
Figure 6.6.5 Methods of attaching suspended ceilings, crane rails and other sub-systems.

can be prebent to the desired shape, connected to the electrical boxes and delivered to the casting bed. Cable TV
and telephone conduits can also be cast in using the same procedure.
To reduce on-site labour, prefabricated bathroom units or combination bathroom/kitchen modules have been de-
veloped (see Figure 6.6.6). Such units include bathroom fixtures, kitchen cabinets and sinks, as well as wall, ceiling,
and floor surfaces.
Bathroom/kitchen modules can be assembled prior to delivery to the job site. The module can be built on a
structural slab element. Units are stacked with one module directly above the one below in multi-storey construc-
tion. Block-outs for chases are provided in the precast floors. Connections are made from one unit to the next to
provide a vertical plumbing stack.
Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems (see Figure 6.6.7) incorporate preassembled piping systems. These units
require block-outs in the precast flooring units and are arranged to mate with connecting modules. Best economy
results when bathrooms are backed up to each other, with a common vertical run to service both bathrooms.
Some core modules not only feature bath and kitchen components, but also HVAC components, all packaged in
one unit. These modules can be easily accommodated in precast structural systems by placing them directly on the
precast slabs and shimming and grouting as required.
Figure 6.6.6 Kitchen/bathroom modules can be preassembled on precast prestressed slabs ready for
installation into systems buildings.

Figure 6.6.7 Prefabricated wet-wall plumbing systems incorporate preassembled piping.
6.7 REFERENCES
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12. ASTM E90—Laboratory measurement of airborne
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24. Sound transmission loss of masonry walls: Tests on 90,
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25. Sound transmission loss of masonry walls: twelve- 39. Acoustical Properties of Precast Concrete, PCI
inch lightweight concrete blocks With various surface JOURNAL, V. 23, No. 2, March-April 1978
finishes, T.D. Northwood and D.W. Monk, Building
40. Highway Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement Policy
Research Note 90, National Research Council, Canada
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26. Sound transmission loss of masonry walls: twelve-inch Federal Highway Administration, Office of Environment
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42. Simplified ASTC Calculation Method with 4 Simplified
NRCC Internal Report 586, 1990
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29. Handbook of Acoustical Measurements and Noise
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60. International Standard ISO 10137:1992, Basis for
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Design of Structures - Serviceability of Buildings
Prestressed Concrete, Third Edition (2011)
Against Vibration, International Organization for
45. Abrams, M. S., Gustaferro, A. H., and Salse, E. A. Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
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Bulletin 006B, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. Sustainable Design and Construction
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CHAPTER 7
PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPABILITY
7.0 NOTATION...................................................................................................................................................7-2
7.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................7-3
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES AND PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHARTS.................................................7-3
7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load..........................................................................................................................7-4
7.2.2 Limiting Criteria.........................................................................................................................................7-4
7.2.3 Estimated Camber.....................................................................................................................................7-5
7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density................................................................................................................7-5
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand....................................................................................................................................7-6
7.2.6 Prestress Losses.........................................................................................................................................7-6
7.2.7 Strand Placement......................................................................................................................................7-6
7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall Panels..................................................................................................7-6
7.2.9 Piles.............................................................................................................................................................7-7
7.2.10 Miscellaneous Components.....................................................................................................................7-7
7.3 STEMMED DECK ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................................7-8
Double Tee Load Tables ....................................................................................................................................7-8
Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables..................................................................................................................7-19
Single Tee Load Tables ......................................................................................................................................7-22
7.4 FLAT DECK ELEMENTS....................................................................................................................................7-23
Hollowcore Load Tables......................................................................................................................................7-23
Solid Flat Slab Load Tables.................................................................................................................................7-27
7.5 BEAM ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................................................7-30
Rectangular Beam Load Tables..........................................................................................................................7-30
Inverted Tee Beam Load Tables.........................................................................................................................7-31
L-Shaped Beam Load Tables .............................................................................................................................7-33
Bridge Girder Load Tables—CPCI Girders........................................................................................................7-35
Bridge Girder Load Tables—NU Girders...........................................................................................................7-37
Bridge Girder Load Tables—NEBT Girders.......................................................................................................7-39
Bridge Girder Load Tables—Trapezoidal Girders.............................................................................................7-41
Bridge Girder Load Tables—Single Void Box Girders......................................................................................7-43
7.6 COLUMN AND LOAD BEARING WALL PANELS.......................................................................................7-47
Precast Prestressed Columns..............................................................................................................................7-47
Precast Reinforced Columns ..............................................................................................................................7-49
Double Tee Wall Panels.......................................................................................................................................7-51
Hollowcore Wall Panels.......................................................................................................................................7-52
Precast Prestressed Solid Wall Panels................................................................................................................7-53
Precast Reinforced Solid Wall Panels.................................................................................................................7-54
7.7 PILES...........................................................................................................................................................7-55
Bearing Piles.........................................................................................................................................................7-55
Sheet Piles ...........................................................................................................................................................7-56
7.8 STADIUM RISERS .......................................................................................................................................7-57
7.9 PRECAST CONCRETE STAIRS ...................................................................................................................7-61

CHAPTER 7 Product Information and Capability
7.0 NOTATION
Ag = gross area of section Prb = factored axial load resistance under balanced
conditions
Pro = factored axial load resistance with zero
As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement
eccentricity
b = overall width of element
Sb = section modulus with respect to the bottom
ec = eccentricity of prestress force from the centroid fibre of section
of the section at the centre of the span
St = section modulus with respect to the top fibre of
ee = eccentricity of prestress force from the centroid section
of the section at the end of the span
s = strand spacing
f’c = specified compressive strength of concrete
t = thickness
f’ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of
Vc = factored shear resistance of concrete
initial prestress
Vf = factored shear force
fcp = average compressive stress in concrete at
centroid due to effective prestress force only Vr = factored shear resistance
fpr = stress in prestressed reinforcement at factored V/S = volume-surface ratio
flexural resistance
w = weight expressed in force units
fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressed
yb = distance from bottom fibre to centroid of
reinforcement
section
fpe = effective stress in prestressed reinforcement
yt = distance from top fibre to centroid of section
after losses
z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural
fy = specified yield strength of non-prestressed
reinforcement
reinforcement
h = overall depth
r = As/bd = reinforcement ratio for non-prestressed
reinforcement
l = span
fc = resistance factor for concrete
Mr = factored flexural resistance
fp = resistance factor for prestressed reinforcement
Mrb = factored flexural resistance under balanced
fs = resistance factor for non-prestressed
conditions
reinforcement
Mro = factored flexural resistance with zero axial load
m = mass of element compression block to the specified concrete
strength.
Pr = factored axial load resistance

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This part of the Manual is devoted to technical data on the shapes that are standard in the precast prestressed
concrete industry today. The use of this part of the Manual as guide for selection of a particular shape, together
with information on design aids and techniques provided in other parts of this Manual, should enable the designer
to quickly and expeditiously complete a design.
The load tables on the following pages show dimensions, gross section properties and engineering capabilities
of the shapes most commonly used throughout the industry. These shapes include double and single tees, hollow
core slabs, beams, bridge girders, columns, piles, wall panels, bleachers and stairs. The dimensions of the shapes
shown in the tables may vary among manufacturers. Adjustment for these minor variations can be made by the
designer. Hollow core slabs of different thicknesses, core sizes and shapes are available in the market under various
trade names. Load tables on pages 7-23, 7-24, 7-25 and 7-26 are developed for non-proprietary hollow core sec-
tions of thicknesses most commonly used in the industry.
Designers making use of these load tables should contact the precasters in the geographic area of the
proposed structure to determine availability and exact dimensions of products shown here. Precasters will
usually have their own load tables for sections which are not included on the following pages.
7.2 EXPLANATION OF LOAD TABLES AND PRELIMINARY DESIGN CHARTS

Load tables for stemmed deck elements, flat deck elements and beams show the safe superimposed load, estimat-
ed camber at the time of erection and the estimated long-time camber after the element has essentially stabilized.
For the deck elements, the upper table gives the information for the element with no topping. For single and dou-
ble tees, the lower table is for the same element with 75 mm of normal density concrete topping acting composite-
ly with the precast section. For hollow core and solid flat slabs the topping is 50 mm. Values in the table assume a
uniform topping thickness for the full span length, and assume the element to be unshored at the time the topping
is placed. Safe loads and cambers shown in the tables are based on the dimensions and section properties shown
on the page. For the calculation of concrete stresses and crack width criteria, the section properties have been
transformed to account for the effects of the prestressed reinforcement. For elements with different dimensions or
section properties, the safe loads and cambers will vary.
For beams, a single table is used for several sizes of elements. The values shown are based on sections containing
the maximum practical number of prestressing strands, but in some cases, more strands could be used.
Preliminary design charts for CPCI girders, NU girders, NEBT girders, Trapezoidal girders, Single Void Box girders
and Special Single Void Box girders are presented on page 7-35 to page 7-46. The cross-sectional properties for
each type of girder with varying depths including Ag, I, yb, yt, Sb, St, m and w are also presented. The following
design criteria for each type of girders were used in the development of the preliminary design charts:
1. The span capacity charts were developed in accordance with CAN/CSA –S6 Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code with CL-625 truck,
2. Simple spans were assumed,
3. Dead loads include girder self weight, specified haunch and deck thicknesses,
4. Superimposed dead loads include specified asphalt thickness, curbs and railing load,
5. Assumed prestress losses: initial prestress loss of 8%, and final prestress loss of 20%,
6. The minimum concrete release strength and 28-day specified concrete strength were assumed,
7. The minimum concrete deck 28-day specified strength was assumed, and
8. Initial jacking force of 195 kN per strand based on 15 mm diameter strands.
The minimum 28-day concrete strength and release strengths for each type of girder are for illustrative purposes
only. Contact your local CPCI precast member for their typical design strengths and capabilities.

7.2.1 Safe Superimposed Load

The values for safe (unfactored) superimposed load are based on the capacity of the element as governed by the
limitations tabulated below:
Factored Factored
Flexural Crack
Type of element flexural shear
stresses widths
resistance resistance
Flat deck elements X X X
Stemmed deck elements X X X
Beams X X X
A portion of the safe load shown is assumed to be dead load for the purpose of applying load factors and deter-
mining time-dependent cambers and deflections. For untopped deck elements, 0.5 kN/m2 of the capacity shown
is assumed as superimposed dead load, typical for roof elements. For topped deck elements, 0.7 kN/m2 of the ca-
pacity shown is assumed as superimposed dead load, typical for floor elements. The capacity shown is in addition
of the dead load of the topping. For beams, 50 percent of the capacity shown is assumed as dead load, normally
conservative for beams which support concrete decks.
Example 7.1
For an untopped 2400 x 700 double tee with an 8-D strand pattern (page 7–10) and a 16 m span, the capacity
shown is 4.8 kN/m2.
7.2.2 Limiting Criteria

The criteria used to determine the safe superimposed load and the strand placement are based on requirements
of the Code. For design procedures, see Chapter 3 of this Manual. A summary of the code provisions used in the
development of these load tables is as follows. The load combination shown below is the one believed to give the
highest factored load in most cases. In high snow or wind regions, this would need to be rechecked, based on CSA
A23.3-14:
Factored Flexural Resistance

Load factors: 1.25 for dead load
1.50 for live load
Resistance factors:
Precast concrete, fc = 0.70
Prestressing tendons, fp = 0.9
Reinforcing bars, fs = 0.85
Calculation of moments assumes simple spans with roller supports. If the strands are fully developed (see Section
3.4.9), the critical moment is assumed to be at midspan in elements with straight strands; for elements with tendons
depressed at midspan, the critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5l .
(Note: The actual critical point can be determined by analysis, but will seldom vary significantly from 0.4l .) Flexural
resistance is calculated using strain compatibility as discussed in Chapter 3.
Flexural Stresses at Transfer

The following limitations are placed on flexural stresses immediately after transfer of prestress, before long time
losses; it is assumed that strands are initially tensioned to 0.75 fpu or less:

Compression: 0.6 fci

End tension: 0.5 fci
Midspan tension: 0.25 fci

These stresses are calculated at 50 strand diameters from the end of the element (the theoretical point of full trans-
fer) and at midspan.
Release tension is not used as limiting criterion for beams. Supplemental top reinforcement must be provided, and
designed as described in Section 3.4.9 of this Manual.
Stresses due to Specified Loads, after all Losses

Compression due to sustained loads: 0.45 fc
Compression due to total load: 0.60 fc
Tension: 0.5 fc

The critical point for service load moment is assumed at midspan for elements with straight strands; for elements
with tendons depressed at midspan, the critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5l .
Crack Widths of Partially Prestressed Elements, After All Losses

Section 3.4.8 describes the design procedures for calculating the crack widths of partially prestressed elements. For
interior exposure, the Code allows a maximum value for the crack control parameter, z, to be 30,000 N/mm. The
capacity of partially prestressed elements is limited such that this crack width is not exceeded. The critical section
is assumed at midspan for elements with straight strands; for elements with tendons depressed at midspan, the
critical section is found at either 0.4l or 0.5l .
If it is a requirement that the allowable crack width parameter be restricted to less than 30,000 N/mm, a marginal
increase in the final prestress force may be required if the full superimposed load capacity in the tables is to be
achieved.
Factored Shear Resistance

For flat deck elements, the capacity may be limited by the factored shear resistance. In this case, the safe superim-
posed load is that which will yield a factored shear force Vf of no more than Vr, as permitted by the Code for slabs
without shear reinforcement. See Chapter 3 for the design procedures.
For stemmed deck elements and beams, the factored shear resistance may exceed Vr by providing shear reinforce-
ment, designed as described in Chapter 3. For many deck elements, however, minimum or no reinforcement may
be required.
Span/depth Ratios
Flat deck elements show no values beyond a span/depth ratio of 50 for untopped elements and 40 for topped
elements. These are the suggested maximums for roof and floor elements respectively, unless a detailed analysis is
made.
7.2.3 Estimated Camber

The estimated cambers shown are calculated to the nearest 5 mm using the multipliers shown in Section 3.5.3 of
this Manual. These values are estimates and should not be used as absolute values. Non-structural components
attached to elements which could be affected by camber variations, such as partitions of folding doors, should be
placed with adequate allowance for camber variation. Calculation of topping quantities should also recognize that
the values can vary.
7.2.4 Concrete Strength and Density

Twenty-eight day cylinder strength for concrete in the prestressed units is assumed to be 35 or 40 MPa, unless
noted otherwise. Tables for units with composite topping are based on the topping concrete being normal density

concrete with a cylinder strength of 25 MPa. For stemmed and flat deck elements, the concrete strength at time
of strand tension release is 25 MPa unless the value falls below the heavy line shown in the load table, indicating
that a cylinder strength greater than 25 MPa is required. For beams, the concrete strength at transfer is 30 MPa.
No values are shown when the required release strength exceeds 30 MPa. The designer should recognize that it is
sometimes difficult to obtain a release strength higher than 25 MPa on a one-day casting cycle. In such cases, the
cost of production will be increased and the designer should consult with prospective producers when required
release strengths are above 25 MPa.
Many prestressing plants prefer to use higher strength concretes, resulting in somewhat higher allowable loads or
greater spans than indicated in the load tables contained herein.
In this Chapter, all tables apply to normal density concrete only, with the density assumed as 2400 kg/m3.
7.2.5 Prestressing Strand

Prestressing strands used in the load tables are 13 mm diameter low relaxation strands with a specified tensile
strength of 1860 MPa, unless otherwise noted.
Quantity, size and profile of strands are shown in the load tables under the column headed ‘‘Strand Pattern’’. In the
double tee load tables, for example, ‘‘8-S’’ indicates 8-13 mm diameter 1860 MPa strands (4 per double tee stem)
and the ‘‘S’’ indicates that the strands are straight. ‘‘8-D’’ indicates 8-13 mm diameter 1860 MPa strands depressed
at one point in the midspan of the double tee.
For the flat deck elements (Pages 7–27 to 7–29) the manufacturer is allowed some flexibility in choice of strand size
and tensile strength. Precasters should be contacted for details of strand utilization.
Note: For development length see Chapter 3.
7.2.6 Prestress Losses

Losses assumed in computing the required concrete strength at time of strand release are 8%. Total losses aver-
aged 18% for normal density concrete.
For long span, heavily prestressed products, losses may be somewhat higher than these assumed values, and, for
shorter spans with less prestressing, they may be lower. However, these values will usually be adequate for element
selection. Additional information on losses is given in Chapter 3 of this Manual.
7.2.7 Strand Placement

For stemmed deck elements and beams, the eccentricities of strands at the ends and midspan are shown in the
load tables. Strands have been placed so that the stress at 50 strand diameters from the end (theoretical transfer
point) will not exceed those specified above, with a concrete strength at release of 25 MPa for stemmed elements
and 30 MPa for beams. For stemmed deck elements, values below the heavy line indicate a required release
strength between 25 MPa and 30 MPa.
For flat deck elements the load table values are based on strand centred 45 mm (40 mm for solid slabs) from the
bottom of the slab. Strand placement can vary from as low as 25 mm to as high as 55 mm from the bottom, which
will change the capacity and camber values shown. The higher strand placements give improved fire resistance
ratings (see Chapter 6 of this Manual for more information on fire resistance). The lower strand placement may
require higher release strengths, or top tension reinforcement at the ends. The designer should contact the local
precaster of flat deck elements for available and recommended strand placement locations.
7.2.8 Columns and Load Bearing Wall Panels

Interaction curves for selected precast prestressed columns, precast reinforced columns and various types of com-
monly used wall panels are provided on Pages 7–47 to 7–54.
These interaction curves are for factored loads and moments and the appropriate load factors must be applied to
the service loads and moments before entering the charts. Also, the curves are for short elements. Moment magni-

fiers caused by slenderness effects must be calculated and applied to the design moments before using the curves
for final element selection (see Chapter 3).
The column curves are terminated at a value of 0.8 Pro, the maximum allowable load for tied columns under the
Code. Most of the wall panel curves show the lower portion of the curve only (flexure controlling). Actual design
loads will rarely exceed the values shown.
The curves for double tee wall panels are shown for bending in directions causing either tension or compression in
the stem.
Partial development of strands has been assumed for prestressed columns and full development for prestressed
wall panels. Lateral ties have been assumed for prestressed columns and double tee wall panels and no ties
assumed for hollow core and solid wall panels. For double tee and hollow core wall panels, the effects of strands
above the neutral axis have been neglected for the calculation of the flexural resistance under zero axial load.
The curves for hollow core wall panels are based on a generic section as shown. They can be used with small error
for all sections commonly marketed for wall panel use.
7.2.9 Piles
The factored resistances of prestressed concrete bearing piles, based on the structural capacity of the pile alone
are shown on Page 7–55. The ability of the soil to carry these loads must be evaluated by a geotechnical engineer.
Values for concrete strengths up to 55 MPa are shown. Available strengths should be checked with local manufac-
turers. The design of prestressed concrete piles is discussed in Chapter 3 of this Manual.
Section properties and allowable service load bending moments for prestressed concrete sheet pile units are
shown on Page 7–56. These units are available in some areas for use in earth retaining structures.
7.2.10 Miscellaneous Components

Precast can be made into essentially any shape needed for a project. This section addresses common components,
such as, stadium risers and stairs. Designers are encouraged to discuss a project with a precaster early in the de-
sign to best find ways to optimize the design.
Stadium Risers
Stadium Risers are used to support seating in stadiums, arenas, theaters and other types of grandstands. Typical-
ly, they are made as single, double, or triple risers with heights cast to satisfy sight lines in the venue. Specifying
single, double, or triple risers will depends on the layout and may be dictated by weights and crane access during
construction. The stadium riser allowable spans are shown on page 7-57 to 7-60. The design of stadium risers is dis-
cussed in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Stairs
Precast concrete stairs are used in any applications where a stair tower or individual steps are required. These mod-
ules can provide fast erection and durable access in buildings or parking structures. The recommended maximum
spans for precast concrete stairs are shown on page 7-61.

7.3 STEMMED DECK ELEMENTS

Double Tee Load Tables
Strand Pattern Designation

DOUBLE TEE Section Properties
Untopped Topped
No. of 13 mm strands 2400 x 300
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete 2 —
A= 191,250 mm
6 4 6 4
2–S I= 1,350 10 mm 2,600 10 mm
yb = 220 mm 272 mm
yt = 80 mm 103 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 6,130 10 mm 9,530 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 16,880 10 mm 25,150 10 mm
2 2
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for m= 194 kg/m 374 kg/m
2 2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped w= 1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time V/S = 33 mm
cambers include superimposed dead load but
do not include live load.
Key
2
10.5 – Superimposed (service) load, kN/m
10 – Estimated camber at erection, mm
10 – Estimated long-time camber, mm
2
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m ) and cambers (mm) No Topping
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
170 9.6 5.6 3.4 2.0
2–S 0 10 10 10
170 0 10 10 10
145 11.2 7.3 5.0 3.4 2.4
4–S 10 10 20 20 20
145 10 20 20 20 20
86 7.9 5.4 3.8 2.7 1.9
6–S 10 10 10 10 10
86 10 20 20 10 0
5.9 4.4 3.3 2.5 1.8
86
6–D 30 30 40 30 30
157 40 40 30 30 10
2.6 2.0
57
8–D 50 40
150 40 20
2
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m ) and cambers (mm) 75 mm Normal Density Topping
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
170 11.4 6.3 3.4 1.7
2–S 0 5 10 10
170 0 5 0 0
145 8.6 5.5 3.5 2.1
4–S 10 20 20 20
145 10 10 10 0
86 6.9 4.2 1.8
6–S 10 10 10
86 10 10 0
86 6.9 4.9 3.0 1.6
6–D 30 30 40 30
157 30 20 20 0
57 1.5
8–D 50
150 0
(1) ee and ec are the maximum eccentricities at end and midspan that will not violate the permissible concrete stresses at transfer.
Notes: Values below heavy solid line require transfer strengths higher than 25 MPa.
Values to right of dashed line indicate that element is partially prestressed.
Figure 7.1 Double Tee 2400 x 300 Continued next page

Double Tee Load Tables continued

No. of 13 mm strands 2400 x 500 Untopped Topped
A= 239,000 mm
6 4 6 4
4–S I= 5,390 10 mm 8,480 10 mm
yb = 357 mm 427 mm
yt = 143 mm 148 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 15,100 10 mm 19,900 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped 2 2
w= 2.3 kN/m 4.1 kN/m
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S = 36 mm
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
282 10.5 7.7 5.6 4.2 3.1 2.3 1.7
4–S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
282 10 15 15 20 10 10 10
240 14.1 10.3 7.7 5.9 4.5 3.5 2.7 2.0
6–S 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
240 20 20 20 20 30 20 20 20
240 8.9 6.8 5.3 4.2 3.3 2.6 2.0
6–D 20 30 30 30 30 30 30
294 30 30 30 30 30 30 20
5.3 4.3 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.8
169
8–D 40 40 40 40 40 40
287 50 50 50 40 40 20
2.7 2.2 1.8
117
10–D 60 60 50
281 60 50 30
98 1.8
12–D 70
275 50
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
282 7.7 5.5 3.8 2.3
4–S 10 10 10 10
282 10 10 10 10
240 8.1 5.7 3.9 2.5
6–S 20 20 20 20
240 20 20 20 10
240 7.0 5.1 3.6 2.4
6–D 30 30 30 30
294 30 30 20 20
169 5.1 3.8 2.7 1.8
8–D 40 40 40 40
287 40 40 30 20
117 1.8
10–D 60
281 30


A= 279,250 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 12,600 10 mm 18,600 10 mm
yb = 492 mm 578 mm
yt = 208 mm 197 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 25,500 10 mm 32,100 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 2.7 kN/m 4.5 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
392 9.1 7.3 5.9 4.8 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
6–D 20 20 20 30 30 30 20 20
429 20 30 30 30 30 20 20 10
292 8.4 6.9 5.7 4.8 4.0 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.9
8–D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30 20
422 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 20 0
222 6.2 5.2 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
10–D 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30
416 60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8
166
12–D 60 60 60 50 40 30
410 60 50 40 30 10 –20
3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
134
14–D 70 60 60 40
403
50 40 20 –10
110 2.2 1.9
16–D 70 60
397 20 –10
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
392 8.6 6.7 5.1 3.9 2.9 2.1
6–D 20 20 20 30 30 30
429 20 20 20 20 20 10
292 7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4 1.8
8–D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30
422 30 30 30 30 20 10 0
222 5.5 4.5 3.7 2.9 2.3
10–D 50 50 50 50 50
416 40 40 30 20 10
166 3.1 2.4 1.8
12–D 60 60 60
410 30 20 0
134 1.8
14–D 70
403 0


A= 396,000 mm
6 4 6 4
12–D I= 30,500 10 mm 44,100 10 mm
yb = 587 mm 684 mm
yt = 313 mm 291 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 25,500 10 mm 64,500 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 3.9 kN/m 5.65 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
403 10.3 8.8 7.5 6.4 5.5 4.7 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.4 1.9
12–D 35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 20 15 5
505 40 40 40 40 35 30 25 20 10 –10 –30
322 10.5 9.0 7.8 6.8 5.8 5.0 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7 2.3 1.9
14–D 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30 20 15 0
498 50 50 50 45 45 40 30 20 10 –15 –25 –50
268 10.3 9.0 7.8 6.9 6.0 5.2 4.5 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.1
16–D 55 50 50 60 60 55 45 40 35 30 10 0
492 55 55 55 60 60 45 35 20 10 0 –30 –50
10.3 9.0 7.9 6.9 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.2
225
18–D 55 55 55 650 60 55 50 45 35 25 15 0
486 60 55 55 60 60 45 35 30 –10 –15 –30 –60
6.7 5.9 5.2 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.3
192
20–D 65 60 60 55 50 40 30 15 0
479
55 50 50 45 30 5 –10 –30 –60
164 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2
22–D 70 65 60 60 45 40 15 –5
473 55 55 50 30 0 –10 –40 –70
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
403 10.0 8.2 6.9 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.1 2.4
12–D 35 35 35 35 35 35 30 30
505 40 35 30 25 30 20 10 0
322 10.2 8.6 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
14–D 40 40 45 45 45 40 40 35 30
498 40 40 40 40 30 20 10 0 –20
268 7.4 6.2 5.6 4.4 3.6 3.0
2.3
16–D 50 50 50 50 45 40
35
492 25 20 10 0 –15 –35
–55
225 7.3 6.2 5.3 4.5 3.6
2.8 2.2
18–D 55 55 55 55 50
45 40
486 50 45 35 20 10
–10 –30
192 5.8 4.9 4.1
3.3 2.7 2.1
20–D 65 65 60
55 50 45
479 45 40 30
10 –10 –30
164 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
22–D 60 60 50 45
473 30 10 –15 –40


Ag = 233,625 mm
6 4 6 4
6–S I= 1,628 10 mm 3,139 10 mm
yb = 222 mm 274 mm
yt = 78 mm 102 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 7,335 10 mm 11,443 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
172 7.4 4.2 2.4
2–S 0 0 0
172 0 0 0
147 8.6 5.5 3.7 2.4
4–S 10 10 10 10
147 10 10 10 10
105 10.7 6.9 4.7 3.2 2.3
6–S 10 10 10 10 10
105 10 10 10 10 10
9.4 6.5 4.6 3.3 2.4
105
6–D 20 20 20 30 30
159 20 30 30 30 20
8.2 5.7 4.0 2.8 2.0
84
8–S 10 10 20 20 10
84 20 20 20 10 0
72 4.2 3.1 2.3
8–D 30 40 40
152 40 40 30
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
172 8.6 4.4 2.2
2–S 0 0 0
172 0 0 0
147 10.5 6.4 3.9 2.3
4–S 10 10 10 10
147 10 10 10 10
105 8.9 5.7 3.6
6–S 10 10 10
105 10 10 10
105 11.5 7.6 5.1 3.4
6–D 20 20 20 30
159 20 20 20 10
84 7.4 4.4 2.0
8–S 10 20 20
84 10 10 0
72 4.9 3.0
8–D 30 40
152 30 20


Ag = 291,725 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 6,589 10 mm 10,433 10 mm
yb = 358 mm 429 mm
yt = 142 mm 147 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include Sb = 18,404 10 mm 24,296 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for St = 46,400 10 mm 71,210 10 mm
2 2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped m= 235 kg/m 418 kg/m
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time 2 2
w= 2.3 kN/m 4.1 kN/m
do not include live load. V/S = 37 mm
Key
2
2
(1)
Strand ee Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.1 5.7 4.2 3.0 2.1
283 10 10 10 10 10
4–S
283 10 10 10 10 10
8.8 6.6 5.0 3.8 2.9 2.2
258
6–S 10 10 20 20 20 20
258 20 20 20 20 20 10
7.8 6.0 4.6 3.6 2.8 2.2
208
8–S 20 20 20 20 20 20
208 20 20 20 20 20 10
10.2 7.9 6.2 4.9 3.9 3.1 2.5 2.0
208
8–D 20 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
288 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 10
8.4 6.4 5.0 3.9 3.1 2.4
158
10–S 20 20 20 20 20 10
158 20 20 20 20 10 10
6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.2
158 40 40 40 40 40 40
10–D
282 50 50 40 40 30 20
3.7 3.0 2.5 2.1
124 50 50 50 50
12–D
276 60 50 40 20
2
(1)
Strand ee Span (m)
Pattern ec 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
8.3 5.6 3.6 2.2
283
4–S 10 10 10 10
283
10 10 10 10
9.2 6.6 4.7 3.3 2.2
258
6–S 10 10 20 20 20
258
10 10 10 10 10
8.3 6.1 4.5 3.2 2.3
208
8–S 20 20 20 20 20
208
20 20 10 10 10
10.5 7.9 6.0 4.5 3.3 2.4
208 30 30 30 30 30 30
8–D
288 30 30 30 30 20 10
9.3 6.9 5.1 3.8 2.3
158
10–S 20 20 20 20 20
158 20 10 10 10 10
6.1 4.7 3.7 2.8
158 40 40 40 40
10–D
282 40 30 30 20
3.5 2.5
124 50 50
12–D
276 30 20


Ag = 341,825 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 15,649 10 mm 23,182 10 mm
yb = 492 mm 581 mm
yt = 208 mm 195 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include Sb = 31,806 10 mm 39,937 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for St = 75,233 10 mm 118,596 10 mm
2 2 2
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time 2 2
w= 2.7 kN/m 4.5 kN/m
do not include live load. V/S = 40 mm
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
367 8.6 6.9 5.5 4.5 3.6 2.9 2.3 1.9
8–S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
367 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 9.4 7.6 6.1 5.0 4.1 3.3 2.7 2.2
10–S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
292 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 8.3 6.8 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.3 2.7 2.2
10–D 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30
416 40 40 40 40 40 30 20 10
8.3 6.9 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1
233
12–D 40 40 50 50 50 50 40 40 30
410 50 50 50 50 50 40 30 20 10
4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
184
14–D 60 60 50 50 50 40
403 60 60 50 40 30 10
154 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
16–D 70 60 60 50
397 60 50 30 10
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
367 8.5 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.8 2.0
8–S 20 20 20 20 20 20
367 20 20 20 20 10 10
292 9.6 7.5 5.8 4.5 3.5 2.6
10–S 20 20 20 20 20 20
292 20 20 20 20 20 10
292 7.8 6.3 5.0 4.0 3.1 2.4
10–D 30 30 40 40 40 40
416 30 30 30 30 20 10
233 7.8 6.4 5.2 4.2 3.4 2.7 2.1
12–D 40 40 50 50 50 50 40
410 40 40 40 30 30 20 0
184 4.3 2.5 2.7
2.0
14–D 60 60 50
50
403 40 30 20 0
154 2.6 1.9
16–D 70 60
397 20 0


Ag = 383,925 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 28,785 10 mm 41,258 10 mm
yb = 627 mm 731 mm
yt = 273 mm 244 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 45,909 10 mm 56,468 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 3.0 kN/m 4.8 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
351 7.0 5.8 4.9 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4 1.9
12–S 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
351 30 30 20 20 20 10 0 –10
351 8.3 7.1 6.1 5.2 4.5 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0
12–D 40 40 50 40 40 40 40 40 30 30
545 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20 10 0
284 7.2 6.2 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
14–D 50 50 50 50 50 50 40 40 30 20
538 60 60 60 50 50 40 30 20 0 –10
4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1
233
16–D 60 60 60 50 50 40
532 60 60 50 40 20 10
3.1 2.7 2.4 2.1
199
18–D 70 60 60 50
526 60 50 30 10
172 2.6 2.3 2.0
20–D 70 70 60
519 50 60 10
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
351 6.5 5.2 4.2 3.3 2.6 1.9
12–S 20 20 20 20 20 20
351 20 20 10 10 0 –10
351 7.6 6.3 5.3 4.3 3.6 2.9 2.3
12–D 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
545 40 40 40 30 30 20 10
284 6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.1 2.5 2.0
14–D 50 50 50 50 50 50 40
538 50 40 40 30 20 10 0
233 3.9 3.3 2.62.1
16–D 60 60 60 50
532 40 30 20 0
199 2.5 2.0
18–D 70 60
526 20 0


Ag = 287,100 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 2,534 10 mm 4,471 10 mm
yb = 268 mm 731 mm
yt = 82 mm 104 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 9,445 10 mm 13,928 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 1.9 kN/m 3.7 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
193 15.6 9.4 6.1 4.1 2.7
4–D 10 10 10 10 10
211 10 10 10 10 10
151 18.5 11.3 7.4 5.0 3.5 2.5
6–S 10 10 10 10 20 20
151 10 10 10 10 10 10
151 6.6 4.7 3.4 2.5
6–D 20 20 20 20
205 20 20 20 20
4.6 3.5 2.6
105
8–D 30 30 30
198 30 30 30
2.6
88
10–D 50
192
40
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
193 18.4 10.7 6.6 4.0 2.4
4–D 10 10 10 10 10
211 10 10 10 10 10
151 23.4 13.9 8.8 5.7 3.7 2.1
6–S 10 10 10 10 20 20
151 10 10 10 10 10 0
151 7.2 4.9 3.2 2.1
6–D 20 20 20 20
205 20 20 20 10
105 4.9 3.4 2.0
8–D 30 30 30
198 30 20 10
88 1.7
10–D 50
192 10


Ag = 340,250 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 8,682 10 mm 13,079 10 mm
yb = 411 mm 482 mm
yt = 139 mm 143 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 21,130 10 mm 27,137 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 2.2 kN/m 4.0 kN/m
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S=34 mm
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
311 15.7 11.1 8.1 6.0 4.5 3.5 2.6 2.0
6–S 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
311 10 10 10 10 20 20 10 10
311 12.2 8.9 6.7 5.1 3.9 3.0 2.3
6–D 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
348 10 20 20 20 20 20 10
261 9.3 7.2 5.6 4.5 3.5 2.8 2.2
8–D 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
341 30 30 30 30 30 20 20
5.7 4.6 3.7 3.0 2.4
191
10–D 40 40 40 40 40
335 40 40 40 30 20
3.7 3.1
152
12–D 50 50
329 50 40
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
311 17.1 11.7 8.2 5.8 4.1 2.8
6–S 10 10 10 10 20 20
311 10 10 10 10 10 10
311 12.8 9.0 6.4 4.6 3.2 2.1
6–D 10 10 20 20 20 20
348 10 10 20 20 10 10
261 9.4 7.0 5.2 3.9 2.8
8–D 20 20 30 30 30
341 20 30 30 20 20
191 5.3 4.1 3.1 2.3
10–D 40 40 40 40
335 50 30 30 20
152 3.2 2.4
12–D 50 50
329 30 20
Figure 7.10 Double Tee 3660 x 550

Continued next page


Ag = 385,510 mm
6 4 6 4
6–D I= 19,150 10 mm 27,350 10 mm
yb = 551 mm 640 mm
yt = 199 mm 185 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 34,760 10 mm 42,730 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 2.5 kN/m 4.3 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
426 10.7 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
8–D 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
481 20 20 30 30 30 30 20 20
331 8.8 7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4
10–D 30 30 30 30 40 40 30 30
475 30 30 40 40 30 30 30 20
267 6.1 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
12–D 40 40 40 40 40 40
469 50 50 40 40 30 20
4.3 3.7 3.1 2.7 2.3
215
14–D 50 50 50 50 50
462 50 50 40 30 20
3.2 2.7
182
16–D 60 60
456 50 40
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
426 10.4 8.0 6.2 4.7 3.6 2.7
8–D 20 20 20 20 30 30
481 20 20 20 20 20 20
331 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1 3.2 2.5
10–D 30 30 30 30 30 30
475 30 30 30 30 20 20
267 5.4 4.3 3.5 2.7 2.1
12–D 40 40 40 40 40
469 40 40 30 20 10
215 3.5 2.92.3
14–D 50 50 50
462 40 30 20
182 2.2
16–D 60
456 20
Figure 7.11 Double Tee 3660 x 750

Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables

PRETOPPED DOUBLE TEE Section Properties
No. of 13 mm strands 3660 x 400 Ag = 470,100 mm
2
S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete 6 4
I= 3,857 10 mm
8–D yb = 309 mm
yt = 91 mm
3 3
Sb = 12,485 10 mm
3 3
St = 42,396 10 mm
2
Superimposed loads shown include m= 308 kg/m
2
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for w= 3.0 kN/m
2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped V/S = 55 mm
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10.4 6.5 4.1 2.6
234
4–D 10 10 10 10
252
10 10 10 10
14.3 9.2 6.1 4.1 2.7
209
6–S 10 10 10 10 10
209
10 10 10 10 10
7.2 4.9 3.4 2.3
209
6–D 10 10 10 10
246
20 20 10 10
5.1 3.7 2.6
184
8–D 20 20 20
239
20 20 20
5.0 3.7 2.7
159
10–D 30 30 30
233
30 30 20
4.2 3.2
134
12–D 40 40
227
40 40
Figure 7.12 Pretopped Double Tee 3660 x 400
Continued next page

Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables continued

S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete 2
Ag = 532,250 mm
6 4
8–D I= 11,930 10 mm
yb = 468 mm
yt = 132 mm
3 3
Sb = 25,490 10 mm
3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 90,380 10 mm
2
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for m= 345 kg/m
2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped w= 3.4 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
368 16.8 11.6 8.2 5.9 4.3 3.1 2.1
6–S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
368 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
368 18.2 12.7 9.1 6.6 4.8 3.5 2.5
6–D 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
405 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
343 9.5 7.2 5.5 4.2 3.1 2.3
8–D 20 20 20 20 20 20
398 20 20 20 20 20 10
7.3 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.7
318
10–D 30 30 30 30 30
392 30 30 30 30 20
7.2 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
267
12–D 30 40 40 40 30
386
40 40 40 40 30
225 4.4 3.6
14–D 40 40
379 50 40
Continued next page

Pretopped Double Tee Load Tables continued

S = straight D = depressed Normal Density Concrete 2
Ag = 568,500 mm
6 4
8–D I= 25,420 10 mm
yb = 632 mm
yt = 177 mm
3 3
Sb = 40,800 10 mm
3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 143,600 10 mm
2
2
2 2
untopped elements and 0.7 kN/m for topped w= 3.7 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
498 13.9 10.7 8.3 6.5 5.1 4.0 3.1 2.4
8–D 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 10
553 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
473 11.0 8.8 7.0 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.9
10–D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
547 20 30 30 30 30 30 20
431 8.9 7.3 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.6
12–D 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
541 40 40 40 40 30 30 20
7.2 6.0 5.0 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.2
358
14–D 40 40 40 40 40 30 30
534 50 50 40 40 40 30 20
4.9 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.8
310
16–D 50 50 50 40 40
528 50 50 40 30 30
273 4.0 3.4 2.8
18–D 60 50 50
522 60 50 40

Single Tee Load Tables

SINGLE TEE Section Properties
Ag = 492,000 mm
6 4 6 4
14–D I= 66,300 10 mm 84,330 10 mm
yb = 882 mm 984 mm
yt = 318 mm 291 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 75,200 10 mm 85,668 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 3.9 kN/m 5.7 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
510 8.8 7.7 6.7 5.8 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.7
14–D 35 35 40 40 40 35 35 35 30 25 20 10
793 40 45 40 40 35 35 30 25 15 5 –5 –20
425 10.5 9.1 8.0 7.0 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.6
16–D 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40 35 30 25 20 10
787 50 50 50 50 50 50 45 40 35 25 15 0 –15 –35
359 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.5 4.8 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.8
18–D 50 50 55 55 50 50 45 45 40 30 25 15
781 60 60 55 55 50 45 40 30 15 0 –15 –35
5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
312
20–D 60 55 55 50 50 45 35 30 20
774 60 55 50 40 30 20 5 –15 –35
5.0 4.4 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.2 1.9
272
22–D 65 65 60 55 50 40 30 20
768 60 55 45 35 20 5 –15 –40
240 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9
24–D 65 60 55 45 35 25
762 50 35 20 0 –20 –40
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
510 8.2 6.9 5.9 5.0 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7
14–D 35 35 40 40 40 35 35 30 30
793 25 20 20 15 10 5 –5 –15 –30
425 9.7 8.3 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.1 2.5
1.9
16–D 40 40 40 45 45 45 45 45 40
35
787 35 30 25 25 20 15 5 –5 –15
–30
359 7.3 6.3 5.5 4.7 3.9 3.2
2.5 1.9
18–D 50 50 55 55 50 50
50 45
781 35 30 25 15 5 –5
–20 –35
312 5.5 4.6 3.8
3.2 2.5 1.9
20–D 60 60 55
55 50 50
774 25 15 –5 5–20 –40
272 5.4 4.5
3.7 3.1 2.5 1.9
22–D 65 65
65 65 60 60
768 25 15
5 –10 –25 –45
240 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.8
24–D 75 70 70 65 60
262 15 0 –15 –30 –50
Figure 7.15 Single Tee

7.4 FLAT DECK ELEMENTS

Hollowcore Load Tables

HOLLOW CORE Section Properties
S = straight D = depressed
2 —
Ag = 138,700 mm
3–S 6 4 6 4
I= 693 10 mm 1,276 10 mm
yb = 101.5 mm 134 mm
yt = 101.5 mm 119 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 6,800 10 mm 9,250 10 mm
Superimposed loads shown include St = 6,800
3
10 mm
3
10,745
3
10 mm
3
2
superimposed dead loads of 0.5 kN/m for 2 2
2
2 2
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time w= 2.7 kN/m 3.9 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.4 10.5 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.3 3.4. 2.8 2.8
3–S 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10
11.4 9.2 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.5 2.8 2.3
4–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10
10 10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
11.4 9.4 7.7 6.4 5.3 4.4 3.7 3.0 2.5
5–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20
13.3 10.9 9.1 7.6 6.4 5.4 4.5 3.8 3.2
6–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 –10
12.3 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.8
7–S 57 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
13.1 10.3 8.1 6.5 5.0 3.7 2.6
3–S 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 –10 –10
14.1 11.2 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.1 2.2
4–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
13.8 11.1 8.9 7.1 5.6 4.4 3.4 2.6
5–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0
10 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20
13.2 10.7 8.7 7.1 5.7 4.6 3.6 2.8
6–S 57 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 0 –10 –20
12.5 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7
7–S 57 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 10 10 0 0
Figure 7.16 Hollow Core 1220 x 203
Continued next page

Hollowcore Load Tables continued

S = straight D = depressed 2 —
1220 Ag= 167,000 mm
6 4 6 4
5–S I= 1,342 10 mm 2,218 10 mm
yb= 127 mm 161 mm
50
yt= 127 mm 144 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb= 10,570 10 mm 13,765 10 mm
3 3 3 3
St= 10,570
45
Superimposed loads shown include 10 mm 15,420 10 mm
254
2 2 2
2
w= 3.23 kN/m 4.42 kN/m
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S= 57 mm
Key
2
2
(1)
Strand ee Span (m)
Patter
n ec 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
12.6 10.6 8.8 6.8 5.1 4.4 3.6 3.2 2.4 2.0 1.5
4-S 83 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 -10
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 -10 -10 -20 -20
17.2 14.8 12.5 10.1 8.7 7.7 6.4 5.7 5.0 4.2 3.6 3.0 2.5 2.2
6-S 83 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10 -20 -30
14.8 12.9 11.3 10.0 8.9 8.2 7.1 6.2 5.4 4.7 4.1 3.6
8-S 83 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 30 30 20 20 20 20 10 0 0
14.6 12.8 11.4 10.1 9.0 7.8 6.7 5.9 5.2 4.6 4.2
10-S 83 30 30 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30
30 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 20
2
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m ) and cambers (mm) Topping
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
13 11.2 9 6.8 5.8 5 4 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.4
4-S 83 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 -10
0 0 0 0 0 -10 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50
19.2 17.0 14.4 12.4 10.2 8.8 7.6 6.7 5.7 4.7 3.7 2.8 2.3 1.9
6-S 83 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10
10 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10 -10 -20 -30 -40 -60 -70
16.4 14.6 13.2 11.3 9.7 8.9 8.1 6.9 5.8 4.8 4.0 3.4
8-S 83 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10
20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40
14.8 13.6 12.6 11.8 10.4 9.2 8.2 7.2 6.4 5.4 4.6
10-S 83 30 30 30 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 30
30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 0 -10 -20
Figure 7.17 Hollow Core 1220 x 254 Continued next page


Ag = 184,000 mm
6 4 6 4
5–S I= 2177 10 mm 3,390 10 mm
yb = 152.5 mm 189 mm
yt = 152.5 mm 165 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 14,275 10 mm 17,900 10 mm
3 3 3 3
2 2 2
2
w= 3.55 kN/m 4.7 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
12.1 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.4 5.4 4.6 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.4
5–S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10
10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10 –20 –20
12.5 10.7 9.2 8.0 6.9 5.9 5.1 4.4 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.2
6–S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20 –20 –30
12.6 10.9 9.4 8.2 7.1 6.1 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.4
7–S 108 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 –10
20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20 –20
12.3 10.7 9.3 8.1 7.1 6.2 5.4 4.7 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.6
8–S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0 0
20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 –10 –20 –30
11.4 10.0 8.8 7.7 6.8 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.6
9–S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 0
30 30 30 20 20 20 10 10 0 –10 –20 –30
11.9 10.5 9.2 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.6 4.9 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5
11–S 108 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10 0
30 40 40 30 30 30 30 20 10 10 0 –20 –30
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
11.4 9.6 8.1 6.9 5.7 4.6 3.7 2.9 2.2
5–S 108 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10
10 10 0 0 0 –10 –10 –20 –20
12.1 10.2 9.6 7.2 6.0 4.9 4.0 3.2 2.5
6–S 108 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –10 –20
12.0 10.2 8.7 7.3 6.2 5.2 4.3 3.5 2.8 2.2
7–S 108 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 10 0 0
20 10 10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20 –30
11.8 10.1 8.6 7.4 6.3 5.3 4.5 3.7 3.0 2.4
8–S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 0
20 20 20 20 10 10 0 –10 –20 –30
11.8 10.3 8.9 7.8 6.8 5.9 5.1 4.3 3.6 3.0 2.5
9–S 108 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0
20 20 20 20 20 10 10 0 –10 –20 –30
12.8 11.2 9.8 8.5 7.5 6.5 5.7 4.9 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.7
11–S 108 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 10
30 30 30 30 30 20 20 10 0 –10 –20 –30
Continued next page


S = straight D = depressed
1220 Ag = 244,000 mm
2 —
5–S I= 3,820
6
10 mm
4
5,360
6
10 mm
4
50
yb = 178 mm 208 mm
yt = 178 mm 198 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 21,470 10 mm 25,700 10 mm
356
3 3 3 3
45
2
2
600 kg/m
2
2
elements. Remainder is liveload. Long-time w= 4.69 kN/m 5.89 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
7.5 7.0 6.5 5.7 5.1 4.5 3.9 3.2 2.4 1.8
8-S 133 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10
20 20 10 10 10 0 -10 -20 -20 -30
7.0 6.6 6.2 5.8 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.8 3.3
10-S 133 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 10
30 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 -10
6.2 5.8 5.6 5.0 4.6 4.2 3.8
12-S 130 40 40 40 40 30 30 30
40 40 40 30 30 20 10
6.2 5.8 5.6 5.0 4.6 4.2 4.0
14-S 126 50 50 50 50 50 40 40
50 50 50 50 50 40 30
2
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m ) and cambers (mm) Topping
Strand ee
(1) Span (m)
Pattern ec 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5
8.6 8.0 7.4 6.7 5.7 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.7 2.1
8-S 133 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 -10
10 0 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70
8.0 7.4 6.9 6.4 6.0 5.6 4.8 4.1 3.6
10-S 133 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 10
20 10 10 0 -10 -10 -20 -40 -50
9.6 6.9 6.5 6.0 5.6 5.1 4.9 4.6
12-S 130 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 30
30 20 20 10 10 0 -20 -30
7.0 6.5 6.1 5.7 5.4 4.9 4.7
14-S 126 50 50 50 50 50 40 40
40 30 30 20 10 0 -10

Solid Flat Slab Load Tables

SOLID FLAT SLAB Section Properties
Ag = 122,000 mm
6 4 6 4
3–S I= 101.7 10 mm 316.0 10 mm
yb = 50 mm 72.3 mm
yt = 50 mm 77.7 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 2033 10 mm 4375 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 2033 10 mm 4069 10 mm
2 2 2
2
w= 2.35 kN/m 3.55 kN/m
Key
2
– 10 – Estimated camber at erection, mm
–10 – Estimated long-time camber, mm
2
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
8.5 5.8 4.2 3.0 2.1
3–S 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10
10.4 7.3 5.5 3.9 2.8
4–S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 –10
12.1 8.6 6.2 4.5 3.3
5–S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 –10
13.3 9.0 6.6 4.9 3.6
6–S 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
9.3 7.0 5.2 3.9
7–S 0 0 10 10
10 10 0 0
2
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
11.8 8.6 6.3
3–S 0 0 –10
0 –10 –10
11.4 8.5
4–S 0 0
0 –10
10.1 7.7
5–S 0 0
–10 –10
11.3 8.8
6–S 0 0
0 –10
12.1 9.8
7–S 0 0
0 –10
Figure 7.20 Solid Flat Slab 1220 x 100
Continued next page

Solid Flat Slab Load Tables continued

Ag = 183,000 mm
6 4 6 4
3–S I= 343.1 10 mm 756.0 10 mm
yb = 75 mm 97.0 mm
yt = 75 mm 103.0 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 4575 10 mm 7796 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 4575 10 mm 7339 10 mm
2 2 2
2
w= 3.53 kN/m 4.73 kN/m
Key
2
2
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
12.8 9.5 7.3 5.4 4.0 2.9 2.0
3–S 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 0 0 –10 –10
12.8 10.0 7.7 5.8 4.5 3.4 2.4
4–S 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 0 0 –10 –10
12.4 9.4 7.4 5.7 4.5 3.5 2.6
5–S 10 10 10 10 0 0 0
10 10 10 0 0 –10 –20
11.1 8.5 6.9 5.4 4.2 3.4
6–S 10 10 10 10 10 0
10 10 10 0 0 –10
9.7 7.7 6.2 4.9 3.9
7–S 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 0
2
Span (m)
Strand Pattern
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
14.3 10.8 8.2 6.2 4.5 3.2
3–S 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
11.6 8.9 6.9 5.4 4.0
4–S 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 –10 –10 –20
11.2 8.7 7.0 5.5
5–S 10 0 0 0
0 0 –10 –20
13.4 10.7 8.4 6.8 5.5
6–S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 –10 –20
12.2 10.0 7.9 6.4 5.2
7–S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 –10 –20
Continued next page

Solid Flat Slab Load Tables continued

Ag = 244,000 mm
6 4 6 4
3–S I= 813.3 10 mm 1489.0 10 mm
yb = 100 mm 121.8 mm
yt = 100 mm 128.2 mm
3 3 3 3
Sb = 8133 10 mm 12,225 10 mm
3 3 3 3
Superimposed loads shown include St = 8133 10 mm 11,615 10 mm
2 2 2
2
w= 4.71 kN/m 5.91 kN/m
cambers include superimposed dead load but V/S= 86 mm
Key
2
2
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10
12.0 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.7
3–S 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 –10 –10
12.5 9.8 7.5 6.0 4.6 3.4 2.5
4–S 0 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
12.6 9.9 7.9 6.2 4.8 3.9 3.0 2.2
5–S 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10 –10 –10 –20
12.1 9.8 7.9 6.2 5.0 4.0 3.3 2.5
6–S 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 –10
10 10 10 0 0 –10 –10 –20
11.3 9.4 7.5 6.2 5.1 4.2 3.3 2.6
7–S 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 –10
10 10 10 10 0 –10 –10 –20
2
Strand Span (m)
Pattern 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.5 9.0
11.8 8.9 6.7 5.0 3.7 2.6
3–S 0 0 0 0 –10 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
12.8 9.9 7.8 6.2 4.6 3.6
4–S 0 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
13.0 10.4 8.3 6.6 5.3 4.1
5–S 10 0 0 0 0 –10
0 0 0 –10 –10 –20
12.7 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6 4.4
6–S 10 10 0 0 0 –10
10 0 0 –10 –10 –20
12.3 10.3 8.5 6.9 5.6
7–S 10 10 10 0 0
10 0 0 –10 –20

7.5 BEAM ELEMENTS

Rectangular Beam Load Tables
RECTANGLUAR BEAMS
Section Properties
b h Ag I yb S m w
2 6 4 3 3
(mm) (mm) (mm ) (10 mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
300 400 120,000 1600 200 8000 288 2.8
300 500 150,000 3120 250 12,500 360 3.5
300 600 180,000 5400 300 18,000 432 4.2
300 700 210,000 8575 350 24,500 504 4.9
300 800 240,000 12,800 400 32,000 576 5.6
300 900 270,000 18,200 450 40,500 648 6.4
400 600 240,000 7200 300 24,000 576 5.6
400 700 280,000 11,400 350 32,700 672 6.6
Key
77.1 – Superimposed (service) load, kN/m 400 800 320,000 17,100 400 42,700 768 7.5
10 – Estimated camber at erection, mm 400 900 360,000 24,300 450 54,000 864 8.5
400 1000 400,000 33,300 500 66,700 960 9.4
Table of superimposed service load (kN/m) and cambers (mm)

b h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) (mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
75.0 50.0 32.0 24.0 16.5
300 400 6 125 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 20 20 30
114.0 76.0 48.0 36.0 26.0 19.5
300 500 7 162 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 30 30 40
108.0 75.0 53.5 40.0 32.0 24.0 19.0
300 600 9 189 10 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40
144.0 100.0 71.0 53.0 41.0 32.0 26.0 21.0 17.0
300 700 10 225 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
125.0 95.0 75.0 58.0 44.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 20.0
300 800 12 252 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
164.0 120.0 90.0 70.0 65.0 45.0 36.5 30 25 21.0 18.0
300 900 13 288 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40 40
145.0 100.0 70.5 52.0 40.5 32.0 25.5 20.0 16.5
400 600 12 190 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
130.0 95.0 70.0 56.0 42.0 34.0 27.5 22.0 18.5
400 700 13 230 10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 40
98.0 73.0 60.0 49.0 39.0 33.0 27.0 22.0 18.5
400 800 16 255 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
20 20 30 30 30 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.0 62.0 51.0 42.0 35.0 29.0 24.0 21.0
400 900 18 287 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
20 20 30 30 40 40 40 40 50
96.0 76.5 64.0 53.0 44.0 37.0 31.0 27.0
400 1000 20 320 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
20 30 30 30 40 40 40 40
The above tables have been generated using an initial tension of 0.75 f pu resulting in fully prestressed elements with M r governing. Higher load
capacities may be achieved by using more strands with a lower initial tension which may result in partially prestressed elements.
Figure 7.23 Rectangular Beams

Inverted Tee Beam Load Tables
INVERTED TEE BEAMS

(100 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
(mm) (mm ) (10 mm ) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kg/m) (kN/m)
500 210,000 4004 221 18,116 14,350 504 4.94
600 260,000 7021 269 26,099 21,210 624 6.12
700 310,000 11,336 318 35,647 29,675 744 7.30
800 360,000 17,200 367 46,866 39,723 864 8.48
900 410,000 24,864 416 59,768 51,371 984 9.65
1000 460,000 34,577 465 74,359 64,630 1104 10.83
1100 510,000 46,590 515 90,465 79,641 1224 12.01
1200 560,000 61,152 564 108,426 96,152 1344 13.18
Key 614
155.1 – Superimposed (service) load, kN/m 1300 610,000 78,515 127,874 114,453 1464 14.36
10 – Estimated camber at erection, mm 1400 660,000 98,927 664 148,987 134,412 1584 15.54
10 – Estimated long-time camber, mm 713
1500 710,000 122,640 172,006 155,832 1704 16.72

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
134.0 84.0 59.0 40.4 30.0 22.4
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 30
118.0 80.0 59.0 42.0 32.0 25.0
600 9 184 10 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 10 20 20
114.0 82.0 61.0 47.0 37.0 29.0
700 11 218 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20
106.0 81.0 61.0 47.0 38.0 30.0 25.0
800 13 247 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 30 30
134.0 102.0 77.0 60.0 49.0 40.0 32.0 26.0
900 14 291 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
132.0 101.0 81.0 64.0 53.0 44.0 36.0 30.0 24.0
1000 17 310 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 10 10 20 20 30 30 40
134.0 100.0 79.0 65.0 53.0 45.0 37.0 31.0 26.0
1100 18 355 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
120.0 97.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 46.0 39.0 33.0
1200 20 389 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
117.0 96.0 80.0 67.0 56.0 47.0 40.0
1300 22 424 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 40
138.0 110.0 94.0 78.0 66.0 56.0 48.0
1400 24 449 20 20 20 20 30 30 30
20 20 30 30 30 40 40
130.0 108.0 80.0 77.0 66.0 57.0
1500 25 493 10 20 20 20 20 20
20 20 20 30 30 30
Figure 7.24 Inverted Tee Beams (100 mm ledge)

Continued next page

Inverted Tee Beam Load Tables continued
INVERTED TEE BEAMS

(200 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
500 320,000 5817 213 27,308 20,267 768 7.53
600 360,000 9900 250 39,600 28,286 864 8.48
700 400,000 15,693 290 54,155 38,276 960 9.42
800 440,000 23,423 332 70,546 50,045 1056 10.36
900 480,000 33,300 375 88,800 63,429 1152 11.30
1000 520,000 45,541 419 108,690 78,384 1248 12.24
1100 560,000 60,352 464 130,070 94,894 1344 13.18
1200 600,000 77,940 510 152,824 112,957 1440 14.13
Key
155.1 – Superimposed (service) load, kN/m 1300 640,000 98,508 556 177,173 132,404 1536 15.07
1500 720,000 149,400 650 229,846 175,765 1728 16.95

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150.0 93.0 63.0 43.0 31.0 23.0
500 8 163 0 0 10 10 10 10
0 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 90.0 64.0 46.0 34.0 27.0
600 9 200 0 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 10 10
134.0 94.0 72.0 54.0 41.0 33.0
700 11 240 10 10 10 10 10 10
10 10 10 10 20 20
134.0 98.0 76.0 60.0 48.0 38.0 31.0
800 13 282 10 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
126.0 97.0 76.0 61.0 50.0 40.0 33.0
900 14 325 10 10 10 10 10 10 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20
130.0 103.0 83.0 68.0 56.0 46.0 38.0 33.0
1000 17 356 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
160.0 129.0 104.0 84.0 70.0 58.0 49.0 41.0 35.0
1100 19 389 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
150.0 122.0 98.0 82.0 70.0 89.0 48.0 41.0
1200 20 435 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20
146.0 121.0 101.0 84.0 71.0 60.0 52.0
1300 22 476 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 20 20 20 20 20 20
142.0 120.0 100.0 86.0 73.0 63.0
1400 24 513 10 10 10 20 20 20
20 20 20 20 20 20
138.0 118.0 98.0 83.0 73.0
1500 25 560 10 10 10 20 20
20 20 20 20 20
The above tables have been generated using an initial tension of 0. 75 fpu resulting in fully prestressed elements with M r governing. Higher load
Figure 7.25 Inverted Tee Beams (200 mm ledge)

L-Shaped Beam Load Tables
L-SHAPED BEAMS
(100 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
500 180,000 3600 233 15451 13483 432 4.24
600 220,000 6261 282 22201 19687 528 5.18
700 260,000 10,021 331 30273 27156 624 6.12
800 300,000 15,080 390 39684 35905 720 7.06
900 340,000 21,639 429 50441 45943 816 8.00
1000 380,000 29,898 473 62418 57386 912 8.95
1100 420,000 40,057 529 75722 70153 1008 9.89
1200 460,000 52,316 578 90412 84109 1104 10.83
Key
141.6 – Superimposed (service) load, kN/m 1300 500,000 66,875 628 106488 99516 1200 11.77
10 – Estimated camber at erection, mm 1400 540,000 83,933 678 123795 116251 1296 12.71
1500 580,000 103,692 728 142434 134316 1392 13.66

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
140.0 88.0 60.0 43.0 31.8 24.2 18.8
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 30 30
122.0 83.4 60.0 44.6 34.2 26.6 21.2 17.0
600 9 187 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30
172.0 117.6 84.8 63.4 48.8 38.4 30.6 24.8 20.2
700 11 216 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 30
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
151.0 109.0 82.0 63.0 50.0 40.0 32.4 26.6 22.0 18.2
800 12 255 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 40
141.6 106.4 82.4 65.2 52.6 42.8 35.4 29.4 24.6 20.6
900 14 282 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 40
134.0 125.0 82.6 66.6 54.6 45.2 37.6 31.6 26.8 22.6 19.2
1000 16 309 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 220 30 30 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 40
161.8 125.0 99.2 80.4 66.0 54.6 45.8 38.6 32.8 27.8 23.6
1100 17 349 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30 30
152.4 121.4 98.4 81.0 67.4 56.5 48.0 40.8 35.0 30.0
1200 19 380 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
145.6 118.0 97.4 81.6 68.4 58.0 49.6 42.6 36.8
1300 21 410 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
167.4 136.4 112.4 94.0 79.2 67.4 57.6 49.6 42.8
1400 22 449 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
159.4 131.6 110.2 93.2 79.4 68.2 58.8 65.5
1500 24 481 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
The above tables have been generated using an initial tension of 0.75 fpu resulting in fully prestressed elements with M r governing. Higher load
Figure 7.26 L-shaped Beams (100 mm ledge)

Continued next page

L-Shaped Beam Load Tables continued
L-SHAPED BEAMS
(200 mm LEDGE)
Section Properties
h Ag I yb Sb St m w
2 6 4 3 3 3 3
500 260,000 5078 227 22,371 18,601 624 6.12
600 300,000 8730 270 32,333 26,455 720 7.06
700 340,000 13,859 315 43,999 35,999 816 8.00
800 380,000 20,674 361 57,270 47,095 912 8.95
900 420,000 29,378 407 72,183 59,591 1008 9.89
1000 460,000 40,174 454 88,490 73,580 1104 10.83
1100 500,000 53,264 502 106,105 89,071 1200 11.77
1200 540,000 68,850 550 125,182 105,923 1296 12.71
Key
1300 580,000 87,131 598 145,705 124,119 1392 13.66
1500 660,000 132,586 695 190,771 164,703 1584 15.54

h 13 mm e Span (m)
(mm) strand (mm) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
150 96.0 65.0 47.0 34.0 26.0
500 8 151 0 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20
140.0 95.0 67.0 50.0 38.0 29.5 23.2
600 9 187 10 10 10 10 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
134.0 99.0 72.0 55.0 42.8 34.0 27.4
700 11 216 10 10 10 10 10 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30
174.0 120.0 94.0 70.0 56.6 45.0 37.0 29.0 24.6
800 12 255 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20
10 10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30
164.0 120 96.0 75.0 61.0 54.0 41.0 34.0 28.0
900 14 282 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 110.0 97.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
1000 16 309 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
144.0 110.0 94.0 75.0 64.0 54.0 44.0 35.0 31.0
1100 17 349 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
10 10 20 20 30 30 30 30 30
144.0 116.0 90.0 78.0 64.0 56.0 47.0 41.0
1200 19 380 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30 30
138.0 110.0 94.0 79.0 68.0 57.0 50.0
1300 21 410 10 20 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 30 30 30 30
158.0 130.0 109.0 90.0 78.0 67.0 58.0
1400 22 449 10 10 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 20 30 30 30
152.0 126.0 108.0 92.0 79.0 68.0
1500 24 481 10 20 20 20 20 30
20 20 20 30 30 30
Figure 7.27 L-shaped Beams (200 mm ledge)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—CPCI Girders
CPCI GIRDERS
Section Properties
I Sb St
Beam Ag yb m w
(10 6 (10 3 (10 3
Designation mm 2 (mm) 3 3 (kg/m) (kN/m)
mm 4 ) mm ) mm )
CPCI 900 227,250 19,943 400 49,858 39,8 86 557 5.46
CPCI 1200 331,750 55,370 529 104,669 82,519 813 7.97
CPCI 1400 427,500 104,930 638 164,467 137,703 1,047 10.27
CPCI 1500 499,375 151,380 745 203,195 200,503 1,223 12.00
CPCI 1600 515,375 178,130 793 224,628 220,731 1,263 12.39
CPCI 1900 56 3,375 274,140 940 291,638 285,563 1,380 13.54
CPCI 2300 627,375 441,940 1,136 389,032 379,674 1,537 15.08
910
125
560 50
75
150
410 80 75
150
160
310
1500
1400
160
150 50
30
1200
160
160
900
150
120 150
90
150 180 180 200
460 560 660 660
CPCI 900 CPCI 1200 CPCI 1400 CPCI 1500
f'ci = 35 MPa
f'c = 45 MPa
f pu = 1860 MPa
910
125
910 910 50
75
125 125
50 50
75 75 75
75 75
160
160
160
2300
1600
1900
150 150 150

200 200 200
660 660 660
CPCI 1600 CPCI 1900 CPCI 2300
fci' = 35 MPa
fc' = 45 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.28 CPCI Girders (Continues next page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—CPCI Girders continued
CPCI GIRDERS
Section Properties
CPCI Girders
Preliminary Design Chart
50.0
45.0
40.0
CPCI 2300
35.0 CPCI 1900

Span Length (m)
CPCI 1600
30.0 CPCI 1500
CPCI 1400
25.0 CPCI 1200
CPCI 900
20.0
15.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Girder Spacing (m)
Design Criteria
1. The span capability charts were developed in accordance with the CAN/CSA –S6 Canadian
Highway Bridge Design Code with CL-625 Truck.
2. Multi-spans were assumed.
3. Dead loads include girder self weight, 75 mm haunch, 225 mm thick deck composite with
girder and cross bracing (0.5 kN/m per girder).
4. Superimposed dead loads include 90 mm asphalt, and railing and curbs (13 kN/m total load
per bridge).
5. Assumed prestress losses; initial loss = 8% and final loss = 20 %.
6. The minimum concrete release strength was assumed to be 35 MPa.
7. The 28-day concrete strength is 45 MPa.
8. The concrete deck minimum 28-day strength was assumed to be 35 MPa and composite with
the girder.
9. Initial jacking force is 195 kN per strand based on 15 mm diameter strand.
Figure 7.28 CPCI Girders (Continued from previous page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—NU Girders
NU GIRDERS
Section Properties
I Sb St
Beam Ag yb m w
(10 6 (103 (10 3
Designation mm 2 (mm) (kg/m) (kN/m)
mm 4 ) mm 3 ) mm 3)
NU 1000 44 3,509 60,725 454 133,756 111,218 1,087 10.66
NU 1200 475,509 95,702 542 176,572 145,444 1,165 11.43
NU 1400 507,509 140,081 632 221,647 182,397 1,243 12.20
NU 1600 539,509 194,522 724 268,677 222,057 1,322 12.97
NU 1800 571,509 259,679 816 318,234 263, 901 1,400 13.74
NU 2000 603,509 336,204 909 369,861 308,161 1,479 14.51
NU 2400 667,509 525,955 1,097 479,448 403,649 1,635 16.04
NU 2800 731,509 768,950 1,287 597,475 508,229 1,792 17.58
1235
65
45
R50
DEPTH OF SECTION
160
R200
140
135
985
f'ci = 45 MPa
f'c = 55 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.29 NU Girders (Continues next page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—NU Girders continued
NU GIRDERS
NU Girders
60.0
55.0
50.0
NU 2000
45.0
Span Length (m)
NU 1800
NU 1600
40.0
NU 1400
NU 1200
35.0
NU 1000
30.0
25.0
1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75
Girder Spacing (m)
Design Criteria
1. The span capability charts were developed in accordance with the CAN/CSA –S6
Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code with CL-625 Truck.
2. Simple spans were assumed.
3. Dead loads include girder self weight, 75 mm thick haunch, 225 thick deck
composite with girder and cross bracing (0.5 kN/m per girder).
4. Superimposed dead loads include 90 mm asphalt, and railing and curbs (13 kN/m
total load per bridge).
8. The concrete deck minimum 28-day strength was assumed to be 35 MPa and
composite with the girder.
Figure 7.29 NU Girders (Continued from previous page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—NEBT Girders
NEBT GIRDERS
Section Properties
I Sb St
Beam Ag yb m w
(10 6 (10 3 (10 3
Designation mm 2 (mm) (kg/m) (kN /m)
mm 4 ) mm 3 ) mm 3 )
NEBT 1000 481,289 62,144 484 128,397 120,434 1,155 11.33
NEBT 1200 517,418 99,246 575 172,601 158,793 1,242 12.18
NEBT 1400 553,547 146,655 668 219,544 200,349 1,329 13.03
NEBT 1600 589,676 205,121 761 269,541 244,482 1,415 13.88
NE BT 1800 625,160 275,380 856 321,705 291,716 1,500 14.72
NEBT 2000 661,289 358,126 951 376,578 341,397 1,587 15.57
NEBT 2100 679,353 404,428 998 405,239 366,995 1,630 15.99
NEBT 2200 697,418 454,138 1,046 434,166 393,533 1,674 16.42
1200
85
50
R20
R200
DEPTH OF SECTION
VARIES
180
315
R200
100
R100
220
20 CHAMFER
810
f'ci = 45 MPa
f'c = 70 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.30 NEBT Girders (Continues next page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—NEBT Girders continued
NEBT Girders
45.0
40.0
35.0
Span Length (m)
NEBT 1800
30.0 NEBT 1600

NEBT 1400
NEBT 1200
25.0 NEBT 1000
20.0
1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
Girder Spacing (m)
Design Criteria
Figure 7.30 NEBT Girders (Continued from previous page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—Trapezoidal Girders
TRAPEZOIDAL GIRDERS
Ag I Sb St
Beam yb m w
(103 (106 (103 (103
Designation (mm) (kg/m) (kN/m)
mm2) mm4) mm3) mm3)
TG 1600 975 318,342 746 426,732 372,766 2,526 24.78
TG 1800 1,130 470,160 894 525,906 518,940 2,737 26.85
TG 2000 1,198 600,220 984 609,980 590,768 3,011 29.54
TG 2200 1,354 810,755 1,129 718,118 757,007 3,274 32.12
3140 3140
668 1804 668 666 1808 666
200
150
150
18 0 (MIN
.)
1 80 (M
IN.)
1280
1600
1800
1280
1350
170
170
290 150 300 290 150 300
450 290 1660 290 450 1660
f'ci = 45 MPa f'ci = 45 MPa

f'c = 70 MPa f'c = 70 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa fpu = 1860 MPa
3140 3140
662 1816 662 657 1826 657

200
200
150
150
1 80 (M 1 80 (M
IN.) IN.)
2000
2200
1480
1680
1350
170
170
260 150 330 330 150 260 220 150 370 370 150 220
1660 1660
f'ci = 45 MPa f'ci = 45 MPa

f'c = 70 MPa f'c = 70 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.31 Trapazoidal Girders (Continues next page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—Trapezoidal Girders continued
Trapezoidal Girders
44.0
42.0
Span Length (m)
40.0
TG 2200
TG 2000
38.0 TG 1800
TG 1600
36.0
34.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Girder Spacing (m)
Design Criteria
Figure 7.31 Trapazoidal Girders (Continued from previous page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—Single Void Box Girders
SINGLE VOID BOX GIRDERS

Box Girder
Top Flange = 100 mm, Web Thickness = 125 mm, Bottom Flange = 115 mm
I Sb St
Beam Ag yb m w
(10 6 (10 3 (10 3
Designation (mm 2 ) (mm) (kg/m) (kN/m)
mm 4 ) mm 3 ) mm 3 )
BG 800 426,690 36,620 393 93,181 89,975 1,045 10.26
BG 900 452,290 49,310 443 111,309 107,899 1,108 10.87
BG 1000 477,890 64,250 492 130,589 12 6,476 1,171 11.49
BG 1100 503,490 81,590 542 150,535 146,219 1,234 12.10
BG 1200 529,090 101,440 591 171,641 166,568 1,296 12.72
BG 1300 554,690 123,940 641 193,354 188,073 1,359 13.33
1206
125 100
WEB
(NOMINAL)
DEPTH
100x100
CHAMFER
115
1190
f'ci = 45 MPa
f'c = 70 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.32 Single Void Box Girders (Continues next page)

Bridge Girder Load Tables—Single Void Box Girders continued
Single Void Box Girders

45
41
Number of 15 mm Diameter Strands
37
33
BG 800
BG 900
29
BG 1000
BG 1100
25
BG 1200
21 BG 1300
17
13
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0
Simple Span (m)
All Box Girder Design Criteria

1. The span capability charts were developed in accordance with the CAN/CSA –S6 Canadian Highway
Bridge Design Code with CL-625 Truck.
3. Dead loads include girder self weight and 125 mm thick deck composite with girder.
4. Superimposed dead loads include 90 mm asphalt, and railing and curbs (13 kN/m total load per bridge).
8. The concrete deck minimum 28-day strength was assumed to be 35 MPa and composite with the girder.
Figure 7.32 Single Void Box Girders (Continued from previous page)

SPECIAL SINGLE VOID BOX GIRDERS

Special Box Girder
Top Flange = 100 mm, Web Thickness = 125 mm, Bottom Flange = 165 mm
I Sb St
Beam Ag yb m w
(10 6 (10 3 (10 3
Designation (mm 2 ) (mm) (kg/m) (kN/m)
mm 4 ) mm 3 ) mm 3 )
BG 1100 550,590 88,210 508 173,642 149,003 1,349 13 .23
BG 1200 576,190 109,880 555 197,982 170,357 1,412 13.85
BG 1300 601,790 134,430 603 222,935 192,869 1,474 14.46
1206
100
125
WEB
(NOMINAL)
DEPTH
100x100
CHAMFER
165
1190
f'ci = 45 MPa
f'c = 70 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
Figure 7.33 Special Single Void Box Girders (Continues on next page)

Special Single Void Box Girders

66
62
Number of 15 mm Diameter Strands
58
54
50
BG 1100
46
BG 1200
42 BG 1300
38
34
30
32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 47.5
Simple Span (m)
Design Criteria
3. Dead loads include girder self weight, 125 mm thick deck
Figure 7.33 Special Single Void Box Girders (Continued from previous page)

7.6 COLUMN AND LOAD BEARING WALL PANELS

Precast Prestressed Columns
PRECAST PRESTRESSED COLUMNS
Criteria
1. Minimum prestress = 1.5 MPa
2. All strand assumed 13 mm diameter,
fpu = 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for partial development
of strand near end of element, where
fpr ≈ fpe.
4. When points of maximum stress are far
from end of element and strands can fully
develop, the section resistance will be
greater than shown.
5. Horizontal portion of curve is the
maximum for tied columns = 0.80 Pro
Fig 7.34 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns (Continues on next page)

Precast Prestressed Columns continued
Figure 7.34 Interaction curves for precast prestressed concrete columns (Continued from previous page)

Precast Reinforced Columns
PRECAST REINFORCED COLUMNS

Criteria
1. Concrete f’c = 40 MPa
2. Reinforcement fy = 400 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of
reinforcent.
4. Horizontal portion of curve is the maximum
for tied columns = 0.80 Pro
Figure 7.35 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns (Continues on next page)

Precast Reinforced Columns continued
Figure 7.35 Interaction curves for precast reinforced concrete columns (Continued from previous page)

Double Tee Wall Panels
DOUBLE TEE WALL PANELS
Interaction curve data

h No. of b
Tension in stem Compression in stem
(mm) strands (mm)
Pro Prb Mrb Mro Prb Mrb Mro
325 4 130 4959 3600 234 105 1120 154 63
425 4 120 5590 3830 362 135 1430 262 91
525 6 110 6020 3740 498 57 1580 385 200
625 6 100 6540 3810 638 229 1900 520 255
1. f’c 40 MPa normal density

2. Strand = 13 mm fpu = 1860 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development of strand.
Load assumed at centroid of concrete section.
Figure 7.36 Partial interaction curve for prestressed double tee wall panels

Hollowcore Wall Panels
HOLLOW CORE WALL PANELS
1. f’c = 40 MPa normal density h Interaction curve data

2. fpu = 1860 MPa (mm) Pro Prb Mrb Mro
3. Curves shown for full development of strand. 203 2790 1160 107 46
305 3480 1500 212 73
Figure 7.37 Partial interaction curve for precast hollow core wall panels

Precast Prestressed Solid Wall Panels
PRECAST PRESTRESSED SOLID WALL PANELS
t h Interaction curve data

(mm) (mm) Pro Prb Mrb Mro
100 680 1989 878 25 8
150 450 2983 1290 57 23
200 340 3978 1750 102 39
250 270 4972 2220 160 60
1. f’c = 40 MPa normal density
3. Curves shown for full development of strand. Load
assumed at centroid of concrete section.
Figure 7.38 Partial interaction curve for prestressed solid wall panels

Precast Reinforced Solid Wall Panels
PRECAST REINFORCED SOLID WALL PANELS
1. f’c = 40 MPa normal density

fy = 400 MPa
3. Curves shown for full development
of strand. Load assumed at centroid
of concrete section. Curves based
on minimum reinforcement
r = .00012
Figure 7.39 Partial interaction curve for precast reinforced concrete wall panels

7.7 PILES
Bearing Piles
(2)(3)
Factored resistance
Section Properties
(1) (kN)
Core
Size fc (MPa)
diameter
(mm)
(mm) Moment of Section Radius of
Area Mass Perimeter
2 inertia modulus gyration 35 40 45 50 55
(mm ) (kg/m) 6 4 3 3) (m)
(10 mm ) (10 mm (mm)
Square piles
250 Solid 63 000 151 326 2 610 72 1.00 860 999 1134 1266 1396
300 Solid 90 000 216 675 4 500 87 1.20 1229 1426 1620 1809 1994
350 Solid 123 000 295 1 250 7 140 101 1.40 1680 1949 2213 2472 2725
400 Solid 160 000 384 2 130 10 700 116 1.60 2185 2536 2879 3215 3544
450 Solid 203 000 487 3 420 15 200 130 1.80 2773 3217 3653 4049 4497
500 Solid 250 000 500 5 210 20 800 144 2.00 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
500 275 191 000 458 4 930 19 700 161 2.00 2609 3027 3437 3838 4231
600 Solid 360 000 864 10 800 36 000 173 2.40 4917 5706 6478 7234 7974
600 300 289 000 694 10 400 34 700 190 2.40 3947 4580 5201 5808 6402
600 350 264 000 634 10 100 33 700 196 2.40 3606 4184 4751 5305 5848
600 375 250 000 600 9 830 32 800 198 2.40 3415 3962 4499 5024 5538
Octagonal piles
250 Solid 52 000 125 215 1 720 64 0.77 710 824 936 1045 1152
300 Solid 75 000 180 446 2 970 77 0.92 1024 1189 1350 1507 1661
350 Solid 101 000 242 825 4 710 90 1.07 1379 1601 1818 2030 2237
400 Solid 133 000 319 1 410 7 050 103 1.22 1817 2108 2393 2673 2946
450 Solid 168 000 403 2 260 10 000 116 1.38 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
500 Solid 207 000 497 3 440 13 800 129 1.53 2827 3281 3725 4160 4585
500 275 148 000 355 3 160 12 600 146 1.53 2021 2346 2663 2974 3278
550 Solid 251 000 602 5 030 18 300 142 1.68 3428 3978 4517 5044 5560
550 325 168 000 403 4 480 16 300 163 1.68 2295 2663 3023 3376 3721
600 Solid 298 000 715 7 130 23 800 154 1.84 4070 4723 5363 5989 6601
600 375 188 000 451 6 160 20 500 181 1.84 2568 2980 3383 3778 4164
Round piles
900 650 304 000 730 23 400 52 000 277 2.83 4152 4818 5471 6109 6734
1 200 950 422 000 1 010 61 800 103 000 383 3.77 5764 6688 7594 8480 9348
1 350 1 100 481 000 1 150 91 200 135 000 435 4.24 6570 7624 8656 9666 10655
Hexagonal piles
300 Solid 78 000 187 486 3 240 79 0.90 1065 1236 1404 1567 1728
350 Solid 106 000 254 900 5 140 92 1.05 1475 1712 1943 2170 2392
400 Solid 139 000 334 1 540 7 700 106 1.20 1898 2203 2501 2793 3079
(1) Form dimensions may vary with producers, with corresponding variations in section properties.
(2) Maximum factored axial load resistance, Prmax = 0.85 [ 1 c f c (Ag Ap) fpr Ap]; fpe = 1120 MPa; fcp = 5.0 MPa.
(3) Resistance based on short column structural capacity only (see Sect. 7.2.9) with a maximum concrete strain of 0.002.
(4) Wire spiral varies with pile size.
(5) Strand pattern may be circular or square.
Figure 7.40 Section properties and resistance of prestressed concrete piles

Sheet Piles
SHEET PILES
Maximum allowable service

Section properties per metre of width (2)
load movement (kN-m/m)
Thickness t
(1) Moment of Section
(mm) Area Mass fc = 35 MPa fc = 40 MPa
2 inertia modulus
(mm ) (kg/m) 5 3 3 3
(10 mm ) (10 mm )
(3)
150 150,000 360 28 374 26 29
(3)
200 200,000 480 67 670 46 53
250 250,000 600 130 1040 72 53
300 300,000 720 225 1500 105 120
400 400,000 960 533 3670 187 214
450 450,000 1080 760 3380 236 270
500 500,000 1200 1040 4160 292 334
600 600,000 1440 1800 6000 420 480
(1) Nomal density concrete.

(2) Based on zero tension and maximum 0.4 fc compression.
(3) Strand can be placed in a single layer in thin sections. Where site conditions require it, strand may be placed eccentrically.
Figure 7.41 Section properties and allowable moments of prestressed sheet piles

7.8 STADIUM RISERS
STADIUM RISERS
All Stadium Design Chart Assumptions

1. 0.5 kN/m2 superimposed dead load.
2. 4.8 kN/m2 live load.
3. Normal weight concrete
4. 28-day compressive concrete strength is 40 MPa
5. Mid span step load assumed.
6. Fundamental natural frequency greater than 3.5 Hz under dead load plus 1.44 kN/m2 vertical live load.
152
152
152 838
h-102
h-102
89
89
h
89
STEM
DOUBLE RISER SINGLE RISER

STEM
152
838
838
152
h-102
838
152
89
89
h
89
STEM
TRIPLE RISER
Figure 7.42 Stadium Risers (Continues next page)

STADIUM RISERS
Stadium Riser Allowable Span

No Stem
15.0
13.0
Maximum Span Length (m)
11.0
9.0 Triple Riser
Double Riser
7.0
Single Riser
5.0
3.0
150 300 450 600
Rise (mm)
STADIUM RISER - NO STEM

No Stem
Single Double Triple
Rise Span Rise Span Rise Span
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
152 3.38 152 5.21 152 5.52
203 4.82 203 6.37 203 6.64
254 6.22 254 7.59 254 7.80
305 7.44 305 8.66 305 8.81
356 8.66 356 9.51 356 9.69
406 9.75 406 10.38 406 10.52
457 10.70 457 11.19 457 11.37
508 11.55 508 12.01 508 12.10
559 12.31 559 12.68 559 12.83
610 13.14 610 13.44 610 13.59
See page 7-57 for the Stadium Riser Design Chart Assumptions and Dimensions
Figure 7.42 Stadium Risers (Continued from previous page)

STADIUM RISERS

152 mm Stem
15.0
13.0
Maximum Span (m)
11.0
Triple Riser
9.0 Double Riser
Single Riser
7.0
5.0
150 300 450 600
Rise (mm)
STADIUM RISER - 152 mm STEM

No Stem
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
152 3.38 152 5.21 152 5.52
203 4.82 203 6.37 203 6.64
254 6.22 254 7.59 254 7.80
305 7.44 305 8.66 305 8.81
356 8.66 356 9.51 356 9.69
406 9.75 406 10.38 406 10.52
457 10.70 457 11.19 457 11.37
508 11.55 508 12.01 508 12.10
559 12.31 559 12.68 559 12.83
610 13.14 610 13.44 610 13.59

STADIUM RISERS
305 mm Stem
18.0
Maximum Span (m)
15.0
Triple Riser
Double Riser
12.0 Single Riser
9.0
150 300 450 600
Rise (mm)
STADIUM RISER - 305 mm STEM

305 mm Stem
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
152 9.48 152 10.36 152 10.97
203 10.03 203 11.25 203 11.80
254 10.76 254 12.10 254 12.59
305 11.52 305 12.80 305 13.32
356 12.28 356 13.53 356 13.96
406 13.11 406 14.11 406 14.51
457 13.84 457 14.72 457 15.03
508 14.54 508 15.30 508 15.58
559 15.24 559 15.85 559 16.18
610 15.85 610 16.46 610 16.79

7.9 PRECAST CONCRETE STAIRS
PRECAST CONCRETE STAIRS
BEARING
H
TYPICAL MAIN
H REINFORCING
PATTERN
BEARING
THICKNESS SPAN
H (mm) L (mm)
150 4200
200 5800
250 7000
300 7900
Notes:
1. Stair reinforcement must be designed for all factored loads.
2. Normal weight concrete.
3. Recommended maximum span l is based on dead weight of stair plus 4.8 kN/m2 live
load.
4. Maximum concrete 28-day compressive strength is 35 MPa.
5. When deflections are required to be checked in accordance with CSA A23.3, cracked
section properties are required to be used. Top steel may be required to control
deflections.
6. Longer span can be obtained with higher concrete strength or special reinforcing.
Figure 7.43 Precast Concrete Stairs


CHAPTER 8
GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION
8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION................................................................................................................................8-3
8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES ..............................................................................................................................8-32

8.2.1 Material properties – concrete...............................................................................................................8-32
8.2.2 Material properties – prestressing steel................................................................................................8-33
8.2.3 Material properties – post tensioning....................................................................................................8-36
8.2.4 Material properties – reinforcing bars..................................................................................................8-38
8.2.5 Material properties – deformed wire.....................................................................................................8-43
8.2.6 Material properties – welded wire fabric...............................................................................................8-44
8.2.7 Material properties – wire.......................................................................................................................8-46
8.2.8 Material properties – bolts and nuts......................................................................................................8-47
8.3 WELDING INFORMATION...........................................................................................................................8-49
8.4 SECTION PROPERTIES.................................................................................................................................8-52
8.5 METRIC UNITS.............................................................................................................................................8-58

CHAPTER 8 General Design Information

8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION
Floorings Load (kN/m )
Normal density concrete topping per 10 mm of thickness 0.24
Semi-low density (1900 kg/m ) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.19
Low density (1500 kg/m ) concrete topping, per 10 mm 0.15
22 mm hardwood floor on sleepers clipped to concrete without fill 0.24
40 mm terrazzo floor finish directly on slab 0.95
40 mm terrazzo floor finish on 25 mm mortar bed 1.49
25 mm terrazzo finish on 50 mm concrete bed 1.79
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 12 mm mortar bed 0.80
20 mm ceramic or quarry tile on 25 mm mortar bed 1.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile directly on concrete 0.06
8 mm linoleum or asphalt tile on 25 mm mortar bed 0.59
20 mm mastic floor 0.45
Hardwood flooring, 22 mm thick 0.19
Subflooring (soft wood), 10 mm thick 0.10
Asphaltic concrete, 40 mm thick 0.90
Ceilings
12.7 mm gypsum board 0.10
15.9 mm gypsum board 0.12
20 mm plaster directly on concrete 0.26
20 mm plaster on metal lath furring 0.35
Suspended Ceilings 0.10
Acoustical tile 0.05
Acoustical tile on wood furring strips 0.10
Roofs
Five-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.31
Three-ply felt and gravel (or slag) 0.27
Five-ply composition roof, no gravel 0.20
Three-ply felt composition roof, no gravel 0.15
Asphalt strip shingles 0.15
Rigid insulation, per 100 mm 0.07
Gypsum, per 10 mm of thickness 0.08
Insulating concrete, per 10 mm of thickness 0.06
Figure 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls (continues next page)

8.1 DESIGN INFORMATION continued

One side Both sides
Unplastered
Walls 2 plastered plastered
(kN/m ) 2 2
(kN/m ) (kN/m )
100 mm brick wall 1.86 2.10 2.33
200 mm brick wall 3.77 4.00 4.24
300 mm brick wall 5.59 5.83 6.06
100 mm hollow normal density concrete block 1.37 1.61 1.84
100 mm hollow low density block or tile 1.08 1.31 1.55
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow normal density block backing 3.24 3.47 3.71
100 mm brick 100 mm hollow low density block or tile backing 2.94 3.18 3.41
Windows, glass, frame and sash 0.38 – –
100 mm stone 2.59 – –
Steel or wood studs, lath, 20 mm plaster, both sides 0.86 – –
Steel or wood studs, lath, 15.9 mm gypsum board both sides 0.28 – –
Steel or wood studs, 2 layers 12.7 mm gypsum board both sides 0.44 – –
Figure 8.1.1 Dead loads of floors, ceilings, roofs, and walls

Uniformly Distributed Loads Uniformly Distributed Loads

Minimum Minimum
Use of Area of Floor or Roof Specified Use of Area of Floor or Roof Specified
Load (kPa) Load (kPa)
Assembly Areas
a) Except for those areas listed under b) Corridors, lobbies and aisles
and c), assembly areas with or without Other than those listed below 4.8
fixed seats including
Arenas Not more than 1200 mm in width and all
Auditoria upper floor corridors of residential areas
(3)
Churches only of apartments, hotels and motels
Dance floors (that cannot be used for the assembly of
(1) (2)
Dining areas of people as a viewing area)
Foyers and entrance halls
Grandstands, reviewing stands and 4.8
Bleachers Equipment areas and service rooms
Gymnasia including
Museums Generator rooms
Promenades Mechanical equipment exclusive of
Rinks elevators
(4)
Stadia Machine rooms 3.6
Stages Pump rooms
Theatres Transformer vaults
Other areas with similar uses Ventilating or air-conditioning equipment
b) Assembly areas with fixed seats that

have backs over at least 80% of the Exits and fire escapes 4.8
assembly area for the following uses:
(4)
Churches 2.4 Factories 6.0
Courtrooms
Lecture halls Footbridges 4.8
Theatres
Garages for
c) Classrooms with or without fixed seats 2.4 Passenger cars 2.4
Light trucks and unloaded buses 6.0
Attics Loaded buses and trucks and all 12.0
Accessible by stairway in residential 1.4 other trucking spaces
occupancies only
Kitchens (other than residential) 4.8
Having limited accessibility so there is no 0.5
(2)
storage of equipment or material Libraries
Stack rooms 7.2
Balconies Reading and study rooms 2.9
Exterior 4.8
Office areas (not including record storage
Interior and mezzanines that could be and computer rooms) located in
used for the assembly of people as a 4.8 Basement and first storey 4.8
(2)
viewing area Floors above first storey 2.4
(3)
Interior and mezzanines other than
Above
Figure 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof (continues next page)


Specified Concentrated Live loads
Uniformly Distributed Loads
on an Area of Floor or Roof
Minimum Minimum
Use of area of floor or roof Specified Area of floor or roof Specified
Load (kPa) Load (kN)
Operating rooms and laboratories 3.6 Roof surfaces 1.3
Patient’s bedrooms 1.9 Floors and classrooms 4.5
Recreation areas that cannot be used for Floors and offices, manufacturing 9.0
assembly purposes including buildings, hospital wards and
Billard rooms 3.6 stages
Bowling alleys
Pool rooms Floors and areas used by passenger 11
cars
Residential areas (within the scope of
NBCC Aricle 1.3.3.2. of Division A) Floors and areas used by vehicles
Sleeping and living quarters in not exceeding 3600 kg gross 18
apartments, hotels, motels, boarding 1.9 weight
schools and colleges
Floors and areas used by vehicles
Residential areas (within the scope of exceeding 3600 kg but not 36
NBCC Article 1.3.3. of Division A) exceeding 9000 kg gross weight
Bedrooms 1.4
Other areas 1.9 Floors and areas used by vehicles
(7)
Stairs within dwelling units 1.9 exceeding 9000 kg gross weight 54
Retail and wholesale areas 4.8 Driveways and sidewalks over areaways
(7)
and basements 54
(5)
Roofs 1.0
(3) Loads for Occupancy Served
The following shall be designed to carry not less than the specified load required for
the occupancy they serve, provided they cannot be used by an assembly of people
Sidewalks and driveways over areaways 12.0 as a viewing area: a) corridors, lobbies and aisles not more than 1,200 mm wide, b)
and basements all corridors above the first storey of residential areas of apartments, hotels and
motels, and c) interior balconies and mezzanines.
(4) Floor Loads Dues to Intended Use
(4) Equipment areas and service rooms, factories, storage areas and warehouses shall
Storage areas 4.8 be designed for the live loads due to their intended use but not for less than the
specified loads listed above.
(5) Specified Load Due to Rain or to Snow and Associated Rain
Toilet areas 2.4 The specified load on a roof or any other building surface subject to snow and
associated rain shall be the snow load specified in Article 4.1.6.2., or the rain load
specified in Article 4.1.6.4., whichever produces the more critical effect.
(6) (6) Loads on Exterior Areas
Underground slabs with earth cover 1) Exterior areas accessible to vehicular traffic shall be designed for their intended
use, including the weight of firefighting equipment, but not for less than the snow
and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
(4) 2) Except as provided in Sentences (3) and (4), roofs shall be designed for either the
Warehouses 4.8 uniform live loads specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in
Table 4.1.5.10., or the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.,
Notes (all references listed within these notes refer to NBC 2015): whichever produces the most critical effects in the members concerned.
(1) Loads for Dining Areas 3) Exterior areas accessible to pedestrian traffic, but not vehicular traffic, shall be
The minimum specified live load listed in Table 4.1.5.3. for dining areas may be designed for their intended use, but not for less than the greater of
reduced to 2.4 kPa for areas in buildings that are being converted to dining areas, a) the live load prescribed for assembly areas in Table 4.1.5.3., or
2
provided that the floor area does not exceed 100 m and the dining area will not be b) the snow and rain loads prescribed in Subsection 4.1.6.
used for other assembly purposes, including dancing. 4) Roof parking decks shall be designed for either the uniformly distributed live loads
(2) Considerations for live Loads specified in Table 4.1.5.3., the concentrated live loads listed in Table 4.1.5.10., or
Attics – Limited Accessibility - Attic live loading is not required when the ceiling below the roof snow load, whichever produces the most critical effect in the members
the attic consists of removable panels that permit access to the ceiling space without concerned.
loading the ceiling supporting members. Attic live loading is not required in any area (7) Loads Due to Concentrations
of the attic where the least dimension of the attic space is less than 500 mm. Floor Special study is required to determine concentrated loads for the design of floors and
Areas That Could Be Used As Viewing Areas - Some interior balconies, mezzanines, areas used by vehicles exceeding 9,000 kg gross weight, and of driveways and
corridors, lobbies and aisles that are not intended to be used by an assembly of sidewalks over areaways and basements. Where appropriate the designer should
people as viewing areas are sometimes used as such; consequently, they are subject refer to CAN/CSA-S6, “Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code.”
to loadings much higher than those for the occupancies they serve. Source: National Building Code of Canada 2015
Figure 8.1.2 Specified Uniformly Distributed Live Loads on an Area of Floor or Roof (continued from previous page)

(1) SIMPLE BEAM – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
w
R = V ........................................................ =
2
Vx .............................................................. = w x
2
w 2
Mmax (at center)......................................... =
8
wx
Mx ............................................................. = ( x)
2
5w 4
max (at center) ......................................... =
384El
wx 3
X .............................................................. = ( 2 x 2 + x3 )
24El
(2) SIMPLE BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTER
P
R = V ........................................................ =
2
P
Mmax (at point of load) ............................... =
4
Px
Mx (when x < ) ....................................... =
2 2
P 3
max (at point of load) ................................ =
48EI
Px 2
x (when x < ) ....................................... = (3 4x2 )
2 48EI
(3) SIMPLE BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
Pb
R1 = V1 (max when a < b) ......................... =
Pa
R2 = V2 (max when a > b) ......................... =
Pab
Mmax (at point of load) ............................... =
Pbx
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ =
a(a + 2b) Pab(a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)

max at x = when a > b ........ =
3 27El
Pa2b2
a (at point of load) ................................... =
3El
Pbx 2
x (when x < a) ......................................... = ( b2 x2 )
6El
Figure 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams (continued next page)

(4) SIMPLE BEAM – TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS SYMMETRICALLY PLACED
R = V ......................................................... = P
Mmax (between loads) ............................... = Pa
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = Px
Pa
max (when) ............................................... = (3 2 4a2 )
24El
Px
x (when x < a) ......................................... = (3 a 3a2 x2 )
6El
Pa
x [when x > a and < ( a )] .................... = (3 x 3x2 a2 )
6El
(5) SIMPLE BEAM – TWO UNEQUAL CONCENTRATED LOADS ASYMMETRICALLY PLACED
P1( a) + P2b
R1 = V1 ...................................................... =
P1a + P2 ( b)
R2 = V2 ...................................................... =
Vx [when x > a and < ( b )] ................... = R1 – P1

M1 (max when R1 < P1)............................. = R1a
M2 (max when R2 < P2)............................. = R2b
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = R1x
Mx [when x > a and < ( b )] ................... = R1x – P1(x – a)
(6) SIMPLE BEAM – UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED
wb
R1 = V1 (max when a < c) ......................... = (2c + b)
2
wb
R2 = V2 (max when a > c) ......................... = (2a + b)
2
Vx [when x > a and < (a + b)] .................... = R1 – w(x – a)
R R
Mmax at x = a + 1 ................................ = R1 a + 1
w 2w
Mx (when x < a) ........................................ = R1x
w
Mx [when x > a and < (a + b)] ................... = R1x (x a)2
2
Mx [when x > (a + b)] ................................ = R 2 ( x)
Figure 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams (continues next page)

(7) SIMPLE BEAM – LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO ONE END (W IS TOTAL LOAD)
w
W .............................................................. =
2
W
R1 = V1 ...................................................... =
3
2W
R2 = V2 (max) ............................................ =
3
W Wx 2
Vx .............................................................. =
3 2
2W
Mmax at x = = 0.5774 ..................... = = 0.1283W
3 9 3
Wx 2
Mx ............................................................. =
2
( x2 )
3
8 W 3
max at x = 1 = 0.5193 ........... = 0.01304
15 El
Wx
x .............................................................. =
2
(3x 4 10 2 x 2 + 7 4 )
180El
(8) SIMPLE BEAM – LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO CENTER (W IS TOTAL LOAD)
w
W .............................................................. =
2
W
R = V ......................................................... =
2
W 2
Vx when x < ...................................... =
2
( 4x 2 )
2 2
W
Mmax (at centre) ......................................... =
6
1 2x 2
Mx when x < ...................................... = Wx
2
2 2 3
W 3
max (at centre) ......................................... =
60El
Wx 2
x when x < ...................................... =
2
(5 4x2 )2
2 480EI


(9) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS – MOMENT APPLIED AT ONE END
Mo
–R1 = R2 = V .......................................................... =
Mmax (at R1) ............................................................. = Mo

x
Mx = Mo – R1x ......................................................... = Mo 1
Mo 2
max (when x = 0.422 ) .......................................... = 0.0642
El
Mo x3
x ............................................................................ = 3x 2 2 x
6El
Mo
1 (at R1) ................................................................. =
3El
Mo
2 (at R2) ................................................................. =
6El
(10) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS – MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
Mo
R1 = V (when a > b) ................................................ =
Mo
R2 (when a > b) ...................................................... =
Mo a
Mmax(–) (at x = a) ...................................................... =
a
Mmax(+) (at x = a) ...................................................... = Mo 1
Mo x
Mx (when x < a) ...................................................... =
x
Mx (when x > a) ...................................................... = Mo 1
x
Mo x 2
(when x < a) ....................................................... =
6El
3b2 ( x2 )
Mo ( x)
x (when x > a) ....................................................... = (3a2 2 x + x2 )
6El
3
2
2
3b2 Mo 3b2 2
max at x = if a > 0.4226 ................... =
3 3El 3
3
2
2
3a2 Mo 3a2 2
max at x = if a > 0.5774 ............. =
3 3El 3
Mo
MCL (at centre) ...................................................... =
2
Mo 2
CL (at centre) ...................................................... = ( 4b2 )
16El
3 Mo 2
max (when a = b = , af x = = 0.28867 ) ..... =
2 6 124.71El
M
CL (at centre) ....................................................... = o
12El


(11) BEAM SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS – MOMENTS APPLIED AT EACH END
M2 M1
R1 = –R2 = V ........................ =
x
Mx ........................................ = (M2 M1) + M1
x( x)
x ......................................... = [M1(2 x) + M2 ( + x)]
6El
6M1 ± 36M12 2
12(M1 M2 ) 2 (2M1 + M2 )
x1 ........................................ =
6(M1 M2 )
1 (at end) ............................ = (2M1 + M2 )

6El
2 (at end) ............................ = (M1 + 2M2 )

6El
If M1 and M2 are of opposite signs, the above formulas hold;

just use actual sign of moment.
M1
Point of contraflexure is where x =
M2 M1


(12) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
w 2
R1 = V1 ......................................................... =( a2 )
2
w
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = ( + a)2
2
V2 ................................................................. = wa
w 2
V3 ................................................................. = ( + a2 )
2
Vx (between supports) ................................. = R1 – wx
Vx1 (for overhang) ....................................... = w(a – x1)
a2 w
M1 at x = 1 2
................................. =
2
( + a)2 ( a)2
2 8
wa 2
M2 (at R2) ..................................................... =
2
wx 2
Mx (between supports) ................................. = ( a2 x )
2
w
M x1 (for overhang) ...................................... = (a x1)2
2
wx
x (between supports) ................................. = ( 4 2 2 x2 + x3 2a2 2 + 2a2 x2 )
24El
wx1
x1 (for overhang) ....................................... = (4a2 3
+ 6a2 x1 4ax12 + x13 )
24El
(13) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON OVERHANG
wa 2
R1 = V1 ......................................................... =
2
wa
R2 = V1 + V2 ................................................. = (2 + a)
2
V2 ................................................................. = wa
Vx1 (for overhang) ....................................... = w(a – x1)
wa 2
Mmax (at R2) .................................................. =
2
wa2 x
Mx (between supports) ................................ =
2
w
M x1 (for overhang) ...................................... = (a x1)2
2
wa2 2 wa2 2
max (between supports at x = ) ............ = = 0.03208
3 18 3El El
3
wa
max (for overhang at x1 = a) ........................ = (4 + 3a)
24El
wa2 x 2
x (between supports) ................................. = ( x2 )
12El
wx1
x1 (for overhang) ....................................... = (4a2 + 6a2 x1 4ax12 + x13 )
24El

(14) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD BETWEEN SUPPORTS
w
R = V ........................................................... =
2
Vx ................................................................. = w x
2
w 2
Mmax (at center)............................................ =
8
wx
Mx ................................................................ = ( x)
2
5w 4
max (at center) ............................................ =
384El
wx 3
x ................................................................. = ( 2 x 2 + x3 )
24El
w 3 x1
x1 .............................................................. =
24El
(15) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT BETWEEN
SUPPORTS
Pb
R1 = V1 (max when a < b) ............................ =
Pa
R2 = V2 (max when a > b) ............................ =
Pab
Mmax (at point of load) .................................. =
Pbx
Mx (when x < a) ........................................... =
a(a + 2b) Pab(a + 2b) 3a(a + 2b)

max at x = when a > b .......... =
3 27El
Pa2b2
a (at point of load) ...................................... =
3El
Pbx 2
x (when x < a) ............................................ = ( b2 x2 )
6El
Pa( x)
x (when x > a) ............................................ = (2 x x2 a2 )
6El
Pabx1
x1 .............................................................. = ( + a)
6El


(16) BEAM OVERHANGING ONE SUPPORT – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT END OF OVERHANG

Pa
R1 = V1 ......................................................... =
P
R2 = V1 + V2 ................................................. = ( + a)
V2 ................................................................. = P
Mmax (at R2) .................................................. = Pa
Pax
Mx (between supports) ................................ =
M x1 (for overhang) ...................................... = P(a – x1)

2
Pa Pa 2
max between supports x = ................ = = 0.06415
3 9 3El El
Pa2
max (for overhang at x1 = a) ........................ = ( + a)
3El
Pax 2
x (between supports) ................................. = ( x2 )
6El
Px1
x1 (for overhang) ........................................ = (2a + 3ax1 x12 )
6El
(17) CANTILEVER BEAM – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
R = V ............................................................ = w
Vx ................................................................. = wx
w 2
Mmax (at fixed end) ....................................... =
2
wx 2
Mx ................................................................ =
2
w 4
max (at free end) ......................................... =
8El
w
x ................................................................. = (x 4 4 3x + 3 4 )
24El
(18) CANTILEVER BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT FREE END
R = V ............................................................ = P
Mmax (at fixed end) ....................................... = P
Mx ................................................................ = Px
P 3
max (at free end) ......................................... =
3El
P 3
x ................................................................. = (2 3 2 x + x3 )
6El


(19) CANTILEVER BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
R = V ....................................... = P
Mmax (at fixed end) .................. = Pb
Mx (when x > a) ...................... = P(x – a)
Pb2
max (at free end) .................... = (3 b)
6El
Pb3
a (at point of load) ................. =
3El
Pb2
x (when x < a) ....................... = (3 3x b)
6El
P( x)2
x (when x > a) ....................... = (3b + x)
6El
(20) CANTILEVER BEAM – LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY TO FIXED END
w
W ............................................ =
2
R = V ...................................... = W
x2
Vx ............................................ = W
2
W
Mmax (at fixed end) .................. =
3
Wx3
Mx ........................................... =
3 2
W 3
max (at free end) .................... =
15El
W
x ............................................ =
2
(x5 5 4x + 4 5 )
60El
(21) CANTILEVER BEAM – UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED AT FREE END
R = V ...................................... = wb
Mmax (at support)..................... = wbe
wx 2
Mx (when x < b) ...................... =
2
wb
Mx (when x > b) ...................... = (b 2x)
2
wb
max (at free end) .................... = (8e3 24e2 b3 )
48El
w
x (when x < b) ....................... = [8be3 24be2 ( x) + 2b3 x b4 2x 4 ]
48El
wb
x (when x > b) ....................... = [8e3 24e2 ( x) (2x b)3 ]
48El
wb 2
(at free end) ......................... = (b + 12e2 )
24El


(22) CANTILEVER BEAM – VARYING LOAD INCREASING UNIFORMLY FROM SUPPORT TO FREE
END
w
W ..................................................=
2
R = V ............................................= W
2Wx x
Vx ..................................................=
2 2
2W
Mmax (at support)........................... =
3
Wx 2
Mx .................................................= (x 3 )
2
3
11W 3
max (at free end) ..........................=
60El
W
x .................................................. =
2
[ 4 (15x 11 ) x 4 (5 x)]
60El
W 2
(at free end) ............................... =
4El
(23) CANTILEVER BEAM – MOMENT APPLIED AT FREE END
R = V .............................................= 0
Mx .................................................= Mo
Mo 2
max (at free end) ..........................=
2El
Mo
x .................................................. = ( x)2
2El
Mo
(at free end) ............................... =
El


(24) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END – UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD
3w
R1 = V1 ...................................................... =
8
5w
R2 = V2 (max) ............................................ =
8
Vx .............................................................. = R1 – wx
w 2
Mmax .......................................................... =
8
3 9 2
M1 (at x = ) .......................................... = w
8 128
wx 2
Mx ............................................................. = R1x
2
w 4
max (at x = (1 + 33) = 0.4215 ) .......... =
16 185El
wx 3
x .............................................................. = ( 3 x 2 + 2x3 )
48El
(25) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END – CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT CENTER
5P
R1 = V1 ....................................................... =
16
11P
R2 = V2 (max) ............................................. =
16
3P
Mmax (at fixed end) ..................................... =
16
5P
M1 (at point of load) ................................... =
32
5Px
Mx (when x < ) ....................................... =
2 16
11x
Mx (when x > ) ....................................... = P
2 2 16
1 P 3 P 3
max (at x = = 0.4472 ) ...................... = = 0.009317
5 48El 5 El
7P 3
x (at point of load) .................................... =
768El
Px 2
x (when x < ) ......................................... = (3 5x2 )
2 96El
P
x (when x > ) ........................................ = (x )2 (11x 2 )
2 96El

(26) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END – CONCENTRATED LOAD
AT ANY POINT
Pb2
R1 = V1 ............................................................ = (a + 2 )
3
2
Pa 2
R2 = V2 ............................................................ =
3
(3 a2 )
2
M1 (at point of load) ........................................ = R1a
Pab
M2 (at fixed end) ............................................. = (a + )
2
2
Mx (when x < a) .............................................. = R1x
Mx (when x > a) ............................................. = R1x P(x a)
2
+ a2 Pa( 2
a2 )3
max (when a < 0.414 , at x = ) ...... =
2 2 2
3 a 3El(3 a2 )2
a Pab2 a
max (when a > 0.414 , at x = ) ........ =
2 +a 6EI 2 +a
Pa2b3
a (at point of load) ......................................... = (3 + a)
3
12EI
Pb2 x 2
x (when x < a) ............................................... =
3
(3a 2 x2 ax 2 )
12EI
Pa
x (when x > a) ............................................... =
2
( x)2 (3 2 x a2 x 2a2 )
12EI
(27) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END – UNIFORM LOAD
PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
wb
R1 = V1 ............................................. =
3
(12e2 4e3 + b2 d)
8
R2 = V2 ............................................. = wb – R1
wb
Mmax(–) .............................................. =
2
(12e2 4e3 + b2 d 8e 2 )
8
R1
M1 .................................................... = R1 a +
2w
Mx (when x < a) ............................... = R1x
w
Mx [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ....... = R1x (x a)2
2
Mx (when x > (a + b) and x < ) ..... = R1x – wb(x – d)
x
x (when x < a) ................................ = [4R1(x2 3 2 ) + wb(b2 + 12e2 )]
24El
1
x [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ........ = [4R1x(x2 3 2 ) + wbx(b2 + 12e2 ) w(x a)4 ]
24El
1
x (when x > (a + b) and x < c) ....... = [3MMAX ( x)2 + R2 ( x)3 ]
6El

CPCI Design Manual 5 8–17

(28) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END, SIMPLY SUPPORTED AT THE OTHER END – MOMENT APPLIED AT
THE FLEXIBLE END
3Mo
R1 = –R2 = V ............................................. =
2
M1 ............................................................. = Mo
M2 ............................................................. = Q / SMo
Mo
Mx ............................................................. = (2 3x)
2
Mo 2
max (at x = ) .......................................... =
3 27El
Mo x
x .............................................................. = ( x)2
4El
Mo
(at supported end) ................................. =
4El
(29) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
w
R = V ........................................................ =
2
Vx ............................................................. = w x
2
w 2
Mmax (at ends) .......................................... =
12
w 2
M1 (at centre) ........................................... =
24
w 2
Mx ............................................................ = (6 x 6x 2 )
12
w 4
max (at centre) ........................................ =
384El
wx 2
x ............................................................. = ( x)2
24El


(30) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE
P
R = V ............................................................ =
2
P
Mmax (at center and ends) ............................ =
8
P
Mx when x < ......................................... = (4x )
2 8
P 3
max (at center) ............................................ =
192El
Px 2
x when x < ......................................... = (3 4x)
2 48El
(31) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT
Pb2
R1 = V1 (max when a < b) ............................ = (3a + b)
3
Pa2
R2 = V2 (max when a > b) ............................ = (a + 3b)
3
Pab2
M1 (max when a < b) ................................... =
2
Pa2b
M2 (max when a > b) ................................... =
2
2Pa2b2
Ma (at point of load) ..................................... =
3
Pab2
Mx (when x < a) ........................................... = R1x
2
2a 2Pa3b2
max (when a > b, at x = ) .................. =
3a + b 3El(3a + b)2
Pa3b3
a (at point of load) ...................................... =
3
3El
Pb2 x2
x (when x < a) ............................................ = (3a 3ax bx)
3
6El


(32) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – UNIFORM LOAD PARTIALLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN
wb
R1 = V1 ......................................... =
3
[4e2 ( + 2d) b2 (c a)]
4
R2 = V2 ......................................... = wb R1
wb
M1 ................................................ =
2
{b2 [ + 3(c a)] 24e2 d}
24
M2 ................................................ = R1 – wbe + M1
R1 R
Mmax(+) at x = a + ................ = M1 + R1 a + 1
w 2w
Mx (when x < a) ........................... = M1 + R1x
w
Mx [when x > a and x < (a + b)] ...= M1 + R1x (x a)2
2
1
x (when x < a) ............................ = (3M1x 2 + R1x3 )
6El
1
x [when x > a and x < (a + b)] .... = [12M1x2 + 4R1x3 w(x a)4 ]
24El
(33) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – MOMENT APPLIED AT ANY POINT
6Mo ab
R1 = V .......................................... =
3
6Mo ab
R2 ................................................. =
3
Mob
M1 ................................................ = ( 3a)
2
Moa
M2 ................................................ = (2 3a)
2
Mo 6abx
Mx (when x < a) ........................... = + b( 3a)
2
Moa 6bx
Mx (when x > a) ........................... = 6b 2 + 3a
2
Mmax(–) (at x = a on left side)......... = Mmax(+) – Mo

6a2b b
Mmax(+) (at x = a on right side) ...... = Mo
3 2
( 3a) + 1
Mobx 2 2ax
x (when x < a) ............................ = 3a +
2
2El
Mo a( x)2 2bx
x (when x > a) ............................ = 3a 2 + 2b
2
2El
Mo
MCL (at centre) ........................... = 2
[3ab + b( 3a)]
Mob
CL (at centre) ............................ = ( 2a)
8El
2
0.01615Mo
max (when a = 0.2324l ) ............ =
El


(34) SIMPLE BEAM – UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS
w M1 M2
R1 = V1 .................................... = +
2
w M1 M2
R2 = V2 .................................... =
2
M1 M2
Vx ............................................ = w x +
2
M1 M2 w 2 M1 + M2 (M1 M2 )2
M3 at x = + ......... = +
2 w 8 2 2w 2
wx M1 M2
Mx ........................................... = ( x) + x M1
2
2 2
M1 + M2 M M2
b (to locate inflection points) ... = + 1
4 w w
wx 4M1 4M2 2 12M1 8M1 4M2

x ............................................ = x3 2 + x + x+ 3
24El w w w w w
(35) BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE AND VARIABLE END MOMENTS
P M1 M2
R1 = V1.......................... = +
2
P M1 M2
R2 = V2.......................... =
2
P M1 + M2
M3 (at centre) ............... =
4 2
P M1 M2
Mx when x < .......... = + x M1
2 2
P (M1 M2 )x
Mx when x > .......... = ( x) + M1
2 2
Px 8( x)
x when x < ........... = 3 2
4x2 [M1(2 x) + M2 ( + x)]
2 48EI P


(36) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END – DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS
3El
V = R1 = R2 ...................................... = ( 2 1)
3
3El
Mmax ................................................. = ( 2 1)
2
x
Mx .................................................... = Mmax 1
2 3
2 1 x x
x ..................................................... = 1+ 3
2
(37) BEAM FIXED AT ONE END – ROTATION OF SUPPORT
3El
V = –R1 = R2 .................................. = 1
2
3El
Mmax ............................................... = 1
x
Mx .................................................. = Mmax 1
max ................................................ = 1
5.196
3x 2 x3
x ................................................... = 1 x+ 2
2 2
38) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF SUPPORTS
12El
V = –R1 = R2 .................................. = ( 2 1)
3
6El
M1 = –M2 ........................................ = ( 2 1)
2
6El 2x
Mx .................................................. = ( 2 1) 1
2
2 3
x x
x ................................................... = 1 +( 2 1) 3 2

(39) BEAM FIXED AT BOTH ENDS – ROTATION OF SUPPORT
6El
V = –R1 = R2 ............................................. = 2
2
2El
M1 ............................................................. = 2
4El
M2 ............................................................. = 2
2El 3x
Mx ............................................................. = 2 1
2 4
max (at x = )........................................ = 2
3 27
2 3
x x
x .............................................................. = 2
(40) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT CENTRE OF ONE SPAN ONLY
13
R1 = V1 ......................................................... = P
32
11
R2 =V2 + V3 .................................................. = P
16
3
R3 = V3 ......................................................... = P
32
19
V2 ................................................................. = P
32
13
Mmax (at point of load) .................................. = P
64
3
M2 (at R2) ..................................................... = P
32
(41) TWO SPANS, CONTINUOUS BEAM – CONCENTRATED LOAD AT ANY POINT OF ONE
SPAN ONLY
Pb 2
R1 = V1 ......................................................... = [4 a( + a)]
3
4
Pa 2
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = [2 + b( + a)]
3
2
Pab
R3 = V3 ......................................................... = ( + a)
3
4
Pa 2+
V2 ................................................................. = [4 b( + a)]
3
4
Pab 2
Mmax (at point of load) .................................. = [4 a( + a)]
3
4
Pab
M2 (at R2) ..................................................... = ( + a)
2
4

(42) TWO SPAN, CONTINUOUS BEAM – UNIFORM LOAD OVER ONE SPAN ONLY
7
R1 = V1 ......................................................... = w
16
5
R2 = V2 + V3 ................................................. = w
8
1
R3 = V3 ......................................................... = w
16
9
V2 ................................................................. = w
16
7 49 2
Mmax at x = ....................................... = w
16 512
w 2
M1 (at R2) ..................................................... =
16
wx
Mx (when x < ) .......................................... = (7 8x)
16
Figure 8.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams

REACTIONS
BENDING MOMENT M
AND DEFLECTION y, MAXIMUM DEFLECTION,
LOADING AND SUPPORT AND MAXIMUM
VERTICAL AND END SLOPE
BENDING MOMENT
SHEAR
W W Wx
RB = RC = (A to B)M = (c x)2 (A to B) y = [6c 2 (d + x) x2 (4c x) d3 ]
EQUAL OVERHANGS, 2 2 24El
UNIFORM LOAD (B to C)M =
(A to B) V = W 2 Wx(d x)
[(c x(d x)] (B to C) y = [x(d x) + d2 6c 2 ]
W(c x) 2 24El
Wc 2 Wc
(B to C) V = M= at B and C y= [3c 2 (c + 2d) d3 ] at A and D
2 24El
1 x +c
W d2 Wd2 d
2 M=
W 2
c
y= (5d2 24c 2 )at x =
2 4 384El 2
(C to D) V = d if 2c < d < 2.449c, the maximum deflection

at x = if d > 2c, M = 0
W(c + d x) 2 between supports is:
d d2 W d d2
at x = ± c2 y= (6c 2 d2 )2 at x = ± 3 c2
2 4 96El 2 4
if c = 0.207 , at x = 0 = d W
= (6c 2d + 4c3 d3 ) at A
24El
W W
M= = (6c 2d + 4c 3 d3 ) at D
46.62 24El
W
and M =
46.62
d
ar x =
2
x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.
(A to B) M = (A to B) y =
RB = W Wx
UNEQUAL OVERHANGS, (c x)2 [2d(e2 + 2c2 ) + 6c2x x2 (4c x) d3 ]
W 2 24El
UNIFORM LOAD (c + d e)
2d (B to C) M = Wx(d x)
(B to C) y =
W 24El
RC = (c x)2 + RBx
2 2 2
W (C to D) M = x(d x) + d2 2(c 2 + e2 ) [e x + c 2 (d x)]
(d + e c) d
2d W
(A to B) V = (e + d x)2 W(x d)
2 (C to D) y = [2d(c 2 + 2e2 ) + 6e2 (x d)
W 24El
(c x)
Wc 2 (x d)2 (4e + d x) d3 ]
M= at B
2 Wc
(B to C) V = y= [2d(e2 + 2c 2 ) + 3c 3 d3 ] at A
W We 2 24El
RB (c + x) M= at C We
2 y= [2d(c 2 + 2e2 ) + 3e3 d3 ] at D
Mmax between supports 24El
(C to D) V = W 2
= (c x12 ) at x = x1 This case is too complicated to obtain a general
W 2
(d + e x) expression for critical deflections between the
c 2 + d2 e2 supports.
= if x1 > c,
2d W
= (4c 3 + 4c 2d d3 + 2de2 ) at A
M=0 24El
at x = x1 ± x12 c2 W
= (2c 2d + 4de2 d3 + 4e3 ) at D
24El
x is considered positive on
both sides of the origin.
Figure 8.1.4 Moments, shears, and deflections in beams with overhangs

(1) A
T
Member
T
At support: TA = T =
GJT
T
Torsional Diagram
(2)
A t (uniform torque)
T 2
At support: TA = t =
2GJT
T
Torsional Diagram
(3)
A B T1b T1ab
T1 A-1: Ta = 1 =
GJT
1
a b
When a = b =
2
Tb T1a T
Ta 1-B: Tb = 1 =
4GJT
(4) T1(b + c) + T2c Ta a

A B A-1: Ta = 1 =
T1 T2 GJT
1 2 T2c T1a Tc c
a b c 1-2: Tb = 2 =
GJT
Tb Tb = Ta When a = b = c = T/8
Tc
T1 = T2 = T/2
Ta
T1a + T2 (a + b) T
Ta 2-B: Tc = and 1 = 2 =
6GJT
(5) T1(b + c + d) + T2 (c + d) + T3 d Tbb + Taa
A B A-1: Ta = 2 =
T1 T2 T3 GJT
1 2 3 T1a + T2 (c + d) + T3 d Ta a
1-2: Tb = 1 =
a b c d GJT
Tc T1a T2 (a + b) + T3 d Td d
Tb Td 2-3: Tc = 3 =
GJT
Ta
Ta T1a T2 (a b) + T3 (a + b + c)
3-B: Td =
(6) A t (uniform torque) B
t t 2
Tsupport = CL =
Tsupport 2 8GJT
Tsupport
Note: G = Shear modulus

J = Torsion constant
Figure 8.1.5 Torsion diagrams, reactions, and rotations

CAMBER END ROTATION

EQUIVA-
LENT EQUIVALENT
TENDON PROFILE
MOMENT LOADING
OR LOAD
(1)
M 2 M M
M = Pe
16El 3El 6El
(2)
M = Pe M 2 M M
16El 6El 3El
(3)
M 2 M M
M = Pe
8El 2El 2El
(4)
4Pe
N= N 3 N 2 N 2
48El 16El 16El
(5)
Pe b(3 4b2 )N 3
b(1 b)N 2
b(1 b)N 2
N=
b 24El 2El 2El
(6)
8Pe 5w 4 w 3 w 3
w= 2
384El 24El 24El
Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. In all cases, prestressing force is denoted as “P”. By adjusting the
directional notation, they may also be used for the effects of loads.
2. In cases where P is not applied at the c.g., total cambers will be the sum of the effects of pattern (3) plus those of (4), (5) or (6).
Figure 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads(1) (continues next page)

CAMBER END ROTATION

EQUIVA-
TENDON LENT EQUIVALENT
PROFILE MOMENT LOADING
OR LOAD
(7)
8Pe
w= 5w 4 9w 3 7w 3
2
768El 384El 384El
(8)
w=
8Pe 5w 4 7w 3 9w 3
2
768El 384El 384El
(9) w=
4Pe 5 b
2
(3 2b2 ) 3
(0.5 b) 8 2 (1 b)(1 2b)w 3
(1 b)(1 2b)w
w1 = w 4 24El 24El
w 48El
(0.5 b)
b
(10) w=
4Pe 5 b 9 7
2
(3 2b2 ) b(2 b)2 + b(2 b)2
(0.5 b) 16 4 8 8
w1 = w 4 w 3 w 3
w 48El 48El 48El
(0.5 b)
b
(11) w=
4Pe 5 b 7 9
2
(3 2b2 ) b(2 b)2 + b(2 b)2
(0.5 b) 16 4 8 8
w1 = w 4 w 3 w 3
w 48El 48El 48El
(0.5 b)
b
Determination of camber along length of member

based on camber at midspan:
2
x
2
Camber at midspan = yc yx = y c yc 2
2
Note: 1. The tabulated values apply to the effects of prestressing. By adjusting the directional notation, they may also be used for the effects
of loads.
2. Consider the effects of end eccentricities when computing camber.
3. In cases (7) through (11) all tendon segments are parabolic and the slope of the tendon is zero at ends except for left end in case (7)
and right end in case (8).
Figure 8.1.6 Camber (deflection) and rotation coefficients for prestress force and loads(1) (continued from
previous page)

LOADING MOMENT AT A MOMENT AT CENTRE MOMENT AT B
P P P
(1)
8 8 8
(2) P a(1 a)2 P a2 (1 a)
2P P 2P
(3) 9 9 9
5P 3P 5P
(4) 16 16 16
w
w w w
(5) 12 24 12
A B
w
al al w (1 + 2a 2a 2) w (1 + 2a 2a 2 ) w (1 + 2a 2a 2 )
(6)
A B
12 24 12
al al
w (3a 2a 2 ) w a2 w (3a 2a2 )
(7) w w 12 6 12
2 2
A B
al
w a(6 8a + 3a 2 ) w a 2 (4 3a)
(8) w
12 12
A B

l l
2 2
5w 3w 5w
(9) w 48 48 48
A B
w
w w
(10) A B 10 15
W = Total load on the beam.
Figure 8.1.7 Moments in beams with fixed ends

(1) SIMPLE BEAM – ONE CONCENTRATED MOVING LOAD
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................ = P
P
M max (at point of load, when x = ) ........................ =
2 4
(2) SIMPLE BEAM – TWO EQUAL CONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS
a
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................. = P 2
when a < (2 2) ................................................... = 0.586
2
1 a P a
Mmax = under load 1, at x = ....................... =
2 2 2 2
when a > (2 2) .......................................... = 0.586
P
Mmax = with one load at centre of span ..................... =
4
(3) SIMPLE BEAM – TWO UNEQUAL CONCENTRATED MOVING LOADS
a
R1 max = V1 max (at x = 0) ............................................. = P1 + P2
1 P2a x2
Mmax under P1, at x = ........................ = (P1 + P2 )
2 P1 + P2
Mmax may occur with larger load at centre

P1
of span and other load off span ................................ =
4
Figure 8.1.8 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear

8.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

8.2.1 Material properties – concrete
45000
40000
35000
Ec modulus of elasticity, MPa
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
W, density of concrete, kg/m3
Figure 8.2.1 Concrete Modulus of Elasticity as Affected by Concrete Density and Strength
Modulus of elasticity for concrete, Ec, is represented by the curves above, as calculated by:
1.5
Ec (3300 f 'c 6900 ) 2300

c
for concretes with densities between 1500 and 2500 kg/m3.
Or, a more simplified equation can be used for normal density concrete with compressive strengths between 20
and 40 MPa:
Ec = 4500 f ' c
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars, Es, shall be taken as 200 000 MPa.
Modulus of elasticity of reinforcing tendons, Ep, shall be determined by tests or supplied by the manufacturer,
typically 190 000 to 200 000 MPa.
Adapted from CSA A23.3-14 [Cl. 8.6.2]

8.2.2 Material properties – prestressing steel
Strand Diameter - mm Minimum Strength - kN Nominal Area - mm Weight - kg/1000 m

(inches) (pounds) (sq. in.) (lbs/1000ft)
7-WIRE 1720 MPa (250 ksi) STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

9 (3/8") 89.0 (20,000) 51.6 (0.080) 405 (272)
11 (7/16") 120.1 (27,000) 69.6 (0.108) 548 (367)
13 (1/2") 160.1 (36,000) 92.9 (0.144) 730 (490)
15 (0.600") 240.2 (54,000) 139.3 (0.216) 1099 (737)
7-WIRE 1860 MPa (270 ksi) GRADE STRAND FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
8 (5/16") 71.2 (16,000) 38.0 (0.059) 298 (200)
9 (3/8") 102.3 (23,000) 54.8 (0.085) 432 (290)
11 (7/16") 137.9 (31,100) 74.1 (0.115) 582 (390)
13 (1/2") 183.7 (41,300) 98.7 (0.153) 775 (520)
13a (1/2"Special) 200.2 (45,100) 107.7 (0.167) 819 (550)
14 (9/16") 230.0 (51,800) 123.8 (0.192) 970 (651)
15 (0.600") 260.7 (58,600) 140.0 (0.217) 1104 (740)
Figure 8.2.2 Properties of prestressing strands
26mm 32mm 36mm 46mm 65mm

THREAD BAR SIZE 3
(1 in) (1 in) (1 /8 in) (1 in) (2 in)
Ultimate Load (1030 MPa) kN 567 834 1054 1779 3471
Yield Load (0.8 fpu Aps) kN 454 667 843 1423 2777
mm
Steel Area 551 804 1018 1689 3358
Max, Bar Diameter mm 31 37 41.4 51 70

Nominal Linear Mass kg/m 4.48 6.53 8.27 13.7 27.3
Anchor Plate Sizes mm 127x127x32 152x178x38 178x178x44 230x230x57 305x356x64
102x165x32 127x203x38 127x241x44 --- ---
Nut Extension mm 48 64 70 74 127
Min. Bar Protrusion mm 92 98 122 98 149
Coupler Length mm 159 171 219 171 273
Coupler Diameter mm 51 60 67 79 114
Bar Duct O.D. mm 47 51 55 70 88
Bar Duct I.D. mm 43 48 51 67 84
Coupler Duct O.D. mm 70 76 87 101 138
Coupler Duct I.D. mm 67 72 83 95 134
Pocket Former Depth mm 178 203 219 N/A N/A
Pocket Former Max
mm 130 165 165 N/A N/A
Diameter
Note: Typical sizes, properties and dimensions of post-tensioning bars: confirm with bar supplier.
Figure 8.2.3 Properties of post-tensioning bars

8.2.2 Material properties – prestressing steel continued
fpe = 1035 MPa (150 ksi)

Nominal Strand Development Length, mm (inches)
Diameter, mm (inches) Transfer Length,
mm (inches) fpr, MPa (ksi)
1655 (240) 1725 (250) 1800 (260) 1860 (270)
9 (3/8) 471.5 (18.8) 1328.7 (52.5) 1424.0 (56.3) 1519.2 (60.0) 1614.5 (63.8)
11 (7/16) 550.1 (21.9) 1550.2 (61.3) 1661.3 (65.6) 1772.4 (70.0) 1883.6 (74.4)
13 (1/2) 628.7 (25.0) 1771.7 (70.0) 1898.7 (75.0) 2025.7 (80.0) 2152.7 (85.0)
13a (1/2 Special) 655.1 (26.1) 1846.1 (73.1) 1978.4 (78.4) 2110.7 (83.6) 2243.1 (88.8)
14 (9/16) 707.2 (28.1) 1993.1 (78.8) 2136.0 (84.4) 2278.9 (90.0) 2243.1 (95.6)
15 (0.6) 754.4 (30.0) 2126.0 (84.0) 2278.4 (90.0) 2430.8 (96.0) 2583.2 (102.0)
fpe = 1100 MPa (160 ksi)

Nominal Strand
Diameter, mm (inches) Development Length, mm (inches)
Transfer Length,
mm (inches) fpr, MPa (ksi)
1655 (240) 1725 (250) 1800 (260) 1860 (270)
9 (3/8) 502.9 (20.0) 1264.9 (50.0) 1360.2 (53.8) 1455.4 (57.5) 1550.7 (61.3)
11 (7/16) 586.7 (23.3) 1475.7 (58.3) 1586.9 (62.7) 1698.0 (67.0) 1809.1 (71.5)
13 (1/2) 670.6 (26.7) 1686.6 (66.7) 1813.6 (71.7) 1940.6 (76.7) 2067.6 (81.7)
13a (1/2 Special) 698.7 (27.9) 1757.4 (69.5) 1889.7 (74.7) 2022.1 (79.9) 2154.4 (85.1)
14 (9/16) 754.4 (30.0) 1897.4 (75.0) 2040.3 (80.6) 2183.1 (86.3) 2326.0 (91.9)
15 (0.6) 804.7 (32.0) 2023.9 (80.0) 2176.3 (86.0) 2328.7 (92.0) 2481.1 (98.0)
fpe = 1030 MPa (170 ksi)

Nominal Strand
Diameter, mm (inches) Development Length, mm (inches)
Transfer Length, fpr, MPa (ksi)
mm (inches)
1655 (240) 1725 (250) 1800 (260) 1860 (270)
9 (3/8) 534.4 (21.3) 1201.1 (47.5) 1296.4 (51.3) 1391.6 (55.0) 1486.9 (58.8)
11 (7/16) 623.4 (24.8) 1401.3 (55.4) 1512.4 (59.8) 1623.5 (64.2) 1734.7 (68.5)
13 (1/2) 712.5 (28.3) 1601.5 (63.3) 1728.5 (68.3) 1855.5 (73.3) 1982.5 (78.3)
13a (1/2 Special) 742.4 (29.6) 1668.7 (66.0) 1801.1 (71.2) 1933.4 (76.4) 2065.7 (81.6)
14 (9/16) 801.5 (31.9) 1801.7 (71.3) 1944.5 (76.7) 2087.4 (82.5) 2230.3 (88.1)
15 (0.6) 855.0 (34.0) 1921.8 (76.0) 2074.2 (82.0) 2226.6 (88.0) 2379.0 (94.0)
fpe = effective stress in prestressing tendons after allowance for all prestress losses
fpr = stress in prestressing tendons at factored resistance
Note: Where bonding of a strand does not extend to the end of a member and the design includes tension at
specified loads in the precompressed tensile zone, the development length specified above shall be doubled.
Figure 8.2.4 Transfer and Development Lengths for 7-Wire Uncoated Strand as per CSA A23.3 [Cl. 12.9.1]

8.2.2 Material properties – prestressing steel continued
ASTM A416 Minimum Yield Strength

at 1% elongation:
For 270 ksi: 243 ksi
For 250 ksi: 225 ksi
Note: Approximate strain at rupture is 0.05 to 0.07

For low-relaxation strand with fpu = 1860 MPa (270ksi), an appropriate formulation is:
0.975 0.975
fps = 27.5 103 ps 0.025 + 0.10
fps = 190 103 ps 0.025 + 0.10
( ) ( )
10 10
1 + 118 ps 1 + 118 ps
270 ksi 1860 MPa

While for stress-relieved strands with fpu = 1720 MPa (250ksi), an appropriate formulation is:
0.97 0.97
fps = 27.5 103 ps 0.03 + 0.167
fps = 190 103 ps 0.03 + 0.167
( ps ) ( ps )
6 6
1 + 121 1 + 121
250 ksi 1720 MPa
Note: The coefficients of the above equations have been chosen so that the curves pass through the minimum specified “yield strengths” at
a strain of 1%. The stress-strain response of actual strands will typically look like the curves above.
Figure 8.2.5 Typical stress strain curve, 7-wire low relaxation prestressing strand

8.2.3 Material properties – post tensioning
A D D
Anchor head C Allow 25-50 mm
C
for strand
B
A B
Strand
Grout tube
A
L
Spiral
E E
Spiral Cone
Grout vent
G
Duct G
F F
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Strand G Spiral
No. of A B C D E F L No. of
Type Diameter I.D./O.D. Diameter
Strands (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Turns
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 7 13 230 - - - - - 1200 - - -
12 13 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 13 380 - - - - - 1200 - - -
31 13 460 - - - - - 1500 - - -
4 15 160 - - - - - 1200 - - -
7 15 200 - - - - - 1200
12 15 300 - - - - - 1200 - - -
19 15 390 - - - - - 1500 - - -
22 15 400 - - - - - 1500 - - -
27 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
31 15 450 - - - - - 1800 - - -
2 12 13 25 50 150 250 250 210 - 70/75 10 5
19 13 30 63 185 300 250 290 - 85/90 10 5
22 13 40 75 230 375 250 315 - 90/95 15 5
31 13 45 75 230 375 250 315 - 105/110 15 7
2 4 15 20 50 115 200 150 175 - 55/60 10 5
7 15 25 50 150 250 300 210 - 65/70 10 5
12 15 30 63 185 330 450 290 - 85/90 10 5
19 15 45 75 230 420 600 315 - 105/110 15 7
22 15 45 100 230 420 600 375 - 115/120 15 7
31 15 64 100 292 500 700 375 - 130/135 15 8
3 7 13 122 51 120 139 260 200 - 55/60 10 7
12 13 158 57 140 210 266 250 - 70/75 15 7
19 13 190 60 185 245 266 320 - 85/90 15 7
3 4 15 122 51 120 139 266 200 - 55/60 10 7
7 15 158 57 140 210 306 250 - 65/70 10 7
12 15 190 63 162 245 356 280 - 75/80 15 7
19 15 280 70 216 336 458 388 - 105/110 15 7
Note: Generic drawings of multi-strand anchors. Contact post-tensioning supplier for specific dimensions.
Figure 8.2.6 Typical multi-strand post-tensioning anchorage details

8.2.3 Material properties – post tensioning continued
A C C
C
Type No. of Strand Dia A B C D E F

Strands (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
CPS Encapsulated 1 13 131.6 62.7 50.8 51 32 - 57 57
CPS Encapsulated 1 15 153.2 81.3 50.8 54 32 - 57 64
Zero Void 1 13 131.6 62.7 50.8 100 28 60
Encapsulated
Note: Generic drawing of monostrand anchor. Contact post-tensioning supplier for specific dimensions.
Figure 8.2.7 Typical unbonded monostrand system details

8.2.4 Material properties – reinforcing bars
Metric Reinforcing Bars

(2)
Bar Size Nominal Linear Mass Nominal Dimensions
(1) 2
Designation (kg/m) Diameter (mm) Area (mm ) Perimeter (mm)
10M 0.785 11.3 100 35.5
15M 1.570 16.0 200 50.1
20M 2.355 19.5 300 61.3
25M 3.925 25.2 500 79.2
30M 5.495 29.9 700 93.9
35M 7.850 35.7 1000 112.2
45M 11.775 43.7 1500 137.3
55M 19.625 56.4 2500 177.2
(1) Bar numbers are based upon the rounded nominal diameter of the bars.
(2) The nominal dimensions of a deformed bar are equivalent to those of a plain round bar having the same linear mass as the deformed
bar.
Fig 8.2.8 Reinforcing bar data
(4)
Steel Grade
Nominal 300 R 400 R or 500 R 400 W or 500 W
(4) (4)
Size 180° Hook 90° Hook 180° Hook 90° Hook 180°Hook 90° Hook
(3) (3) (3)
D J G A or G D J G A or G D J G A or G
10M 60 83 131 177 70 93 141 182 60 83 131 177
15M 90 122 169 252 100 132 180 257 90 122 169 252
20M 120 159 218 314 100 139 196 304
25M 150 200 276 403 150 200 276 403
30M 250 310 404 513 200 260 351 488
35M 300 371 484 614 250 321 431 589
45M 450 537 682 793 400 487 628 768
55M 600 713 900 1033 550 663 847 1008
(1) The dimensions provided use the minimum bend diameters (D) permitted in, Table 16 in A23.3.
(2) Standard hooks are defined in Clause 6.6.2.2 of A23.1
(3) Add the additional hook dimension G to the detailing dimension to estimate the total bar length:
For 180° hooks: G = (4db > 60 mm) + (D + db) / 2 D / 2 db
For 90° and 135° hooks: G A = 12db + D / 2 + db
(4) Special fabrication is required for bends exceeding 90° for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R or 500 R.
R refers to “Regular” grade; W refers to “Weldable” grade.
Figure 8.2.9 Detailing and estimating dimensions(1) (mm) for standard end hooks(2) for deformed reinforcing bars

8.2.4 Material properties – reinforcing bars continued
Typical bar bends
Fig 8.2.10 Typical Reinforcing Bar Bends

(3) (4)
Bar Size Bar Grade Standard Lap Within Ties Within Spirals
10M 400 300 300 300
15M 400 440 370 330
20M 400 590 490 440
25M 400 730 610 550
30M 400 880 730 660
35M 400 1030 850 770
10M 500 430 360 320
15M 500 640 530 480
20M 500 850 710 640
25M 500 1070 890 800
30M 500 1280 1060 960
35M 500 1490 1240 1120
(1) Calculated according to CSA Standard A23.3, Clause 12.14 and 12.16. The minimum length of compression lap splice shall not be less
than 0.073 fy db nor (0.133 fy 24) db for fy greater than 400 MPa, nor 300 mm.
(2) When bars of different sizes are to be lap spliced in compression, the splice length shall be the larger of the compression development
length of the larger bar or the splice length of the smaller bar. 45M and 55M bars may be lap spliced to 35M and smaller bars.
(3) In compression members where ties have an effective area Av 0.0015 hs, 0.83 times the standard lap length may be used, but not less
than 300 mm.
(4) Within spirals of spiral tied columns, 0.75 times the standard lap but not less than 300 mm may be used.
Figure 8.2.11 Compression lap splices
(2)
dh = hb* x (factors from [CI. 12.5.3]), but not less than 8 db or 150 mm, whichever is greater
* The values tabulated below give the b hb (mm), according to [CI.12.5.2].
fc (MPa) Nominal Deformed Reinforcing Bar Size
10M 15M 20M 25M 30M 35M 45M 50M
20 252 357 437 564 668 798 977 1262
25 226 319 391 505 597 714 874 1128
30 206 291 357 461 545 651 798 1030
35 191 270 330 426 505 603 739 954
40 178 252 309 399 472 564 691 892
45 168 238 291 376 445 532 651 841
50 160 226 276 357 422 505 618 798
55 152 215 264 340 403 481 589 761
60 146 206 262 326 385 461 564 728
64 141 199 244 315 373 446 546 705
Note: Special fabrication is required for bends greater than 90° for 45M and 55M bars for steel grades 400 R and 500 R [Table 16].
(1) The development length includes the out to out dimension of the hood and the straight length to the critical erection.
(2) The hooks must satisfy the dimensions for standard hooks shown in Fig. 8.2.10
Figure 8.2.12 Tension development lengths, (1), using standard hooks for deformed bars with fy = 400 MPa
dh
[CSA A23.3 CI. 12.5.1].

fc
Modification Factors Included 10M 15M 20M 25M 30M 35M 45M 55M
(MPa)
20 322 483 644 1006 1207 1409 1811 2214
25 288 432 576 900 1080 1260 1620 1980
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 263 394 526 822 986 1150 1479 1807
35 243 365 487 761 913 1065 1369 1673
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 228 342 455 712 854 996 1281 1565
45 215 322 429 671 805 939 1207 1476
(4)
k3 = 1.0 (normal density concrete ) 50 204 305 407 636 764 891 1146 1400
55 194 291 388 607 728 849 1092 1335
60 186 279 372 581 697 813 1046 1278
64 180 270 360 563 675 788 1013 1238
20 483 724 966 1509 1811 2113 2717 3321
25 432 648 864 1350 1620 1890 2430 2970
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 394 592 789 1232 1479 1725 2218 2711
35 365 548 730 1141 1369 1597 2054 2510
k2 = 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 342 512 683 1067 1281 1494 1921 2348
45 322 483 644 1006 1207 1409 1811 2214
(4)
55 291 437 583 910 1092 1274 1638 2002
60 279 418 558 871 1046 1220 1569 1917
64 270 405 540 844 1013 1181 1519 1856
20 419 628 837 1308 1570 1831 2355 2878
25 374 562 749 1170 1404 1638 2106 2574
k1 = 1.3 (top bars) 30 342 513 684 1068 1282 1495 1923 2350
35 316 475 633 989 1187 1384 1780 2175
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 296 444 592 925 1110 1295 1665 2035
45 279 419 558 872 1046 1221 1570 1919
(4)
55 252 379 505 789 947 1104 1420 1735
60 242 363 483 755 906 1057 1359 1662
64 234 351 468 731 878 1024 1316 1609
20 547 821 1095 1711 2053 2395 3079 3763
25 490 734 979 1530 1836 2185 2754 3366
30 447 670 894 1397 1676 1994 2514 3073
k1 k2 = 1.7 (top location and epoxy 35 414 621 828 1293 1552 1847 2328 2845
coated bars) 40 387 581 774 1210 1451 1727 2177 2661
45 365 547 730 1140 1368 1628 2053 2509
(4)
55 330 495 660 1032 1238 1473 1857 2269
60 316 474 632 988 1185 1410 1778 2173
64 306 459 612 956 1148 1366 1721 2104
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diameter.
(1) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least 1.0 d b and 1.4 db, respectively.
(2) for lighter confinement, “Other cases” in Table 12.1 in CSA A23.3, multiply the above table values by 1.33. To qualify for heavier
confinement, must have either: member containing minimum stirrups or ties within d , or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having
clear spacing between bars being developed not less than 2db.
(3) for fy 400 MPa, multiply development length by fy / 400.
(4) Multiply table values by : k3=1.3 for structural low density concrete k 3 = 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
(5) The appropriate bar size factor k4 has been applied. For concrete strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.
Figure 8.2.13 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in CSA A23.3(1) for heavier confined(2) deformed
reinforcing bars(5) with fy=400 MPa(3), for normal density concrete(4).

Reinforcing bar size (nominal diameter [mm])

Bar spacing c/c, 10M 15M 20M 25M 30M 35M 45M 55M
mm (11.3) (16.0) (19.5) (25.2) (29.9) (35.7) (43.7) (56.4) Area range
50 2000 4000 6000 10000 14000 20000 30000 50000
75 1333 2667 4000 6667 9333 13333 20000 33333
100 1000 2000 3000 5000 7000 10000 15000 25000
125 800 1600 2400 4000 5600 8000 12000 20000
150 667 1333 2000 3333 4667 6667 10000 16667 10000 mm
2
175 571 1143 1714 2857 4000 5714 8571 14286

200 500 1000 1500 2500 3500 5000 7500 12500
225 444 889 1333 2222 3111 4444 6667 11111
250 400 800 1200 2000 2800 4000 6000 10000
275 364 727 1091 1818 2545 3636 5455 9091
300 333 667 1000 1667 2333 3333 5000 8333
325 308 615 923 1538 2154 3077 4615 7692
350 286 571 857 1429 2000 2857 4286 7143
375 267 533 800 1333 1867 2667 4000 6667 2
400 250 500 750 1250 1750 2500 3750 6250 5000-10000 mm
425 235 471 706 1176 1647 2353 3529 5882
450 222 444 667 1111 1556 2222 3333 5556
475 211 421 632 1053 1474 2105 3158 5263
500 200 400 600 1000 1400 2000 3000 5000
550 182 364 545 909 1273 1818 2727 4545
600 167 333 500 833 1167 1667 2500 4167
650 154 308 462 769 1077 1538 2308 3846 2
700 143 286 429 714 1000 1429 2143 3571 3000-5000 mm
750 133 267 400 667 933 1333 2000 3333
800 125 250 375 625 875 1250 1875 3125
850 118 235 353 588 824 1176 1765 2941
900 111 222 333 556 778 1111 1667 2778
950 105 211 316 526 737 1053 1579 2632 2000-3000 mm2
1000 100 200 300 500 700 1000 1500 2500
Area range <500 mm
2
500-1000 mm
2
1000-2000 mm
2
How to use this design aid:

Given a design (or minimum temperature/shrinkage) reinforcement required per meter, enter the table along the
2
rightmost column or bottom row, entitled “area range”. Select the desired area range in mm /m, follow the
shaded range band upwards and to the left. Select a combination of bar spacing and sizing to satisfy the design
requirements for the section.
2
Example: A design that requires minimum reinforcement at 2000 mm /m, with a bar size 20M or smaller.
2
- Enter the table under the area range of 2000 – 3000 mm , located at the bottom corner. Follow this
shaded band upwards to the top of the table.
- Select one of the following: 10M at 50mm on centre, 15M at 100mm, 20M at 150mm (for one layer).
Similar spacings could be determined if reinforcement is placed in two layers, i.e. 10M at 100mm (two
layers)
Figure 8.2.14 Bar Area Equivalents in a 1 Meter Wide Section

8.2.5 Material properties – deformed wire
Modification Factors Included fc (MPa) MD9.1 MD11.1 MD13.3 MD18.7 MD25.8 MD34.9 MD47.6
20 110 121 133 157 185 215 251
25 98 108 119 141 165 192 224
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 89 99 108 128 151 175 205
35 83 92 100 119 140 162 189
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 78 86 94 111 130 152 177
45 73 81 88 105 123 143 167
(4)
k3 = 1.0 (normal density concrete ) 50 69 77 84 99 117 136 159
55 66 73 80 95 111 129 151
60 63 70 77 91 107 124 145
64 61 68 74 88 103 120 140
20 164 182 199 236 277 322 376
25 147 162 178 211 248 288 336
k1 = 1.0 (bottom bars) 30 134 148 162 192 226 263 307
35 124 137 150 178 209 243 284
k2 = 1.5 (epoxy coated bars) 40 116 128 141 167 196 228 266
45 110 121 133 157 185 215 251
(4)
55 99 109 120 142 167 194 227
60 95 105 115 136 160 186 217
64 92 102 111 132 155 180 210
20 142 157 172 204 240 279 326
25 127 141 154 183 215 250 291
k1 = 1.3 (top bars) 30 116 128 141 167 196 228 266
35 108 119 130 154 181 211 246
k2 = 1.0 (uncoated bars) 40 101 111 122 144 170 197 230
45 95 105 115 136 160 186 217
(4)
55 86 95 104 123 145 168 197
60 82 91 99 118 139 161 188
64 80 88 96 114 134 156 182
20 186 206 225 267 314 365 426
25 167 184 201 239 281 326 381
30 152 168 184 218 256 298 348
k1 k2 = 1.7 (top location and epoxy 35 141 156 170 202 237 276 322
coated bars) 40 132 146 159 189 222 258 301
45 124 137 150 178 209 243 284
(4)
55 112 124 136 161 189 220 257
60 108 119 130 154 181 211 246
64 104 115 126 149 175 204 238
Note: Calculations are based on the nominal bar diameter.
(1) Clear cover and clear spacing of bars must be at least 1.0 d b and 1.4 db, respectively.
(2) for lighter confinement, “Other cases” in Table 12.1 in A23.3, multiply the above table values by 1.33. To qualify for heavier confinement,
must have either: member containing minimum stirrups or ties within d , or slabs, walls, shells or folded plates having clear spacing
between bars being developed not less than 2db.
(3) for fy 400 MPa, multiply development length by fy / 400.
(4) Multiply table values by : k3=1.3 for structural low density concrete k 3 = 1.2 for structural semi-low density concrete.
(5) The appropriate bar size factor k4 has been applied. For concrete strengths > 64 MPa, use development length for 64 MPa.
(6) After application of all modification factors, the development length must not be less than 300 mm.
Figure 8.2.15 Development lengths (mm) based on Table 12.1 in CSA A23.3(1) for heavier confined(2) deformed
wire(5) with fy = 400 MPa(3), for normal density concrete(4).

8.2.6 Material properties – welded wire fabric
Mass Cross-Sectional Equivalent Equivalent

Wire Wire Cross-
per Unit Area Imperial Imperial
Diameter Sectional Area
Metric Designation Area per Metre Width Styles Styles
Long. Transv. 2 Long. Transv.
mm in. 2 2 kg / m 2 2 Gauge No. ‘‘W’’ Numbers
mm mm mm mm
152 152 MW9.1 MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 1.04 59.8 59.8 6 6 10/10 6 6 W1.4/W1.4
152 152 MW11.1 MW11.1 3.76 0.148 11.1 11.1 1.26 73.0 73.0 6 6 9/9 6 6 W1.7/W1.7
152 152 MW13.3 MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13.3 13.3 1.50 87.5 87.5 6 6 8/8 6 6 W2.1/W2.1
152 152 MW18.7 MW18.7 4.88 0.192 18.7 18.7 2.11 123.0 123.0 6 6 6/6 6 6 W2.9/W2.9
152 152 MW25.8 MW25.8 5.74 0.226 25.8 25.8 2.91 170.0 170.0 6 6 4/4 6 6 W4/W4
152 152 MW34.9 MW34.9 6.67 0.262 34.9 34.9 3.95 230.0 230.0 6 6 2/2 6 6 W5.4/W5.4
152 152 MW47.6 MW47.6 7.79 0.306 47.6 47.6 5.38 313.0 313.0 6 6 0/0 6 6 W7.4/W7.4
102x102 MW9.1 MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 1.52 89.2 89.2 4 4 10/10 4 4 W1.4/W1.4
102x102 MW11.1 MW11.1 3.76 0.148 1.1 11.1 1.83 109.0 109.0 4 4 9/9 4 4 W1.7/W1.7
102x102 MW13.3 MW13.3 4.12 0.162 13.3 13.3 2.18 130.0 130.0 4 4 8/8 4 4 W2.1/W2.1
102x102 MW18.7 MW18.7 4.88 0.192 18.7 18.7 3.07 183.0 183.0 4 4 6/6 4 4 W2.9/W2.9
102x102 MW25.8 MW25.8 5.74 0.226 25.8 25.8 4.23 253.0 253.0 4 4 4/4 4 4 W4/W4
51 51 MW3.2 MW3.2 2.03 0.080 3.2 3.2 1.03 62.8 62.8 2 2 14/14 2x2xW0.5/W0.5
51 51 MW5.6 MW5.6 2.69 0.106 5.6 5.6 1.80 110.0 110.0 2 2 12/12 2x2xW0.9/W0.9
51 51 MW9.1 MW9.1 3.40 0.134 9.1 9.1 2.94 178.0 178.0 2 2 10/10 2 2 W1.4/W1.4
Industry Method of
Designating Style
Example: 152 X 152 MW9.1 X MW3.1
Longitudinal
Wire Spacing
Transverse
Wire Spacing
Longitudinal Overall
Wire Size Width
Transverse Order
Wire Size Width
Order Length
Side overhangs may be varied as

required and do not need to be
equal. Overhang lengths limited
only by overall sheet width.
Transverse Wire
Longitudinal Wire
End overhangs may differ.
The sum of the two end
overhangs, however,
should equal the transverse
wire spacing.
Figure 8.2.16 Standard styles of welded wire fabric

8.2.6 Material properties – welded wire fabric continued
2
Nom. Nom. As (mm / m)
Wire Size Number Centre to Centre Spacing (mm)
Diam. Mass
Smooth Deformed
(mm) (kg/m) 51 76 102 152 203 254 305
MW 129.0 MD 129.0 12.83 1.01 2540 1693 1270 847 635 508 423
MW 116.0 MD 116.0 12.17 0.911 2286 1524 1143 762 572 457 381
MW 103.0 MD 103.0 11.46 0.809 2032 1355 1016 677 508 406 339
MW 90.3 MD 90.3 10.72 0.708 1778 1185 889 593 445 356 296
MW 77.4 MD 77.4 9.93 0.607 1524 1016 762 508 381 305 254
MW 71.0 MD 71.0 9.50 0.556 1397 931 699 466 349 279 233
MW 67.9 9.30 0.531 1334 889 667 445 332 267 222
MW 64.5 MD 64.5 9.07 0.506 1270 847 635 423 318 254 212
MW 61.3 8.84 0.481 1207 804 603 402 301 241 201
MW 58.1 MD 58.1 8.59 0.936 1143 762 572 381 286 229 191
MW 54.9 8.36 0.430 1080 720 540 360 269 216 180
MW 51.6 MD 51.6 8.10 0.405 1016 677 508 339 254 203 169
MW 48.4 7.85 0.379 953 635 476 318 237 191 159
MW 45.2 MD 45.2 7.60 0.354 889 593 445 296 222 178 148
MW 42.1 7.32 0.329 826 550 413 275 205 165 138
MW 38.7 MD 38.7 7.01 0.304 762 508 381 254 191 152 127
MW 35.5 6.73 0.278 699 466 349 233 174 140 116
MW 32.3 MD 32.3 6.40 0.253 635 423 318 212 159 127 106
MW 28.9 6.07 0.228 572 381 286 191 142 114 95.3
MW 25.8 MD 25.8 5.74 0.202 508 339 254 169 127 102 84.7
MW 22.6 5.36 0.177 445 296 222 148 110 88.9 74.1
MW 19.2 4.95 0.152 381 254 191 127 95.3 76.2 63.5
MW 18.7 4.88 0.147 368 245 184 123 91.0 74.1 61.4
MW 16.0 4.52 0.126 317 212 159 106 78.3 63.5 52.9
MW 13.5 4.11 0.106 267 178 133 88.9 65.6 52.9 44.5
MW 12.9 4.06 0.101 254 169 127 84.7 63.5 50.8 42.3
MW 9.7 3.51 0.076 191 127 95.3 63.5 48.7 38.1 31.8
MW 9.0 3.40 0.071 178 119 88.9 59.3 44.5 36.0 29.6
Note:
(1) Wire sizes other than those listed above including larger sizes may be produced provided the quantity required is sufficient to justify
manufacture.
(2) Smooth Wires (ASTM A185) and deformed wires (ASTM A497) are available in a variety of steel grades (fy= 448 MPa to 552 MPa).
Check grades and availibility with suppliers
Figure 8.2.17 Sectional areas of welded wire fabric

8.2.7 Material properties – wire
W&D SIZE NUMBER CUSTOMARY UNITS U.S. UNITS METRIC UNITS EQUIV.
Nominal Nominal Nominal
Smooth Deformed Area Wire Gage Area MW or MD
Diameter Weight Diameter
2
(in.) (sq.in.) (lb./ft) Number (mm) (mm ) Size
W20 D20 0.505 0.200 0.680 12.8 129.0 MW129.0
0.490 0.189 0.643 7/0 12.4 121.9 MW121.9
W18 D18 0.479 0.180 0.612 12.2 116.1 MW116.1
0.462 0.168 0.511 6/0 11.7 108.4 MW108.4
W16 D16 0.451 0.160 0.544 11.5 103.2 MW103.2
W14.6 0.431 0.146 0.495 5/0 10.9 94.2 MW94.2
W14 D14 0.422 0.140 0.476 10.7 90.3 MW90.3
W12.2 0.394 0.122 0.414 4/0 10.0 78.7 MW78.7
W12 D12 0.391 0.120 0.408 9.9 77.4 MW77.4
W11 D11 0.374 0.110 0.374 9.5 71.0 MW71.0
W10.5 0.366 0.105 0.357 9.3 67.9 MW67.9
W10.3 0.363 0.103 0.351 3/0 9.2 66.5 MW66.5
W10 D10 0.357 0.100 0.340 9.1 64.5 MW64.5
W9.5 0.348 0.095 0.323 8.8 61.3 MW61.3
W9 D9 0.338 0.090 0.306 8.6 58.1 MW58.1
W8.6 0.331 0.086 0.292 2/0 8.4 55.5 MW55.5
W8.5 0.329 0.085 0.289 8.4 54.9 MW54.9
W8 D8 0.319 0.080 0.272 8.1 51.6 MW51.6
W7.5 0.309 0.075 0.255 7.8 48.4 MW48.4
W7.4 0.307 0.074 0.251 1/0 7.8 47.6 MW47.6
W7 D7 0.299 0.707 0.238 7.6 45.2 MW45.2
W6.5 0.288 0.065 0.221 7.3 42.1 MW42.1
W6.3 0.283 0.063 0.214 1 7.2 40.6 MW40.6
W6 D6 0.276 0.060 0.204 7.0 38.7 MW38.7
W5.5 0.265 0.055 0.187 6.7 35.5 MW35.5
W5.4 0.263 0.054 0.184 2 6.7 34.9 MW34.9
W5 D5 0.252 0.050 0.170 6.4 32.3 MW32.3
W4.7 0.244 0.047 0.158 3 6.2 30.1 MW30.
W4.5 0.239 0.045 0.153 6.1 28.9 MW28.9
W4 D4 0.226 0.040 0.136 4 5.7 25.8 MW25.8
W3.5 0.211 0.035 0.119 5.4 22.6 MW22.6
W3.4 0.207 0.034 0.114 5 5.3 21.7 MW21.7
W3 D3 0.195 0.030 0.102 5.0 19.2 MW19.2
W2.9 0.192 0.029 0.098 6 4.9 18.7 MW18.7
W2.5 0.178 0.025 0.085 7 4.5 16.0 MW16.0
W2.1 0.162 0.021 0.707 8 4.1 13.3 MW13.3
W2 0.160 0.020 0.068 4.1 12.9 MW12.9
W1.7 0.148 0.017 0.059 9 3.8 11.1 MW11.1
W1.5 0.138 0.015 0.051 3.5 9.7 MW9.7
W1.4 0.134 0.014 0.049 10 3.4 9.1 MW9.1
Figure 8.2.18 Wire sizes in customary and metric units

8.2.8 Material properties – bolts and nuts
Source: Research Council on Structural Connections, Specification for Structural Joints Using
High-Strength Bolts http://www.boltcouncil.org/
Figure 8.2.19 Dimensions of Bolts and Nuts

8.2.8 Material properties – bolts and nuts continued
Nominal Strength per Unit Area, Fn, ksi

Applied Load Condition
ASTM A325 or F1852 ASTM A490 or F2280
Static 90 113
a
Tension
Fatigue See Section 5.5
Threads Ls ≤ 38 in. 54 68
included in
shear plane Ls > 38 in. 45 56
a,b
Shear
Threads Ls ≤ 38 in. 68 84
excluded from
shear plane Ls > 38 in. 56 70
a
Except as required in Section 5.2.
b
Reduction for values for Ls > 38 in. applies only when the joint is end loaded, such as splice plates on a
beam or column flange.
Source: Research Council on Structural Connections, Specification for Structural Joints Us-
ing High-Strength Bolts http://www.boltcouncil.org/
Figure 8.2.20 Nominal Strengths per Unit Area of Bolts

8.3 WELDING INFORMATION
Basic weld symbols and their meanings
Location/position of symbol Supplemental symbols

Type of weld Weld all Finishing
Arrow side Other side Both sides Field weld contours
around
Fillet weld
Plug or Not Applicable

slot weld
Square
Groove
welds Bevel
Flare–
bevel
Flare–V
No arrow or other side For other basic and supplemental weld symbol
Stud weld significance to the stud weld and process information, refer to ANSI/AWS A2.4.
symbol.
References:
a. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC): Steel Construction Manual, 14th Edition (Chicago, IL: AISC, 2011).
b. American Welding Society (AWS): Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination (ANSI/AWS A2.4-12)
(Miami, FL: AWS, 2012).
c. AWS: Structural Welding Code—Steel (ANSI/AWS D1.1:2010), seventeenth edition (Miami, FL: AWS, 2010).
Reproduced with permission from PCI Design Manual - 7th Edition
Figure 8.3.1 Weld Symbols Commonly Used in Precast Concrete Construction

8.3 Welding information continued
TYPICAL WELDED JOINTS IN PRECAST CONSTRUCTION
102
25
FILLET WELD PLUG WELD
19
3
COMBINED FLARE BEVEL AND FILLET WELD COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION SINGLE BEVEL GROOVE WELD
E = 0.4S
E = 0.4S
S
S S
E = 0.4S
HEADED STUD WELD REINFORCING BAR WELDING - FLARE BEVEL GROOVE WELD
E = 0.6S S S
E = 0.6S E = 0.6S
REINFORCING BAR WELDING - FILLET REINFORCING BAR WELDING - FLARE V GROOVE WELD
Figure 8.3.2 Typical Welded Joints in Precast Concrete Construction

8.3 Welding information continued

Section Section modulus Polar moment of inertia IP,
Distance to centroid
b = width; d = depth about horizontal axis about center of gravity
= =
( + )
= =
( + )
= =
+
= =
( + ) ( + ) −6
( + ) =
( + )
= =
( + ) ( + )
8 +6 +
= = + = −
+ +
+
=
+ +8
= ( + ) = −
+ = +
( + )
( + )
= + =
+
=
+8
= (2 + ) = −
+ = +
( + )
+ +
= + =
= = 2
Reproduced with permission from PCI Design Manual - 7th Edition
Figure 8.3.3 Properties of Weld Groups Treated as a Line

8.4 SECTION PROPERTIES
SQUARE 2 RECTANGLE A = bd
Axis of Moments Through A =d Axis of Moments on Diagonal bd
Center d c =
c = b + d2
2
2
d4 I =
b3 d3
I =
12 6(b2 + d2 )
d3 b2 d2
S = S =
6 6 b2 + d2
d bd
r = = 0.288675d r =
12
6(b2 + d2 )
SQUARE 2 RECTANGLE A = bd
A =d
Axis of Moments on Base Axis of Moments Any Line
c =
bsina + dcosa
c =d Through Center of Gravity
2
I
d4
= bd(b2 sin2 a + d2 cos2 a)
I =
3 12
S =
d3 bd(b2 sin2 a + d2 cos2 a)
S =
3 6(b sina + dcosa)
d
r = = 0.577350d b2 sin2 a + d2 cos2 a
3 r =
12
2
SQUARE A =d HOLLOW RECTANGLE A = bd – b1d1
Axis of Moments on Diagonal d Axis of Moments Through d
c = = 0.707107d Center c =
2 2
d4 bd3 b1d13
I = I =
12 12
d3 bd3 b1d13
S = = 0.117851d3 S =
6 2 6d
d bd3 b1d13
r = = 0.288675d r =
12 12A
RECTANGLE A = bd EQUAL RECTANGLES A = b(d – d1)

Axis of Moments Through d Axis of Moments Through d
Center c = Center of Gravity c =
2 2
bd3 b(d3 d13 )
I = I =
12 12
bd2 b(d d13 )
3
S = S =
6 6d
d d3 d13
r = = 0.288675d r =
12 12(d d1)
Figure 8.4.1 Properties of geometric sections (continues next page)

8.4 Section properties continued
RECTANGLE A = bd UNEQUAL RECTANGLES A = bt + b1t1

Axis of Moments on Base d Axis of Moments Through 1 bt 2
+ b1t1(d 12 t1)
c = Center of Gravity c = 2
2 A
bd3 bt 3
b t3
I = I = + bty2 + 1 1 + b1t1y12
3 12 12
bd2 S =
I I
S = S1 =
3 c c1
d I
r = = 0.577350d r =
3 A
d(b + b1)
TRIANGLE TRAPEZOID A =
Axis of Moments Through bd Axis of Moments Through 2
A =
Center of Gravity
2
Center of Gravity d(2b + b1)
c =
2d 3(b + b1)
c =
3 d3 (b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
I =
bd3 36(b + b1)
I =
36 d2 (b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
bd2 S =
S = 12(2b + b1)
24
d
d r= 2(b2 + 4bb1 + b12 )
r = 6(b + b1)
18
R4 y1
TRIANGLE PARTIAL CIRCLE I = + (R2 y12 )3
Axis of Moments on Base bd Axis of Moments Through 8 2
A = Circle Center
2 R2 1 y1
y1 R2 y12 + R2 sin
c =d 4 R
3 Note: Angles in Radians.
bd
I =
12 R2
A = y1 R 2 y12
bd2 2
S =
12 y1
d R2 sin 1
r = R
6 2(R 2 y12 )3 / 2
c =
3A
SEGMENT OF A HOLLOW 180sin t
t
CIRCLE A = ( 2R t ) c= cos R
2
180
3
360sin2 t
Ix = + sin (cos ) R t
180 2
Iy = sin (cos ) R3 t
180
180 sin t
y = R Note: Angles in degrees.
2


d2
CIRCLE A = = R2 PARABOLA
4
Axis of Moments Through 4 A = ab
Center
d 3
c = =R 2
2 m = a
5
d4 R 4
I = = 16 3
64 4 I1 = a b
175
d3 R3 4
S = =
32 4 I2 = ab3
15
d R 32 3
r = = I3 = a b
4 2 105
2
HOLLOW CIRCLE HALF PARABOLOA A = ab
Axis of Moments Through Center 3
(d2 d12 ) 2
A = m = a
4 5
d 3
c = n = b
2 8
(d4 d14 ) 8 3
I = I1 = a b
64 175
(d d14 )
4
19
S = I2 = ab3
32d 480
d2 d12 16 3
I3 = a b
r = 105
4
2
I4 = ab3
15
t 1
PARABOLIC FILLET a = COMPLEMENT OF HALF A = ab
IN RIGHT ANGLE 2 2 PARABOLA 3
t 7
b = m = a
2 10
1 2 3
A = t n = b
6 4
4 37 3
m =n= t I1 = a b
5 2100
11 4 1
I1 = I2 = t I2 = ab3
2100 80


HALF ELLIPSE
(1)
ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT
(1) A = ab 1
4
a
m =
1 6 1
A = ab 4
2
4a b
m = n =
3 6 1
8 4
I1 = a3 b
8 9
1 1 1
I2 = ab3 I 1 = a3 b
8 3 16
36 1
1 3 4
I3 = a b
8
1 1
I2 = ab3
3 16
36 1
4
QUARTER ELLIPSE
(1)
REGULAR POLYGON n = number of sides
180o
=
n
1 a = 2 R2 R12
A = ab
4 a
R =
4a 2 sin
m =
3 a
R1 =
4b 2 tan
n =
3 1
4 A = na2 cot
I1 = a3 b 4
16 9 1
= nR2 sin2 = nR12 tan
4 2
I2 = ab3
16 9 A(6R 2 a2 )
I1 = I2 =
1 3 24
I3 = a b
16 A(12R12 + a2 )
1 =
I4 = ab3 48
16
6R 2 a2
r1 = r2 =
24
12R1 + a2
=
48
(1) To obtain properties of half circles, quarter circle and circular complement, substitute a = b = R.


BEAMS AND CHANNELS
2
I3 = Ix sin + Iy cos2
I4 = Ix cos2 + Iy sin 2
y x
fb = M sin + cos
Ix Iy
Where M is bending moment due to force F.
2K
tan2 =
ANGLE Iy Ix
axis of moments though center of gravity
b2 + ct d2 + at
A = t(b + c) x= y=
2(b + c) 2(b + c)
K = product of inertia about X-X & Y-Y
abcdt
= ±
4(b + c)
1
Ix = [t(d y)3 + by3 a(y t)3 ]
3
1
Iy = [t(b x)3 + dx3 c(x t)3 ]
3
Iz = Ix sin2 + Iy cos2 + K sin2
Iw = Ix cos2 + Iy sin2 K sin2
K is negative when heel of angle, with respect to center of

Note: Z-Z is Axis of Minimum I gravity, is in first or third quadrant, positive when in second
or fourth quadrant.


3
SECTION PLASTIC MODULUS, Z3 , mm SHAPE FACTOR
bh 2
1.5
4
x-x axis
w 1.12 (approx.)
bt(h t) + (h 2t)2
4
y-y axis
b t (h 2t)w 2
2
+ 1.55 (approx.)
2 4
w(h 2t)2
bt(h t) + 1.12 (approx.)
4
h3
1.70
6
3
2t
3 1 1
h3 2t 16 h
1 1 4
6 h 3 2t
1 1
2
th for t << h h
1.27 for t << h
2
bh2 2w 2t
1 1 1 1.12 (approx.) for thin walls
4 b h
bh2
2
12
Note: For other shapes, refer to the CISC Steel Design Handbook for Zs values.
Figure 8.4.2 Plastic section moduli and shape factors

8.5 METRIC UNITS
Quantity Preferred Units Description Base Units

Area mm Square Millimetre
Coefficient of thermal expansion 1/Deg°C Reciprical of Degree Celsius
Density, mass kg/m Kilogram per Cubic Metre
Electric current A Ampere
Energy, work, quantity of heat J Joule 1 J = Nm
Force N Newton 1 N = kg-m/s
1 kg/m x 9.81 m/s
Force per unit length N/m Newton per Metre = (9.81 kg)(m)/(s )(1)/m
= 9.81 N/m
Frequency Hz Hertz 1 Hz = 1/s
Heat Capacity J/K Joule per Kelvin (m )(kg)/(s )(K)
Length mm Millimetre 1000 mm = 1 m
m Metre 1 km = 1000 m
km Kilometre
µm Micrometre 1µm = 1x10-6 m
Luminous intensity cd Candela
Mass kg Kilogram 1000 kg = 1 tonne
t Tonne
2
Modulus of Elasticity MPa Megapascal 1 MPa = 1 N/mm
3
Modulus, section mm Cubic Millimetre
4
Moment of inertia mm Millimetre to Fourth Power
Moment of force Nm Newton Metre (m )(kg)/s
Plane angle deg ° 1° = ( /180)rad
minute ‘ 1' = ( /10,800)rad
Power W Watt 1 W = 1 J/s = (m )(kg)/s
Pressure Pa Pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m
3
Specific volume m /kg Cubic Metre per Kilogram
Stress MPa Megapascal 1 MPa = 1 N/mm
Temperature °C Degree Celsius
Thermal conductivity W/m°C Watt per Metre Celsius (m )(kg)/(s )(°C)
Thermodynamic temperature K Kelvin 0°C = 273.15 Kelvin
Time S Second
Min Minute 1 min = 60 s
H Hour 1 h = 3600 s
Torque kN-m Kilonewton Metre
3
Volume m Cubic Metre
3
mm Cubic Millimetre
Figure 8.5.1 SI base units

8.5 Metric units continued
Item SI - Imperial Imperial - SI

Acceleration 1 m / s = 3.2808 ft/s 1f t/s = 0.3048 m/s
Area 1 ha = 2.471 acres 1 acre = 0.4047 ha
1 m = 10.764 ft 1 ft = 0.0929 m
-3
1 mm = 1.55 x 10 in 1 in = 645.2 mm
2
1 km = 0.3861 mi 1 mi = 2.590 km
1 m = 1.20 yd 1 yd = 0.8361 m
-3
Capacity 1 mL = 35.2x10 oz 1 oz = 28.41 mL
(Canadian Legal Units) 1 L = 0.220 gal 1 gal = 4.546 L
1 L = 1.76 pt 1 pt = 0.5683 L
1 L = 0.880 qt 1 qt = 1.137 L
Density, Mass 1 kg / m = 0.672 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.488 kg/m
1 kg / m = 2.016 lb/yd 1 lb/ft = 0.4961 kg/m
-3
1 g / m = 3.227x10 oz/ft 1 oz/ft = 305.2 g/m
1 kg / m = 0.205 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 4.882 kg/m
-3
1 kg / m = 1.42x10 lb/in 1 lb/in = 703.1 kg/m
-3
1 kg / m = 62.4x10 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 16.02 kg/m
1 Mg / m = 0.0361 lb/in 1 lb/in = 27.68 Mg/m
Force 1 kN = 0.225 kip 1 kip = 4.448 kN
Length 1 m = 3.28 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 304.8 mm
1 mm = 0.0394 in 1 in = 25.4 mm
1 km = 0.622 mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
1 m = 1.09 yd 1 yd = 0.9144 m
Mass 1 kg = 2.20 lb 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 Mg = 1.10 ton = 2200lb 1 ton (2000 lb) = 0.9072 Mg
Mass per Unit Area 1 kg/m = 0.205 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 4.882 kg/m
Mass per unit length 1 kg/m = 0.672 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 1.488 kg/m
Moment of Inertia
a) Second Moment of area 1 mm4 = 2.4x10- 6 in 4 1 in4= 416231.4 mm4
3 -3 3
b) Section Modulus 1 mm = 0.06x10 in 1 in = 16387.1 mm
Pressure or Stress 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
1 Pa = 0.0209 psf 1 psf = 47.88 Pa
1 kPa = 0.145 psi 1 psi = 6.895 kPa
Torque or Moment of Force 1 kN-m = 0.738 k-ft 1 k-ft = 1.356 kN-m
-3
Volume 1 mm = 0.061x10 in 1 in = 16387.1 mm
1 dm = 0.0353 ft 1 ft = 28.32 dm
1 m = 1.308 yd 1 yd = 0.7646 m
1 L = 0.2199 gal (Can) 1 gal (Can) = 4.546 L
3
1 m = 219.9 gal (Can)
Figure 8.5.2 Conversion factors


INDEX
A Bearing................. 1-3, 1-11, 1-9–1-13, 1-51, 1-59, 1-66, 1-73, 1-85,
Absorption.......................... 2-69, 5-30–5-32, 6-10, 6-19, 6-29–6-30, ......................................2-8, 2-10, 2-16, 2-17, 2-20, 2-22, 2-24, 2-27,
.................................................................................... 6-37, 6-70, 6-74 .......................................2-49, 2-61, 2-76, 2-88, 2-102, 2-103, 2-108,
Acceptable noise criteria.................................................................... ........................... 2-110, 2-111, 3-5, 3-10, 3-94, 3-100, 3-103, 3-107,
Aggregate................................ 2-3, 2-4, 2-14, 2-15, 2-107, 3-3, 3-6, ...............................3-110, 3-112, 3-119, 3-121, 3-126, 3-128, 3-129,
............................................. 3-7, 3-38, 3-41, 3-77, 3-79, 3-87, 3-117, ................................................ 3-131, 3-156, 3-160, 3-162, 4-3–4-11,
.......................................................3-129, 5-3, 5-17, 5-22, 5-26, 6-35, ................. 4-13–4-18, 4-22, 4-23 4-27, 4-32, 4-35, 4-57, 4-60, 4-61,
............................................. 3-36, 6-40, 6-41, 6-49, 6-65, 6-69, 6-70, ....................................4-66, 4-67, 4-69, 4-71, 4-72, 4-80, 4-83, 4-85,
...........................................................................6-74, 6-76, 6-77, 6-79 ........................................5-3, 5-7–5-10, 5-12–5-16, 5-30, 5-34, 6-25,
Air / Vapour barrier..................... 5-4, 5-17, 5-29, 6-5, 6-6–6-7, 6-17 ............................... 6-37–6-38, 6-40, 6-44, 6-56, 6-72, 6-85, 7-6, 7-7
Air barrier................................................................ 5-4, 6-5–6-7, 6-17 Bearing pads......................... 4-9–4-11, 4-14, 4-15, 4-18, 4-27, 4-85
Air entrainment............................................................................ 1-72 Bilinear behavior.......................................................................... 3-69
Air leakage........................................................................6-3, 6-5–6-9 Bolts—Coil................................................................................... 4-80
Air space.............................. 5-15–5-18, 5-25, 6-11, 6-15, 6-22, 6-41 Bolts—High-strength......................................4-79, 4-80, 8-47, 8-48
Airborne sound.................... 6-3, 6-19, 6-21, 6-22–6-24, 6-26, 6-28, Bolts—Standard.......................................................................... 4-79
...........................................................................6-30–6-32, 6-89, 6-90 Bolts cast-in—See anchor rods
Aircraft cable.............................................................................. 3-116 Bond lifting loops...................................................................... 3-116
Aluminum foil............................................................................... 5-17 Bond, Bond breakers..................1-69, 1-74, 1-75, 1-77, 1-80, 1-82,
Analysis...................... 5-8, 5-9, 5-28, 6-3, 6-8, 6-9, 6-19, 6-57, 6-36, .......................................1-84–1-87, 2-107–2-109, 3-61, 3-167, 4-56,
.................................................. 6-66, 6-69, 6-72, 6-80, 6-90, 7-4, 7-5 ................................................................. 4-78, 5-10, 5-17, 5-25–5-30
Anchor rods............................................................... 4-71, 4-72, 4-80 Bowing........................................2-18–2-20, 3-71, 2-123, 3-128, 5-6,
................................................ 5-8–5-10, 5-13, 5-16–5-18, 5-22, 5-25
Anchorage elements............................. 4-31, 4-71, 4-73, 4-78, 4-80
Brackets—Concrete ................................................................... 4-18
Anchorage, Anchors.......................1-75, 1-84, 1-85, 2-5, 2-6, 2-78,
Brackets—Steel.................................................4-7, 4-55, 4-56, 6-56
............................................. 2-87, 2-88, 2-96, 2-110, 2-111, 3-4–3-9,
Brick............................1-17, 1-30, 1-65, 2-70, 5-20, 5-24, 5-29–5-33,
...................................................3-30, 3-35, 3-86, 3-94, 3-136–3-140,
................................................................. 6-21, 6-24, 6-35, 6-81–6-83
.......................................................3-156–3-167, 4-3–4-5, 4-20, 4-21,
Brick liners..................................................................................... 5-29
.......................................................4-25, 4-26, 4-30–4-35, 4-41, 4-42,
Bronze........................................................................................... 5-30
.......................................................4-45–4-49, 4-56, 4-73, 5-17, 5-20,
Buckling.........................1-71, 3-61, 3-100, 3-102, 3-119, 4-66, 4-72
................................................................. 5-25, 5-26, 5-28, 5-31, 8-36
Building envelope..................... 1-9, 1-18, 1-53, 1-64, 2-9, 5-3, 5-6,
Angles..........................................3-87, 3-140, 4-31, 4-56, 4-65, 5-21
................................................... 5-17, 5-22, 5-24, 6-3–6-5, 6-7–6-10,
Architectural aesthetics..................................................................5-3
.................................................................................... 6-18, 6-80, 6-89
Architectural panel............................................1-14, 2-7, 6-66, 2-67
Building science..................................5-3, 5-4, 5-17, 5-34, 6-5, 6-89
B
Backup.................................................... 1-85, 5-25, 5-26, 5-28, 5-33
C
Camber................................... 1-23, 2-22, 3-3, 3-7, 3-35, 3-58, 3-67,
Balance point............................................................................... 3-95
.......................................3-68, 3-71–3-73, 3-76, 3-119, 3-122, 3-136,
Balanced design—Fire............................................................... 6-44
........................................................3-166, 3-167, 7-3–7-6, 8-28, 8-29
Base plates.......................................................1-50, 1-73, 2-26, 4-69
Camber multipliers...................................................................... 3-72
Base shear ............................................. 2-4, 2-69, 2-96, 2-97, 2-104
Cambers load tables......................................................................7-3
Beam design...................................2-21, 3-54–3-56, 4-22, 8-7, 8-25
Cantilevers............................ 1-8, 1-36, 1-41, 1-45, 1-85, 1-119, 2-8,
Beam ledges ..................................................................................4-2
............................. 2-48, 2-53, 2-104, 2-106, 2-111, 3-62, 3-63, 3-71,
Beam load tables................................................................7-30–7-46 ...................................3-127, 3-128, 4-3, 4-21, 4-22, 4-30, 4-61, 5-11
Capacity design........................................................................... 2-67
CPCI Design Manual 4 INDEX-1

INDEX
Carbon content ........................................................................... 1-78 Compression elements—Resistance factors........................... 3-94

Carbon equivalent...................................................... 1-75, 4-4, 4-74 Compression elements—Wall panels.................................... 3-104
Cast-in bolts—See anchor rods Compressive strength of concrete.................1-4, 1-66, 1-69–1-71,
Caulking, Caulked................................. 1-17, 1-31, 5-22, 5-28, 6-29 ................................................. 1-79, 1-84, 1-89, 2-3, 2-107, 3-4, 4-4,
Cement..........................1-6, 1-8, 1-45, 1-66, 1-68–1-80, 1-87–1-89, ............................. 6-65, 6-74, 6-35, 6-37, 6-45, 6-47, 7-2, 7-61, 8-32
.........................................2-11, 2-14, 2-107, 2-108, 2-111, 3-6, 4-78, Computer modeling................................................................... 6-69
........................... 5-18, 5-25, 6-65–6-70, 6-72, 6-73, 6-75–6-79, 6-91
Concrete exposure classes........................................................ 1-69
Cement grout .....................................................................1-74, 4-78
Concrete materials...................................................................... 1-68
Cementitious materials......................... 1-68, 1-79, 5-18, 6-41, 6-70
Concrete mix design............................................................5-4, 6-73
Centre of rigidity.............................2-3, 2-49, 2-52, 2-53, 2-65, 2-96
Concrete strengths—Load tables................................................7-5
Ceramic veneers.......................................................................... 5-24
Condensation......................................................6-3, 6-7, 6-11, 6-15
Checklist................................................................................... 5-3, 5-7
Confinement reinforcement.........................4-17, 4-41, 4-46, 4-47,
Chloroprene pads................................................................4-9, 4-10
................................................................................... 4-72, 4-74, 4-78,
Cladding, Cladding elements................ 1-3, 1-9, 1-16, 1-31, 1-44,
Connections—Fire.........................................................................4-7
................................................. 1-51, 1-64, 1-88, 2-6–2-8, 2-88–2-90,
................................................ 3-147, 2-155, 5-3, 5-8, 5-15, 5-18, 6-7 Construction techniques....................................................... 4-7, 4-8
Clay, Clay products................ 1-49, 1-65, 1-72, 2-4, 2-5, 5-29–5-32, Contraction........................................1-22, 1-71, 2-9, 2-10, 5-7, 5-20
...........................................................................6-35, 6-36, 6-65, 6-66 Conversion factors....................................................................... 8-59
Cleavage..............................................................................5-25, 5-26 Copper.......................................................................................... 5-30
Closed joints.............................................................................. 2-107 Corbels............................1-24, 1-40, 4-3, 4-4, 4-18–4-22, 4-48, 4-85
Coefficients of expansion........................................................... 2-16 Corners.....................2-17, 2-18, 2-102, 4-80, 4-45, 5-10, 5-11, 5-22
Coefficients of friction................................................................. 4-11 Corners—Movement.................................................................. 2-17
Colour........................1-16, 1-17, 1-32, 1-45, 1-48–1-50, 1-64, 1-65, Cornices...........................................................................................5-3
............................ 1-69, 1-70, 1-78, 2-7, 2-108, 2-109, 5-3, 5-5, 5-22, Corrosion protections....................4-7, 5-29, 5-30, 6-70, 6-73, 6-75
.......................................5-24–5-26, 5-30, 5-33, 6-9, 6-67, 6-69, 6-76 Coupled shear walls...........................................................2-53, 2-54
Column bases...................... 1-35, 1-73, 2-9, 2-23, 2-24, 2-28–2-30, Couplers................................. 1-86, 2-103, 2-109, 2-110, 3-30, 4-84
.............................................. 2-36, 2-37, 2-39, 2-41, 4-69, 4-70, 4-80 Cover requirements................................................. 1-76, 1-85, 4-60
Column covers..................................................5-8, 5-12, 5-24, 6-56, Crack width................1-70, 3-7, 3-28, 3-52, 3-57, 3-58, 3-60, 3-118,
Column design............................................................................ 2-27 ..................................................................... 3-166, 5-8, 5-10, 7-3, 7-5
Column load tables............................................................7-47–7-50 Cracks, Cracking, Crack control....................1-22, 1-23, 1-57, 1-61,
Columns—Eccentrically loaded............................. 2-37, 2-38, 4-35 .............................. 1-63, 1-70, 1-74, 1-76, 1-79, 1-80, 1-84, 2-4, 2-8,
Columns—Fixed base.......................................................2-23–2-29 ............................................. 2-17–2-19, 2-23, 2-30, 2-40, 2-41, 2-54,
Columns—Interaction curves................ 3-94, 3-95, 7-6, 7-47–7-50 ......................................2-70, 2-110, 3-3–3-8, 3-28–3-30, 3-33, 3-35,
Columns—Precast prestressed..........................................7-6, 7-47 .......................... 3-52, 3-57, 3-60, 3-62, 3-67, 3-69, 3-72, 3-74, 3-75,
Columns—Precast reinforced..........................7-6, 4-49, 7-50, 7-54 .................................... 3-77, 3-87, 3-88, 3-100, 3-103, 3-109, 3-115,
Complex units—Shapes......................... 5-3, 5-12, 5-25, 5-28, 5-29 ...................................3-117–3-123, 3-127, 3-128, 3-166, 3-167, 4-2,
Composite, Non-composite......1-18, 1-23, 1-34, 1-61, 1-62, 1-64, .............................. 4-5–4-7, 4-12–4-16, 4-21, 4-27, 4-28, 4-30, 4-31,
....................................1-66, 1-71, 1-79, 1-88, 1-89, 2-18, 2-22, 2-61, ...................................4-33, 4-35, 4-41–4-44, 4-46, 4-48, 4-49, 4-62,
.............................. 2-89, 3-3, 3-4, 3-26, 3-31, 3-37–3-39, 3-44–3-51, ..........................................4-74, 5-4, 5-5, 5-8, 5-10, 5-17, 5-22, 6-26,
............................. 3-76, 3-79, 3-83, 3-85, 3-86, 3-107, 3-127–3-131, ................................................................... 6-29, 6-38, 6-73, 7-5, 7-61
........................................5-3, 5-4, 5-16–5-18, 5-20, 5-25, 5-29, 6-25,
........................................6-28, 6-49, 6-72, 6-74, 7-3, 7-5, 7-36, 7-38,
...........................................................................7-40, 7-42, 7-44, 7-46
Compression elements—Design.................2-39, 3-5, 3-96, 3-100,
................................................................................ 3-103, 3-10, 3-107
INDEX-2 CPCI Design Manual 5

INDEX
Creep...........................1-31, 1-71, 1-72, 1-83, 1-88, 1-89, 2-3, 2-16, Dovetail slots............................................................. 1-65, 5-29, 5-30
.............................. 2-40, 2-43, 2-110, 3-3, 3-7–3-9, 3-35, 3-36, 3-38, Dowels.................................................... 3-158, 4-8, 4-61, 4-63, 4-78
.......................... 3-41, 3-42, 3-44–3-48, 3-50, 3-52, 3-58–3-61, 3-73, Draft............................................................................................. 3-113
...............................3-103, 2-123, 3-124, 3-136, 3-138, 3-158, 3-166, Drift...............................2-6, 2-29, 2-40, 2-41, 2-43, 2-45, 2-75, 2-76,
.........................4-7, 4-9, 4-11, 4-77, 4-79, 4-80, 5-6, 5-7, 5-95, 5-14, .................................................................................. 2-87, 2-88, 3-103
...........................................................................5-15, 5-22, 5-25, 6-74 Dry pack.............................................................................2-106, 4-81
Creep loss............................................................................3-38–3-52 Ductile, Ductility.............................1-8, 1-66, 1-75, 1-78, 1-79, 1-82,
Creep strains....................................................2-10, 2-16, 2-17, 3-38 ............................................... 1-89, 2-5, 2-57, 2-64, 2-67–2-69, 2-73,
Critical buckling load................................................................ 3-102 ........................................... 2-75, 2-78, 2-84, 2-87, 2-88, 2-90, 2-105,
Curing.............................1-69, 1-70, 1-76, 1-87, 1-88, 2-107, 2-108, .............................................. 3-109, 4-7, 4-14, 4-27, 4-32, 5-20–5-33
...........................................3-7, 3-38, 3-40, 3-48, 5-5, 5-8, 5-16, 6-69 Durability................ 1-3, 1-8, 1-9, 1-18, 1-22, 1-23, 1-30, 1-31, 1-44,
............................................. 1-53–1-57, 1-66, 1-67–1-70, 1-74, 1-79,
D
................................ 1-82, 1-89, 2-7, 2-208, 4-6, 5-25, 6-7, 6-8, 6-30,
Dapped end............................................................ 3-167, 4-23–4-29
........................................................6-65, 6-70, 6-71, 6-73, 6-75, 6-91
Dead loads .............1-60, 1-62, 1-66, 2-24, 2-41, 2-61, 3-131, 7-36,
Dynamic analysis procedures.................................................... 2-70
.................................................. 7-38, 7-40, 7-42, 7-44, 7-46, 8-3, 8-4
Dynamic stresses............................................................3-113–3-124
Deflection....................1-71, 1-84, 2-6, 2-20, 2-29, 2-30, 2-36, 2-40,
....................................2-41, 2-43, 2-49–2-51, 2-54, 2-68–2-72, 2-75, E
........................... 2-77, 2-78, 2-88, 2-106, 2-110, 3-3, 3-8, 3-9, 3-33, Earthquake analysis..........................................................2-67, 2-105
............................... 3-35, 3-44, 3-48, 3-62, 3-67–3-76, 3-100, 3-104, Eccentrically loaded anchors.................................. 4-35, 4-42, 4-48
...............................3-107, 3-108, 3-119, 3-122, 3-123, 3-133, 3-136, Eccentricity,.............................................. 2-3, 2-24, 2-27, 2-28, 2-36,
...................................3-143, 3-147, 3-156, 3-157, 3-166, 3-167, 5-4, ........................................... 2-45, 2-65, 2-68, 2-73, 2-92, 2-96, 2-102,
.............................. 5-6–5-10, 5-14, 5-17, 6-58, 6-62, 6-64, 6-91, 7-4, ............................ 2-103, 3-4, 3-7, 3-32, 3-37, 3-44, 3-52, 3-67, 3-68,
...........................................................................7-61, 8-26, 8-28, 8-29 .................................3-75, 3-103, 3-106, 3-122, 3-128, 3-130, 3-131,
Deformation, Deflection..................5-4, 5-6–5-11, 5-14, 5-16, 5-17 ............................ 3-133–3-136, 3-147, 3-156, 4-4, 4-35, 4-42, 4-44,
Deformations (Imposed)— Also refer to “Volume Changes” for .................................................. 4-46, 4-48, 4-60, 5-8, 5-13, 5-29, 7-2
related information............................1-3, 1-71, 2-8, 2-9, 2-10, 2-16, Eccentric loading...........................................2-110, 4-35, 5-10, 5-15
................................................................. 2-98, 3-158, 4-7, 4-80, 5-14 Eccentricity, minimum............................................ 2-28, 2-45, 3-103
Deformed bar anchors.........................................................4-4, 4-56 Economy, Economical.......................1-3, 1-6, 1-7, 1-11, 1-12, 1-19,
Deformed wire material properties.......................................... 8-43 ............................................. 1-22, 1-30, 1-32, 1-34, 1-44, 1-45, 1-49,
Design temperature............. 2-10, 2-13, 2-17, 2-36, 5-17, 6-3, 6-18 .......................... 1-50, 1-53, 1-55, 1-57, 1-60, 1-64, 1-66, 1-67, 1-84,
Development length.......................1-75, 1-82, 2-3, 3-5, 3-61, 3-65, ..........................................2-7, 2-68, 2-88, 2-106, 4-7, 4-8, 5-6, 5-12,
........................................3-95, 4-4, 4-13, 4-56, 4-78, 7-6, 8-34, 8-40, ..........................................................5-24, 6-7–6-10, 6-28, 6-75, 6-75
..............................................................................................8-41, 8-43 Edge distance.....................................4-3, 4-5, 4-6, 4-33, 4-35, 4-45
Dew point.............................................................6-3, 6-5, 6-15, 6-17 Effective flange width ...................................2-49, 2-51, 2-66, 3-139
Diaphragm design................................................... 2-21–2-23, 2-96 Effective length................................2-4, 2-39, 2-40, 2-45, 3-5, 3-10,
Differential movement.......................... 2-10, 2-17, 5-16, 5-20, 5-22 .............................................................................. 3-102, 3-104, 3-107
Double tee—Load tables....................................................7-8–7-21 Effective moment of inertia................. 3-5, 3-65, 3-71, 3-75, 3-128,
Double tee—Wall panels...................................5-16, 7-6, 7-7, 7-51 ............................................................................................3-156, 6-60
Double tee wall panel load tables............................................ 7-51 Elastic shortening..........................................3-35, 3-36, 3-136, 6-60
Double wythe insulated panels.......... 1-66, 2-18, 2-49, 2-89, 2-94, Elastomeric pads........................................................ 1-59, 4-9, 6-56
............................................. 3-128, 5-3, 5-15–5-22, 5-28, 5-31, 5-33, Embedded steel shapes............................................................. 4-57
.................................................. 6-5, 6-7, 6-10, 6-11, 6-66, 6-79, 6-87 End point criteria—Fire.....................................................6-37, 3-38
Double wythe insulated panels—seismic considerations.... 2-89

INDEX
Environmental changes.............................................................. 5-20 Form suction........................................................... 3-28, 3-113, 5-20

Epoxy.................................. 1-61, 1-73, 1-74, 1-76–1-78, 1-86–1-88, Formwork....................1-41, 1-57, 1-73, 2-107, 5-5, 5-32, 6-77, 6-78
................................ 2-78, 2-107–2-110, 4-78, 5-28, 6-27, 6-76, 6-79 Freeze-thaw......................................................1-57, 1-72–1-74, 1-82
Equivalent static force procedure......................... 2-30, 2-70, 2-71, Freeze-thaw and chemical resistance....................................... 1-72
.................................................................................. 2-75, 2-94, 2-101 Friction...................................... 1-49, 1-85, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-21–2-23,
Equivalent volume change.............................2-30, 2-31, 2-34, 2-35 .......................... 2-55, 2-61, 2-64, 2-78, 2-96, 2-109, 2-110, 3-3, 3-8,
Erection..................................... 1-3, 1-6, 1-9, 1-10, 1-16, 1-19, 1-20, ...................................3-35, 3-85, 3-109, 3-134, 3-136, 3-137, 3-139,
............................................. 1-23, 1-28, 1-30, 1-45, 1-50, 1-53, 1-58, ................................... 3-145, 3-148, 3-167, 4-3, 4-4, 4-6, 4-10, 4-17,
................................................. 1-61, 1-71, 1-86, 2-7, 2-9, 2-14, 2-16, .....................................4-21, 4-22, 4-27, 4-30, 4-57, 4-61, 4-79, 4-81
................................................ 2-88, 2-92, 2-106, 2-108–2-110, 3-28, Function............... 1-10, 1-19, 1-46, 1-47, 1-50, 1-53, 1-64, 2-7, 2-8,
...................................................3-62, 3-63, 3-71, 3-94, 3-113, 3-116, ....................................2-22, 2-24, 2-80, 2-82, 3-119, 4-9, 4-74, 4-81,
........................................... 3-119, 3-124, 3-125, 4-7, 4-8, 4-22, 4-61, ...........................5-3, 5-6, 5-7, 5-12, 5-16, 5-17, 5-20, 5-21, 6-4–6-9,
..........................................4-69, 4-77, 5-3, 5-4–5-9, 5-12, 5-13, 5-18, .....................................6-36, 6-54, 6-56, 6-60, 6-65, 6-73, 6-74, 6-86
............................................................5-24, 5-25, 6-77, 6-78, 7-3, 7-7 Fundamental lateral period....................................................... 2-72
Expanded metal.......................................................................... 5-18
G
Expansion............................ 1-22, 1-23, 1-32, 1-71,1-72, 1-74, 1-79,
Galvanized steel........................................................ 1-76, 1-78, 5-20
................................ 2-2, 2-9, 2-16–2-18, 2-75, 2-78, 4-74, 4-78, 5-7,
Geometric section properties
....................................5-20, 5-25, 5-26, 5-28, 5-29, 5-31, 6-37, 6-40,
Gergely-Lutz equation................................................................ 3-28
...........................................................................6-44, 6-45, 6-53, 6-55
Girder load tables—see Beam load tables
Expansion joints...........1-24, 1-57, 2-8–2-10, 2-75, 2-11, 4-10, 6-29
Glass fibre (alkali resistant)............................................................5-3
F Glazed...................................................................................... 5-9, 6-4
Fabric bearings pads......................................................................4-9 Granite................................. 1-17, 1-65, 1-69, 1-72, 5-26, 5-28, 6-35
Facade, Facades...................... 2-69, 5-3, 5-12, 5-33, 6-2, 6-7, 6-24, Gravity loads.................................1-12, 1-64, 2-40, 2-43–2-45, 2-58,
..............................................................................................6-76, 6-83 .........................................2-70, 2-76, 2-78, 2-100, 3-6, 3-104, 3-127,
Face mixes.......................................................................................5-3 .........................................................................3-136, 4-72, 4-81, 5-14
Fillet welds...........................................................................4-74–4-76 Green building rating systems................................................... 6-68
Finish............................1-3, 1-16–1-19, 1-23, 1-28, 1-30, 1-33, 1-50, Grout .................................. 1-70, 1-73, 1-74, 1-84–1-88, 2-22, 2-23,
............................ 1-53, 1-65, 1-76, 1-79, 2-73, 3-129, 5-2, 5-3, 5-12, ........................................... 2-64, 2-65, 2-98, 2-99, 2-103, 4-78, 4-81,
.......................... 5-13, 5-15, 5-17, 5-22, 5-24, 5-26, 5-29, 5-33, 5-34, ........................................................4-84, 5-30, 6-43, 6-78, 6-79, 6-88
........................................................6-14, 6-17, 6-27, 6-67, 6-70, 6-87 Grout joints......................................... 2-21, 2-22, 2-65, 2-107, 2-108
Fire endurance.......................................................... 6-36–6-54, 6-91 Grout, Mortar, and Drypack....................................................... 1-73
Fire protection.................................................3-148, 4-7, 6-44, 6-56 Grouted tubes.............................................................................. 4-78
Fire resistance...................... 1-3, 1-16, 1-20, 1-28, 1-54, 1-63, 1-76, Grouting segmental.......................................................2-106, 2-107
................................ 1-81, 1-89, 2-7, 4-6, 5-20, 6-1, 6-35–6-37, 6-41,
H
.................................................................................... 6-48, 6-54, 6-55
Handling............................... 1-9, 1-51, 1-60, 1-69, 1-77, 1-79, 1-86,
Fire tests.............................. 6-36–6-38, 6-40, 6-43, 6-44, 6-46, 6-47,
.....................................2-107, 2-110, 3-28, 3-29, 3-94, 3-109, 3-113,
.................................................................................... 6-54, 6-55, 6-91
.......................................... 3-116, 3-117, 3-119, 3-121–3-124, 3-128,
Flare bevel groove welds........................................................... 4-76
................................ 4-8, 4-80, 5-3–5-8, 5-13–5-15, 5-17, 5-18, 5-20,
Flat wall panels....................................................................7-53, 7-54
.................................................................................... 5-25, 5-26, 6-75
Flexural design aids............................................................3-15–3-25
Hanger—Cazaly hanger......................................................4-5, 4-60
Flexural element design....................................................3-11–3-34
Hanger—Loov hanger................................................................ 4-64
Flexural element design—Openings..................................... 3-127
Hanger—Reinforcement..............................................4-3, 4-6, 4-31
Footing-soil interaction......................................................2-24–2-28

INDEX
Hardboard...........................................................................4-10, 4-11 ............................... 4-80, 4-81, 5-5, 5-6, 5-12–5-17, 5-22, 5-28,5-30,
Hauling...................................................................................1-3, 1-58 ........................................5-31, 6-6, 6-8, 6-26, 6-29, 6-43, 6-75, 6-78,
Haunches—Concrete .......................................................4-17–4-22 ................................................................. 6-79, 6-91, 8-47, 8-48, 8-50
Haunches—Steel.................................................4-3, 4-5, 4-57, 4-59 Joints—Connections.........................................1-18, 4-80, 4-81, 6-8
Headed studs........................ 2-56, 4-4, 4-12, 4-13, 4-31–4-56, 4-85 Joints—Horizontal.................................................... 4-81, 4-13, 5-12
High Performance Concrete (HPC)................1-8, 1-54, 1-66, 1-66, Joints—Vertical................................................1-73, 2-49, 2-98, 4-80
.............................................. 1-67, 1-69, 1-79, 1-82, 1-87–1-89, 6-65 Joints—Earthquake............................................................2-75, 2-87
Highway girders load tables—See Beam load tables Joints—Expansion................................. 2-9, 2-10, 2-75, 2-111, 4-10
Highway noise barriers............................................................... 6-29 Joints—Fire.................................................................................. 6-43
Hollowcore load tables......................................................7-23–7-26 Joints—Locations.................................................................2-9, 2-10
Hollowcore section properties.........................................7-23–7-26 Joints—Segmental.........................................................2-106–2-110
Hollowcore wall panel load tables............................................ 7-52

L
Horizontal shear.............................2-61, 2-64, 2-88, 3-5, 3-85, 3-86,
Lateral buckling...............................................................3-119–3-123
......................................................3-109, 3-127, 3-131, 3-132, 3-166,
Lateral deflection ......2-6, 2-43, 2-75, 2-78, 3-8, 3-122, 2-123, 5-14
.................................................................................... 4-81, 5-20, 6-29
Lateral load connections................................2-50, 2-56, 2-77, 2-87
Humidity annual average........................................................... 2-12
Lateral loads.....................................1-7, 1-9, 1-10, 1-11, 1-20, 1-64,
Hydration.......................................1-89, 2-11, 5-16, 6-69, 6-70, 6-76
............................ 2-6,– 2-8, 2-21–2-24, 2-40, 2-43–2-45, 2-48–2-50,
I .....................................2-53, 2-54, 6-67, 2-104, 2-111, 3-104, 3-107,
Impact factors.............................................................................. 3-13 ..........................................3-127, 3-129, 4-81, 5-12–5-16, 5-31, 6-54
Impact Insulation Class (IIC)..........................6-19, 6-22, 6-23, 6-25, Lateral period.....................................................2-5, 2-72, 2-73, 2-95
.................................................................................... 6-30, 6-26, 6-90 Lateral stability.................................... 2-23, 2-24, 2-37, 2-41, 3-118,
Importance factors .............................................3-5, 3-8, 3-10, 3-11 ................................................................................ 3-21, 3-122, 3-166
Insulation.....................1-32, 1-66, 2-5, 2-89, 2-94, 5-14, 5-16–5-18, Ledger beams.............................................................................. 6-40
......................................5-20, 5-22, 5-24, 5-25, 5-28, 5-31, 6-6–6-11, Ledges.................................................................................1-31, 4-29
.......................... 6-14–6-19, 6-26, 6-27, 6-30, 6-40, 6-41, 6-66, 6-71, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)...........................1-18, 6-3, 6-65, 6-66,
...........................................................................6-74, 6-79, 6-89, 6-91 ................................................................. 6-68, 6-69, 6-71, 6-80, 6-83
Insulated........... 1-18, 1-28, 1-30–1-32, 1-37, 1-40, 1-45 1-51, 1-53, Life Cycle Cost (LCC)........................................6-4, 6-66, 6-68, 6-71
..................................1-64, 1-66, 2-17–2-19, 2-49, 2-89, 2-94, 3-107, Lifting inserts...................................................................................4-8
.......................................5-3, 5-12, 5-15, 5-17, 5-20,5-22, 5-28, 5-31, Lifting loops......................................................... 3-116, 3-117, 2-119
................................................. 5-33, 6-5–6-7, 6-10, 6-11, 6-66, 6-79, Limestone........................... 1-65, 1-68, 1-69, 1-72, 1-79, 5-20, 5-26,
...........................................................................6-81–6-83, 6-87, 6-89 .................................................................................... 5-28, 6-35, 6-65
Interaction of tension and shear................................................ 4-49 Limit states design..........................................................................4-8
Interaction—Sandwich panels......................................3-128–3-132 Live loads.............................. 1-62, 2-20, 2-37, 2-41, 3-6, 3-31, 3-52,
Interaction curves............................... 3-94, 3-95, 3-97–3-99, 3-110, .........................................3-67, 3-73, 3-152, 3-157, 4-7, 5-8, 8-5, 8-6
.........................................................................3-112, 7-6, 7-47, –7-54 Load bearing.................1-3, 1-9, 1-11, 1-19, 1-28, 1-31, 1-33, 1-47,
Interaction, Shear wall-frame..................................................... 2-48 ....................................1-51, 1-66, 2-10, 2-16, 2-17, 2-49, 2-61, 2-88,
Inverted tee load table......................................................7-31, 7-32 ............................................ 2-102, 3-10, 3-100, 3-103, 3-107, 3-126,
........................................... 3-128, 3-129, 3-131, 4-80, 5-3, 5-8–5-10,
J ................................................................... 5-13, 5-16, 6-25, 6-72, 7-6
Joint design.....................................................................................6-8 Load bearing walls—Connections............................................ 4-80
Joints...................... 1-6, 1-7, 1-9, 1-17, 1-22–1-24, 1-31, 1-53, 1-57, Load distribution................................ 2-48, 2-49, 2-50, 2-54, 3-125,
.......................... 1-60, 1-61, 1-63, 1-80, 1-71–1-73, 1-76, 1-82, 1-86, ................................................................................ 3-126, 3-166, 4-55
......................................2-8–2-10, 2-16, 2-21–2-23, 2-49, 2-57, 2-70, Load factors............................. 2-99, 3-10, 3-128, 4-8, 4-12, 7-4, 7-6
............................. 2-88, 2-98, 2-104–2-11, 3-126, 3-158, 4-10, 4-13, Load multipliers......................................................................... 3-113

INDEX
Location of connections............................................................. 2-88 Non-load bearing................................. 1-66, 2-10, 2-17, 2-49, 2-88,
Loss of prestress...........................3-35, 3-37–3-40,3-43, 3-48, 3-49, ............................................. 3-10, 3-128–3-131, 4-80, 5-3, 5-8–5-10,
.................................................................................. 3-71, 3-72, 3-136 .................................................................................... 5-14, 5-15, 6-25
Losses load tables..........................................................................7-6 Non-load bearing walls—Connections................. 2-49, 2-88, 4-80
Low relaxation strand........................... 3-13, 3-18, 3-21, 3-23, 3-30, Non-structural components................... 2-17, 2-86, 3-67, 6-63, 7-5
.................................................................. 3-35, 3-39, 3-147,6-54, 7-6
O
Low-permeability concrete........................................................ 1-76
Open joints................................................................................. 2-106
L-shaped beam load table................................................7-33, 7-34
Openings.............................. 1-9, 1-32, 2-23, 2-48, 2-50, 2-54, 2-69,
M ........................... 2-75, 2-88, 2-96, 2-98, 3-124, 3-127, 3-166–3-168,
Maintenance..............1-17, 1-31, 1-44, 1-47, 1-48, 150, 1-51, 1-55, ............................ 4-79, 5-10, 5-13, 5-21, 5-22, 5-29, 6-7, 6-26, 6-29,
.............................. 1-57–1-60, 1-63, 1-87, 5-5–5-7, 5-24, 5-34, 6-30, ...........................................................................6-41–6-44, 6-85, 6-86
.............................................. 6-44, 6-67–6-70, 6-74, 6-79, 6-82, 6-83
P
Manufacturing...................... 1-9, 1-14, 1-15, 1-18, 1-20, 1-23, 1-31,
Partial fixity.................................................................................... 2-24
....................................1-51, 1-57, 1-58, 1-69, 1-80, 2-88, 2-94, 3-11,
Partial prestressing...................................................................... 3-52
........................................3-28, 3-113, 4-7, 5-7, 5-8, 5-12, 5-13, 5-26,
Partial shear cones....................................................................... 4-32
....................................5-29, 6-66, 6-69, 6-70, 6-72, 6-74, 6-76, 6-77,
Patching...............................................................................5-24, 5-33
.................................................................................... 6-80, 6-83, 6-86
P-delta analysis ........................................................................... 2-40
Marble.................................. 1-65, 1-69, 1-72, 5-26, 5-28, 5-33, 5-34
Permeability, Permeance...............................1-69, 1-70, 1-76, 1-82,
Masonry.................................. 1-30, 1-48, 1-65, 1-71, 2-3, 2-8, 2-48,
................................................................... 5-29, 6-4, 6-65, 6-70, 6-73
............................................. 2-70, 5-15, 5-16, 5-18, 5-20, 5-29, 5-30,
Pervious/Impervious...........................................................5-15, 5-16
.................................................................................... 6-25–6-29, 6-90
Piles....................................... 1-5, 1-15, 1-52, 1-57, 1-59, 2-76, 2-77,
Mass law........................................................................................ 6-20
...................................3-109–3-111, 3-168, 6-74, 7-3, 7-7, 7-55, 7-56
Mechanical connections............................................................. 6-21
Piles—Load tables..............................................................7-55, 7-56
Mitred corners.............................................................................. 5-22
Plain concrete bearing.......................................................4-13, 4-14
Mockups..............................................................................1-18, 5-24
Plastic bearing strip..................................................................... 4-10
Modeling.......... 1-20, 1-65, 2-23, 2-54, 2-70, 3-94, 4-27, 6-69, 6-82
Plastic section modulii................................................................ 8-57
Modulus of elasticity.....................1-71, 1-74, 2-3, 2-18, 2-31, 2-36,
Poisson’s ratio............................................................ 1-71, 5-30, 5-31
.........................................3-4, 3-39, 4-4, 5-25, 5-26, 5-30, 5-31, 8-32
Porous............................................4-18, 5-20, 5-25, 6-21, 6-27, 6-29
Modulus of rupture.............. 1-70, 3-4, 3-29, 3-69, 3-127, 4-4, 5-26
Post-tensioned bar...................................................................... 4-84
Moisture........................................1-31, 1-51, 1-70, 1-76, 2-11, 2-18,
Post-tensioning..............................1-6, 1-41, 1-49, 1-60–1-63, 1-74,
............................................5-7–5-9, 5-26, 5-28, 5-31, 5-32, 6-5–6-8,
.....................................1-84–1-86, 1-88, 2-103, 2-106, 2-108–2-111,
.............................................. 6-17, 6-40, 6-41, 6-66, 6-73, 6-74, 6-89
........................................3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 3-10, 3-30, 3-31, 3-35, 3-121,
Moisture barrier........................................................................... 5-26
...............................3-123, 3-133–3-141, 3-144, 3-147, 3-152, 3-157,
Moment connections............................. 1-84, 2-8, 2-24, 2-41, 2-45,
............................................................. 3-158, 3-160, 5-10, 8-33, 8-36
...........................................................................2-47, 2-48, 4-77, 6-73
Post-tensioning material properties................................8-36, 8-37
Moment of inertia sandwich panels
Post-tensioning anchor data.............................................8-36, 8-37
Moment-resisting frames.................... 2-21–2-23, 2-29, 2-30, 2-68,
Post-tensioning bar properties.................................................. 8-33
..............................................................................................2-71, 2-72
Post-tensions—Segmental..............................................1-85, 2-109
Mullions................................................. 2-29, 3-107, 3-108, 5-2, 5-13
Precast openings......................................................................... 6-86
N Preliminary analysis ........................1-9, 1-10, 2-7–2-9, 2-103, 2-105
Neoprene bearing pads................................................................4-9
Nodal zones.......................... 4-4, 4-17–4-19, 4-23, 4-25, 4-26, 4-29

INDEX
Prestress loss........................ 1-80, 1-84, 2-14, 3-5–3-38, 3-42–3-45, Rain penetration............................................................5-15, 6-3, 6-5
................................................. 3-48, 3-52, 3-62, 3-138, 3-140, 3-166 Rainscreen.......................................................................................6-8
Prestress transfer..........2-14, 3-4, 3-13, 3-30, 3-39, 3-41, 3-61, 3-90 Rational design for fire................................................................ 6-54
Prestress, Prestressed.....1-3–1-7, 1-9, 1-10, 1-14–1-16, 1-22, 1-23, Rectangular beam load table.................................................... 7-30
.......................................................1-29–1-31, 1-33, 1-41, 1-44, 1-47, Reinforced concrete bearing..................................................... 4-15
............................................. 1-48, 1-51, 1-52, 1-54, 1-55, 1-57, 1-63, Reinforcement...............1-6, 1-9, 1-15, 1-23, 1-52, 1-58, 1-60–1-62,
........................................1-66, 1-68–1-70, 1-82, 1-84–1-89, 2-4, 2-7, ....................1-66, 1-70–1-77, 1-80, 1-84, 1-85,1-87, 2-3, 2-22, 2-23,
....................................2-13–2-15, 2-23, 2-34, 2-36, 2-41, 2-48, 2-68, ........................2-64, 2-87, 2-88, 2-97, 2-103–2-105, 2-110, 3-3–3-8,
....................................2-107–2-11, 3-3–3-14, 3-16, 3-18, 3-19–3-12, .......................... 3-10–3-14, 3-18–3-32, 3-35–3-44, 3-47, 3-52, 3-53,
....................................3-35–3-50, 3-52, 3-53, 3-58–3-62, 3-67–3-69, ............................................. 3-57–3-61, 3-67, 3-69, 3-72, 3-77–3-79,
.....................3-71–3-74, 3-78, 3-79, 3-8–90, 3-94-3-97, 3-99, 3-100, ...................................3-81, 3-85–3-109, 3-113, 3-117, 3-118, 2-124,
...................3-103, 3-105, 3-109, 3-112, 3-119, 3-128, 3-131–3-154, ..................................3-128, 3-129–132, 3-136, 3-139, 3-143–3-147,
............................... 3-158, 3-160, 3-163–3-168, 4-4, 4-31, 5-4, 5-10, .......................................3-151–3-154, 3-158, 3-160–3-165, 4-3–4-7,
.......................... 5-16, 5-18, 5-29, 5-34, 6-35, 6-37, 6-38, 6-40, 6-45, ................ 4-12–4-23, 4-27–4-30, 4-33, 4-41, 4-42, 4-46, 4-47, 4-57,
....................................6-49, 6-53, 6-55, 6-54, 6-62, 6-66, 6-72, 6-73, ........................................4-60–4-65, 4-72–4-74, 4-78, 4-81, 5-4, 5-5,
.............................. 6-74, 6-79, 6-84, 6-88, 6-91, 7-1–7-7, 7-36, 7-40, ....................................5-10, 5-14, 5-17, 5-18, 5-20, 5-25, 5-30, 6-35,
....................................7-42, 7-44, 7-46, 7-47, 7-48, 7-51, 7-53, 7-55, ............................................. 6-38, 6-44–6-46, 6-49–6-55, 6-69–6-78,
.................................................................................... 7-56, 8-28, 8-29 ..................................................................... 7-2–7-6, 7-49, 7-54, 7-61
Prestressing steel material properties.............................8-33–8-35 Reinforcement ratio..........................3-9, 3-12, 3-52, 4-12, 5-14, 7-2
Prestressing strand load tables.....................................................7-6 Reinforcing bar material properties.................................8-38–8-42
Product information and capability..............................................7-1 Reinforcing bar welding........................................... 4-73, 8-49, 8-50
Production........................................1-3, 1-6, 1-20, 1-31, 1-50, 1-51, Relative humidity.............................1-72, 2-11, 2-12, 2-15, 3-6, 3-7,
....................................1-52, 1-58, 1-64, 1-69, 1-87, 1-88, 2-7, 2-107, ...........................................3-41, 3-67, 5-29, 6-3, 6-4, 6-9, 6-17, 6-18
......................................3-28, 3-127, 3-167, 4-7, 5-1–5-7, 5-15, 6-66, Relaxation............................. 1-75, 1-87, 2-110, 3-4, 3-8, 3-13, 3-18,
................................................ 6-67, 6-69, 6-70, 6-72–6-77, 6-80, 7-6 .......................... 3-21, 3-23, 3-26, 3-30, 3-32, 3-35, 3-36, 3-38–3-52,
Properties............................... 1-4, 1-8, 1-49, 1-52, 1-54, 1-56, 1-66, ............................. 3-58, 3-59, 3-89, 3-136, 3-138, 3-147, 6-49, 6-54,
.......................... 1-69, 1-74, 1-75, 1-77, 1-79, 1-80, 1-83, 1-84, 1-87, ................................................................................................7-6, 8-35
....................................1-88, 2-14, 2-41, 2-44, 2-49, 2-58, 2-61, 2-62, Release stresses..................................................................3-31, 3-33
.......................... 2-65, 2-68, 2-76, 2-108, 3-3, 3-18, 3-23, 3-26, 3-32, Repetition......................1-31, 1-9, 1-18, 1-19, 1-23, 1-44, 1-54, 2-7,
.......................... 3-37–3-40, 3-44, 3-46–3-50, 3-58, 3-62, 3-68, 3-74, ................................................................................. 4-8, 5-4, 5-7, 6-86
...................................3-79, 3-89, 3-100, 3-113, 3-117, 3-121, 3-127, Resistance factors...................................... 3-10, 3-11, 4-8, 6-46, 7-4
...............................3-129, 3-131, 3-139, 3-140, 3-144, 3-148, 3-155, Restrained elements—Fire................................................6-39, 6-54
..................................3-166, 4-60, 4-72, 4-78, 5-17, 5-25, 5-26, 5-29, Restrained volume change...........................................................5-8
....................................5-30, 5-34, 6-18–6-20, 6-23, 6-28, 6-40, 6-53, Restraint.................................. 1-3, 1-22, 2-8, 2-10, 2-18, 2-19, 2-23,
....................................6-54, 6-60, 6-63, 6-65, 6-66, 6-70, 6-71, 6-74, ....................................2-29–2-31, 2-33, 2-36, 2-49, 2-50, 2-77, 2-78,
.......................................7-3, 7-61, 7-77, 7-35 7-36, 7-55, 7-56, 8-32, .....................................2-88, 2-98, 2-102, 2-111, 3-28, 3-109, 3-133,
................................................................. 8-33, 8-36–8-48, 8-51–8-57 ......................................3-141, 3-158, 4-7–4-9, 4-14, 4-65, 4-77, 5-8,
.......................................5-9, 5-10, 5-18, 5-20, 5-22, 6-37, 6-44, 6-54
Q
Reveals................................................................1-45, 1-48, 5-3, 5-22
Quality control...............................1-3, 1-17, 1-48, 1-53, 1-57, 1-63,
Rib, Ribs.................................................... 1-65, 5-3, 5-13, 5-18–5-20
.........................................1-77, 1-87, 1-88, 2-7, 5-5, 5-28, 6-76–6-79
Ribbed..........................................3-114, 5-13, 5-19, 5-20, 6-41, 6-56
Quirk mitre.................................................................................... 5-13
Ribbed Panels—Design considerations........................3-114, 6-41
R

INDEX
Ribbed Panels—Handling...............................................3-114, 6-41 ......................................1-101, 2-3, 2-8, 2-21–2-24, 2-37, 2-48–2-57,

Rift.................................................................................................. 5-25 ....................................2-60, 2-61, 2-66, 2-67, 2-69, 2-72, 2-73, 2-75,
RSI-value................................................. 6-10, 6-11, 6-14, 6-15, 6-17 ............................... 2-87, 2-94–2-105, 2-11, 3-126, 4-12, 4-81, 4-82,
...........................................................................4-84, 5-14, 5-15, 6-73
S
Shear-friction........................................2-3, 2-6, 2-21, 3-3, 3-8, 3-85,
Samples.......................................1-18, 1-72, 2-108, 5-24, 5-25, 5-28
........................................4-3, 4-6, 4-12, 4-13, 4-15, 4-16, 4-21, 4-22,
Sandblast...................................................................................... 5-22
...........................................................................4-30, 4-57, 5-61, 4-81
Sandwich panels—See Double wythe insulated panels
Sheet piles.............................................................................7-7, 7-56
Sandwich panels—Design..............................................3-128, 6-41
Shrinkage.....................1-3, 1-22, 1-59, 1-71–1-74, 1-80, 1-83, 1-88,
Sealing, Sealants..........................1-22, 1-63, 1-73, 1-80, 1-87, 2-17,
............................................2-3–2-16, 2-31, 2-110, 3-3, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8,
................................................ 2-18, 3-67, 5-15, 5-28, 6-8, 6-27, 6-75
.....................................3-35, 3-36, 3-38–45, 3-58, 3-59, 3-61, 3-103,
Second degree parabola........................................................... 2-20
......................................3-123,3-124, 3-126, 3-138, 3-158, 4-7, 4-77,
Second order analysis............................................ 2-43, 2-11, 3-103
................................................ 4-80, 5-6, 5-9, 5-12, 5-14, 5-15, 5-20,
Segmental construction........................ 1-5, 1-7, 1-53, 1-85, 2-106,
...........................................................................5-22, 5-25, 5-29, 6-74
.............................................................................. 2-111, 3-133, 3-136
Shrinkage and creep......................................3-44, 3-45, 3-58–3-61,
Seismic...........................1-16, 1-49, 1-63, 2-3, 2-5, 2-10, 2-22, 2-23,
.........................................4-7, 4-77, 4-80, 5-6, 5-14, 5-15, 6-74, 5-25
....................................2-27, 2-41, 2-43–2-48, 2-67–2-70, 2-73, 2-75,
Shrinkage strains.................... 1-72, 2-6, 2-11–2-13, 2-16, 2-17, 3-8,
.......................................2-77–2-79, 2-87–2-97, 2-102–2-105, 2-111,
..............................................................................................3-38, 3-41
............................................ 3-11, 3-103, 3-109, 3-110, 3-125, 3-166,
SI units..............................................................................................6-3
.................................. 4-4, 4-7, 4-78, 4-80, 5-7–5-9, 5-14, 5-20, 5-30,
Sidesway.......................................................2-38, 3-39, 3-102, 3-108
..............................................................................................5-33, 6-79
Sill......................................................................................................5-4
Seismic analysis..................................................... 2-70, 2-100, 2-105
Single tee load tables................................................................. 7-22
Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC)....................... 1-69, 6-66, 6-74
Slenderness effects.............................. 2-30, 2-39, 2-40, 2-43, 2-45,
Service limit state................................................................3-10, 3-28
...........................................................3-100, 3-102, 3-107, 3-108, 7-7
Shape factors.................................................................4-5, 4-11, 8-7
Soffit.......................................................................................5-24, 6-8
Shape, Shaped.................................1-4, 1-6, 1-11, 1-18, 1-19, 1-23,
Soil modulus................................................................................. 2-24
............................................. 1-31, 1-44, 1-45, 1-48, 1-49, 1-51, 1-52,
Solid concrete rib........................................................................ 5-18
....................................1-57, 1-64, 1-70, 1-75, 1-78, 1-79, 2-40, 2-49,
Solid flat slab load tables................................................. 7-53–7-54
..................................2-68, 2-75, 3-5, 3-13, 3-18, 3-24, 3-121, 3-167,
Sound control......................................................................1-28, 6-19
........................................4-5, 4-11, 4-26, 4-57, 5-3, 5-13–5-15, 5-20,
Sound leaks.........................................................................1-48, 6-29
.......................5-29, 5-34, 6-40, 6-74, 6-88,7-3, 7-6, 7-33, 7-34, 8-57
Sound Transmission Class (STC............................... 6-3, 6-19, 6-20,
Shear capacity..................... 2-97, 2-104, 3-81, 3-131, 3-154, 3-156,
................................................................. 6-21, 6-26–6-28, 6-30, 6-31
...........................................................................3-168, 4-5, 5-18, 5-20
Span-depth ratios..............................................2-8, 3-72, 3-136, 7-5
Shear connectors............................... 2-96, 3-129–3-131, 5-18, 5-20
Spandrels............................................................5-9–5-11, 5-15, 5-24
Shear design...................................... 2-105, 3-85, 3-86, 3-127, 4-21
Spandrels—Prestressed design........................................3-89–3-94
Shear horizontal.............................2-61, 2-64, 2-88, 3-5, 3-85, 3-86,
Stability....................... 1-3, 1-6, 1-7, 1-23, 1-33, 1-49, 1-82, 2-5, 2-7,
....................................3-109, 3-127, 3-131, 3-132, 3-166, 4-81, 5-20
.............. 2-23, 2-24, 2-27, 2-28, 2-37, 2-40, 2-41, 2-43, 2-77, 2-111,
Shear lag...........................................................2-87, 2-51, 2-66, 2-67
....................... 3-7, 3-100, 3-103, 3-104, 3-119, 3-121, 3-122, 3-166,
Shear resistance—Fire................................................................ 6-55
.................................. 4-7, 4-11, 4-77, 5-3, 5-4, 5-7, 5-12, 5-19, 6-65
Shear strength of concrete......................................................... 1-71
Stadium riser load tables...................................................7-57–7-60
Shear transfer.............2-3, 2-22, 2-23, 3-3, 3-83, 3-84, 3-127, 3-128
Stainless steel................................1-23, 1-79, 5-18, 5-20, 5-28, 5-30
Shear transfer between elements............................................. 2-22
Stairs—precast concrete—load tables..................................... 7-61
Shear wall buildings...........................................................2-48–2-67
Standardization....................... 1-54, 5-4, 5-7, 5-14, 6-75, 6-91, 6-92
Shear walls........................ 1-91, 1-11, 1-12, 1-22, 1-33, , 1-45, 1-85,

INDEX
Static friction........................................................................2-64, 4-11 .......................................4-9, 4-49, 4-72, 5-30, 6-25, 6-70, 6-89, 6-90
Steel haunches–See Haunches, steel Texture.................................. 1-3, 1-16, 1-17, 1-32, 1-45, 1-49, 1-64,
Steel sleeves................................................................................. 4-78 ............................................... 1-65, 1-69, 1-70, 5-3, 5-22, 5-24, 5-25,
Stiffener......................................................................................... 4-66 ................................................................... 5-29, 2-30, 5-33, 6-9, 6-76
Stone, Cut stone..........................1-17, 1-48, 1-65, 5-15, 5-16, 5-18, TFE pads....................................................................................... 4-10
.................................................................................... 5-24–5-28, 5-31 Thermal bridge, bridging.................................5-16, 5-18, 6-7, 6-11
Storage................ 1-6, 1-17, 1-51, 1-63, 1-66, 1-71, 1-79, 1-88, 2-6, Thermal characteristics............................................................... 5-17
....................................3-10–3-12, 3-14, 3-26, 3-27, 3-28, 3-61, 3-62, Thermal gradient........................................................ 5-9, 6-15–6-17
.......................................3-63, 3-67, 3-66, 3-94, 3-123, 3-124, 3-131, Thermal inertia............................................................ 6-9, 6-67, 6-71
..........................5-4–5-7, 5-9, 5-15, 6-9, 6-10, 6-15, 6-24, 6-25, 6-77 Thermal mass...................1-18, 5-6, 5-7, 6-9–6-11, 6-71, 6-79, 6-84
Strain compatibility......................3-11, 3-12, 3-14, 3-26, 3-27, 3-61, Thermal resistance.......................................6-3–6-5, 6-8–6-14, 6-87
................................ 3-66, 3-94, 3-142, 3-143, 3-167, 4-17, 6-45, 7-4 Thermal bowing ....................................................... 2-18, 5-16, 5-22
Strand lifting loops.................................................................... 3-116 Threaded rods............................................................................. 4-80
Stress relieved strand.................................................................. 3-30 Ties.................1-48, 1-54, 1-57, 2-107, 2-23, 2-56, 2-57, 2-60, 2-61,
Stripping........................... 1-69, 3-6, 3-28, 3-62, 3-63, 3-113–3-116, ......................................2-64, 2-76, 2-77, 2-88, 2-97, 3-3, 3-83–3-87,
.......................................3-118, 3-123, 3-124, 3-128–3-132, 4-8, 5-4, ............................... 3-100, 3-131, 1-132, 4-6, 4-17–4-19, 4-25, 4-29,
............................................................5-5, 5-8, 5-15, 5-17, 5-20, 5-21 ....................4-57, 4-72, 4-78, 5-16–5-21, 5-29, 5-30, 6-11, 6-27, 7-7
Stripping forces.......................................................................... 3-115 Tolerances.....................................1-50, 1-52–1-54, 1-76, 2-17, 2-88,
Structural integrity................................ 1-20, 1-31, 1-46, 1-85, 2-22, ................................................. 2-106, 4-8, 4-22, 4-61, 4-78, 5-6, 5-8,
.........................................2-57, 2-64, 2-97, 4-73, 5-3, 5-7, 6-44, 6-54 .............................................. 5-12–5-15, 5-24, 5-26, 5-29, 6-73, 6-76
Structural integrity—Fire...................................................1-31, 1-46 Torsion design......................................................... 3-87, 3-92, 3-167
Structural irregularities................................................................ 2-83 Torsion, Torsional forces...................... 2-65, 2-70–2-72, 2-75, 2-88,
Structural tile.......................................................................5-24, 5-31 ............................................... 2-96, 2-97, 2-102, 2-110, 3-3, 3-5–3-7,
Strut and tie......................... 3-158, 4-6, 4-17, 4-18, 4-22, 5-23, 4-29 ....................................3-76, 3-78, 3-87, 3-88, 3-90–3-94, 3-167, 4-7,
Studs.......................................... 1-50, 1-62, 2-56, 4-3–4-6, 4-8, 4-12, ..........................................................4-29, 5-9, 5-15, 5-18, 5-21, 8-27
....................................4-13, 4-31–4-33, 4-36–4-44, 4-46, 4-47, 4-49, Torsional effects................................... 2-50, 2-53, 2-73, 2-104, 3-88
................................................................. 4-51–4-56, 6-22, 6-27, 6-28 Total precast concrete structures............................. 1-9, 1-16, 1-13
Suction............................................................3-28, 3-113, 5-20, 5-30 Transportation.................. 1-9, 1-60, 2-106, 2-110, 3-28, 3-62, 3-63,
Supplementary cementing materials...........1-68–1-70, 6-66, 6-69 .......................................3-109, 3-119, 3-121, 3-124, 3-132, 5-3–5-8,
Sustainable development.................................................6-67, 6-91 ....................................5-12, 5-18, 5-25, 6-21, 6-30, 6-69, 6-72, 6-76,
Structural separation................................................................... 2-75 ...........................................................................6-79, 6-80, 6-83, 6-90
Truss..................................... 1-5, 1-7, 2-23, 2-106, 3-87, 3-121, 4-17,
T
............................................. 4-18, 4-23, 4-25, 4-29, 5-13, 5-18, 5-28,
Teflon pads................................................................................... 4-10
.................................................................................... 5-29, 6-23, 6-24
Temperature change map.......................................................... 2-13
Tube structure.....................................................................2-66–2-69
Temperature changes.............................. 1-3, 1-71, 2-9, 2-10, 2-19,
Twisting, Rotation..................................... 1-22, 2-6, 2-8, 2-19, 2-20,
................................................................. 5-22, 5-25, 6-15, 6-67, 6-71
.......................................2-23, 2-24, 2-27–29, 2-39, 2-49, 2-55, 2-76,
Temperature effects........................................1-71, 2-16, 5-17, 6-30
........................2-88, 2-111, 3-5, 3-121, 3-141, 4-9, 4-10, 5-10, 5-11,
Temperature gradient............................. 5-9, 5-22, 6-15, 6-17, 6-50
........................................................5-15, 5-18, 6-37, 8-26, 8-28, 8-29
Temperature index..................................................... 6-3, 6-17, 6-18
Temporary bracing.................................................................... 3-124 U
Tensile strength of concrete....................................................... 1-70 Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC).......................1-8, 1-66,
Terra cotta..................................................................................... 5-24 ...........................................................................1-67, 1-79, 1-81, 1-89
Testing.............................................1-4, 1-69, 1-70, 1-79, 2-69, 2-73,

INDEX
Unbonded tendons.................................................. 1-86, 3-13, 3-57 Walls—Deflection........................................................................ 2-51

Unbraced frames...................................................... 2-27, 2-28, 2-39 Warpage..........................................................................3-123, 3-124
Unrestrained elements—Fire............................................6-45, 6-52 Welded headed studs—Back edge......................................... 4-49
Welded headed studs—Corners.............................................. 4-45
V
Welded headed studs—Front edge........................................ 4-41
Vapour diffusion.............................................................6-3, 6-5, 6-15
Welded headed studs.......................... 2-56, 4-31, 4-32, 4-55, 4-56
Veneer, Veneer facing.......................... 1-48, 1-65, 5-16, 5-24–5-31,
Welded headed studs—In-the-field......................................... 4-49
.................................................................................... 5-33, 6-81–6-83
Welded headed studs—Shear.................................................. 4-41
Vertical joints....................................................1-73, 2-49, 2-98, 4-80
Welded headed studs—Side edge.......................................... 4-46
Vibration isolation...............................................................6-28, 6-64
Welded headed studs—Tension............................................... 4-31
Vibrations.....................................3-136, 6-20, 6-56–6-58, 6-64, 6-91
Welded wire fabric..........................................1-58, 5-20, 8-44, 8-45
Volume change— Also refer to “Deformations (Imposed)” for
Welding—Plates.......................................................................... 4-73
related information ................... 1-9, 1-38, 1-71, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 2-10,
Welding-Reinforcing bars...............................1-75, 1-76, 2-22, 4-73
.......................................................2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-16, 2-17, 2-23,
Wind............................................ 1-3, 1-8, 2-5, 2-7, 2-10, 2-21, 2-27,
............................................. 2-24, 2-19, 2-19, 2-30, 2-31, 2-33, 2-34,
.......................................................2-40–2-46, 2-48, 2-52, 2-55–2-58,
............................................. 2-35, 2-36, 2-40, 2-41, 2-45, 2-46, 2-49,
............................. 2-60–2-62, 2-64–2-66, 2-68, 2-99, 3-5, 3-7, 3-11,
............................................. 2-88, 2-98, 2-110, 3-158, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11,
........................................... 3-103, 3-128, 3-130–3-132, 4-7, 5-3, 5-8,
.................................................................. 4-14, 4-77, 4-79, 5-8, 5-24
........................5-14, 5-18, 5-20–5-25, 6-7–6-9, 6-30, 6-57, 6-91, 7-4
Volume change strains....... 2-10, 2-14, 2-15, 2-31, 2-34, 2-35, 2-41
Window walls......................................................................5-10, 6-42
Volume-surface ratio.................................................. 1-72, 1-73, 7-2
Window washing......................................................................... 5-12
Volumetric changes........................................................................5-9
Wire data...................................................................................... 8-46
W Wythes................................ 1-66, 2-5, 2-18, 2-48, 2-89, 2-94, 3-107,
Wall panels—Load bearing............................2-10, 3-103, 4-80, 7-6 ..................................2-128–3-132, 5-3, 5-15–5-22, 5-28, 5-31, 5-33,
Walls—Fire resistance of connections.........................................4-7 .........................................6-5, 6-7, 6-10, 6-11, 6-41, 6-66, 6-79, 6-87
Walls—Floor to wall connections.....................................4-82–4-84
Y
Walls—Joints................................................................................ 4-81
Yarding.............................................................................................5-7
Walls—Vertical joints................................................................... 4-80
Walls—Wall to foundation connections................................... 4-84

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Tel: (613) 232-2619

Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

First Edition 1982

CHAPTER 2 – ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 3 – DESIGN OF ELEMENTS

CHAPTER 4 – DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

CHAPTER 5 – ARCHITECTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE

CHAPTER 6 – RELATED CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 7 – PRODUCT INFORMATION AND CAPACITY

CHAPTER 8 – GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION

Chapter 1 – Methods and Materials

Chapter 2 – Analysis and Design Of Structures

Chapter 3 – Design of Elements

Chapter 4 – Design of Connections

Chapter 5 – Architectural Precast Concrete

Chapter 6 – Related Considerations

Chapter 7 – Product information and Capacity

Chapter 8 – General Design Information

Chapter 1 – Methods and Materials

Chapter 2 –Analysis and Design of Structures

Chapter 3 – Design of Elements

Chapter 4 – Design of Connections

Chapter 5 – Architectural Precast Concrete

Chapter 6 – Related Considerations

Chapter 7 – Product information and Capacity

Chapter 8 – General Design Information

HOW PRECAST CERTIFICATION IS A REQUIREMENT OF THE NATIONAL BUILDING CODE

CSA A23.3 – Design of concrete structures:

CSA A23.4 – Precast concrete – Materials and construction:

QUALITY ASSURANCE REPORTING PROGRAM

Quality Assurance Council (QAC) Documents:

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (US):

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Documents:

QUALITY SYSTEM MANUAL

QUALITY ASSURANCE COUNCIL (QAC)

Continues next page

QUALITY ASSURANCE COUNCIL MEMBERS

DEFINITION OF PREQUALIFICATION VERSUS CERTIFICATION

HOW TO SPECIFY CPCI CERTIFICATION

1. Precast concrete manufacturers to be certified to Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI)

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF CANADA 2015

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Continues next page

Note: To purchase any of the above CSA standards go to http://shop.csa.ca

1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS................................................................................................................1-3

1.2 PRECAST CONCRETE MATERIALS............................................................................................................1-68

1.3 POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE.................................................................................................................1-84

CPCI Design Manual 5 1-1

1-2 CPCI Design Manual 5

1.1 PRECAST CONCRETE METHODS

CPCI Design Manual 5 1-3

1-4 CPCI Design Manual 5

Another significant event in the 1960s was the development

CPCI Design Manual 5 1-5

1975 saw the construction of an innovative clinker storage

1-6 CPCI Design Manual 5

1981-1983 saw the construction of the innovative Calgary,

CPCI Design Manual 5 1-7

Confederation Bridge (NB to PEI, 1997)

12.9 km bridge spanning from Cape Tormentine, NB, to

1-8 CPCI Design Manual 5

Figure 1.1.7 Pre-Topped Double Tees and Inverted Tee Beam

Figure 1.1.8 Pre-Topped Double Tee and L Beams At Expansion Joint

igure 1.1.16 Non-Bearing Spandrel at Pre-