I.

Introduction

In 1946 – 1975 it could be the hardest time that ever passed by people who life at that

time in the northeast part of southeast Asia region, the war was happening there that also

attracted the international society especially for several countries like United States,

United Kingdom, Uni Soviet and China. The story began when the first colonization

came to that territory in 18581 when south part of Vietnam (Da Nang) was conquest by

French troops; even there are other sources that state for the first time, French came to

Southeast Asia region in 16th century by sending missionaries to achieve gospel spirit and

businessman to get the gold goal2. In years after that, other Kingdoms or regions around

Vietnam, Cambodia (in 1863) and Laos (in 1893 official year for French colonization) in

succession became protectorate territory and colonize territory by French’s government

also. Of course, French came to there with the intention and spirit of expansionist and

colonialist who want to take the natural resources from other place and to wider the

government territory of French itself. The existence of French tried to spread out the

western values about the way of life toward origin people there. For example are the

trading system, farming, education system, the management and administration of

government and the infrastructure.

Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam was included into history as countries who were briefly

fought against colonization and powerful countries and as a fact they won the battle in the

field war and as well as ideology also because at that time Cold War also happened. This

paper would give a short story about the war between Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam parties

against French and United States parties which the war known as Vietnam War.

1
http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/vietnam/history
2
http://asia.isp.msu.edu/wbwoa/southeast_asia/vietnam/history.htm
II. First Vietnam War

First Vietnam War happened around 1946 until 1954. The parties who involved in

conflict were (North) Vietnam or Vietminh was led by Ho Chi Minh army, Cambodia

was represented by Khmer Issarack and Pathet Lao represented Laos against French as a

state; even in the battle field there were other parties that involved or supported but this

war only known as Indochina versus French because other parties did not intervene

directly. In 2 September, 1945, Vietnam was established a new country that was the name

Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) which proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh after the

Japanese surrender to allies in World War II. And this independence means double for

them because not only established one new country after colonial era but also step down

the Bao Dao Emperor that represented Vietnamese Emperor which already existed since

1802- at least on part of North Vietnam.

A year after the Vietnam independence, the situation inside the state was not good to

be described because the French and China still existed there in Hanoi and Saigon.

During February to March 1946, China and French made a deal on the exchange of

military that they had. French troops had to move from China territory to Vietnam area

and also China troops went away from Vietnam territory, it could be happened because it

would reduce the colonize power in China while French got Vietnam instead. And for

Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh agreed to the re-placement of French’s troops in Hanoi

temporarily because of that Ho Chi Minh could negotiated the fully independence of

Vietnam from French. But the fact gives us a different reality, the Ho Chi Minh’s effort to

get the full independence or recognition from French could say fallen flat. French

attacked Haipong harbour on November 1946 and it becomes the main cause of First

Indochina War happened. After that, Hanoi became next target which was there the real

battle happened between Vietnam People’s Army (Viet Minh) and French troops on 19
 December, 1946. And it signed the first war in Indochina for seven years more among

those parties began. French existence in Vietnam could be analogized in the case of the

Dutch who came back to Indonesia after two years of independence of Indonesia with

purpose to have control again toward the country and mission was still same like the

expansion before the independence were Gold, Glory, Gospel. And for Vietnam, there is

no other ways to defend their independence, except fighting against French.

In the middle of battle, there was a rising man who has position as military leader or

General of Viet Minh military force, his name is Vo Nguyen Giap. He was graduated on

history and politics study at University of Hanoi and he ever exiled to China because his

thought about French colonization. Then, lately after the First Indochina War ended Vo

Nguyen Giap known as the man who brought the idea of guerrilla war to fight against

French and giving a glory for Viet Minh. In the late of 1947, Vo Nguyen Giap already led

the Viet Minh forces to react the Operation Lea that was launched by French to catch Ho

Chi Minh in north of North Vietnam and this operation cause the troop’s dead for Viet

Minh side around 9,000 soldiers. But the French failed to get the goal from the operation.

And in the year after the Operation Lea, French tried to another approach to make

their aim that was conquest Vietnam and made it as French Union. French planed a politic

manoeuvre in 1949. First, divide et impera3 successfully launched by French and created

a “puppet state” under the French Union government in the south territory of Vietnam by

a name State of Vietnam which was led by Bao Dai as head of state. They elected Bao

Dai because, before DRV declared the independence, Bao Dai emperor had cooperation

with French and French believed that Bao Dai will run the French agenda in Indochina.

And French did not forget to create a military army for State of Vietnam which called

3
Divide and Rule. It is a French language to explain political strategy of one group to his enemy. Divide them
(enemy) into two groups and they need to control and role one of those group with the purpose they can take
over all of goups.
Vietnamese National Army. Second, French got the control ever government in

Cambodia and Laos territory fully.

In the same year, there was a civil war in China that result the glory for Chinese

Communist Party toward Chiang Kai-shek’s group. The rising of communism in China

gave the impact to the situation in Indochina, Mao Zedong as a leader of Chinese

Communist Party together with Uni Soviet intentionally support Viet Minh as military aid

or weapons support for GO Nguyen Giap’s troops and recognition the independence of

DRV as a state in 1950. Their similarity on the idea of communism bounded them into a

communist bloc in the Cold War and the topic of Indochina war seems to move slowly

from territorial invasion to ideological issue.

The support that was given by two big communist countries had helped Ho Chi Minh

to reduce and eliminate the power of French in the battle field. Nguyen Giap’s strategy

(guerrilla war) could be applied well even the knowledge and the fighting skill for the

troops did not like French troops but at least the spirit that they had could help them to

win the battle. Support also came from civilian, they given their support toward Nguyen

Giap’s troops, they given food, stuff, and place to be lived because they did not like the

presence of French in their land.

While in the other side, French got military aid support from United States. French

government ever asked U.S. to send their military army and they said that this war was

not only engaged by French because it already moved to ideological war between

Capitalism idea and Communism idea but U.S. did not want to involve into the war

directly so, they only give the military aid (like artillery, tanks, planes and military

assistance) as long as First Indochina War end.

 Entering five years of the war, French had to face the pressure inside the country. The

people wanted the war ended soon and they also need to withdrawal the army from the

war. French government thought differently, especially for General Jean de Lattre de

Tassigny, the new military leader for French army in Vietnam. He thought that the French

army will win the war. Until the various battles during 1951, guerrilla war that led by

Nguyen Giap against Jean de Lattre’s modern weapons and trained troops in Vinh Yen,

Mao Khe and Hoa Binh made them won the battle alternately. It clarified that French

could win the war moreover Jean de Lattre got more support from U.S. But the Jean de

Lattre’s struggle has to finish soon because he was back to Paris on November and died

two months later. And on 11 March, 1951, three groups alliance were created Viet Minh,

Khmer Issarak and Pathet Lao, their ally purpose to make a strong power to fight for their

territory.

During 1952-1953, guerrilla strategy seems to find their success. Nguyen Giap

already learned the French military strategy. He did clever actions by cutting armament

supply to French troops in Black River and in many times he also avoided direct war or

direct contact to them so, Nguyen Giap can control his armament supply and number of

his troops. Viet Minh hit back the French troops slowly but sure to their base in De Lattre

line. On November 1953, French army that commanded by General Henri Navarre

isolated in French’ small air base at Dien Bien Phu and for Nguyen Giap it was a best

time to make a big massive attack to kill or arrest the French army. The alliance effort

also find the a bright way to get out of this war and win it while French power decrease

year by year because cannot win the battle and finally, in the same month, Norodom

Sihanouk got back his position in the top level of Cambodia’s government. A month

before that, Laos also got claim as de facto from French and made Laos as constitutional

monarchy state.
 The top level of the war happened in 1954, when French looked more weakness

(inside the political in French itself and weak as mean in the war), Nguyen Giap had a

plan to siege toward French troops who entrapped at French’s air base in Dien Bien Phu

area. Started on 13 March, 1954, the fighting was drawn as unbalance for the number of

French troops; they only remain 11,000 troops and Nguyen Giap’s had 50,000 troops.

Nguyen Giap attacked the main runway on the air base so, French troops cannot get

supply from air and they wanted to close with them by digging the tunnel. On 26 April,

while the French troops were more alarming and poor, the super power countries alos

decide to present in Geneva Conference; the representatives in the conference were

French, U.K., U.S., Cambodia, People’s Republic of China, Laos, USSR and Vietnam

(both of DRV and State of Vietnam representative). When the negotiation among those

parties was running, the French troops surrender and wanted to armistice at Dien Bien

Phu. The negotiation ended on 21 July, by the signing of agreement which state about the

future of Vietnam that they were divided into two North and South Vietnam and 17th

parallel as the line border and they can run the free election two years after with no

intervene from outside power then make reunification, provision of integrity and

independence of Cambodia and Laos, Withdrawing the French troops form DRV as

whole. The conference signed the end of the First Indochina War formally.

The war generated the victory to Ho Chi Minh side and the division of Vietnam for

two years before they can make an election. War result the huge number of people died;

more than 20,000 armies died for French side and 40,000 for Ho Chi Minh supporter. For

Cambodia and Laos it was a ‘real’ victory because they can manage their country with

new construction and communism as a tool, even after the war civil war happened there

and instability politics also there but they did not get many attention from foreign

intervene as much as Vietnam. In Geneva Conference, U.S. already put on their interest to
prevent the spreading of communism idea in Southeast Asia. After the end of the war,

U.S. tried to ‘come’ to South Vietnam by introduce them Democracy and appointed the

pro-western policy, Ngo Dinh Diem as Prime Ministry.

III. Vietnam War

The Second Indochina War or well known as name of Vietnam War was a series of

conflict or war in Indochina, the war between A communist state that wanted to unify

north and south part of Vietnam and the superpower state-U.S. with South Vietnam that

had intention to prevent the spreading of communism idea in Vietnam generally and

Southeast Asia especially. North Vietnam was still led by Ho Chi Minh and Ngo Dinh

Diem was elected as President and leader for South Vietnam.

The beginning year of Vietnam War is debatable until now. I prefer to choose war

happened in 1959-1973 as the formal war to the conflicting parties that join the war; U.S

and South Vietnam against North Vietnam with Viet Chong, Khmer Rouge (Cambodia

actually had a neutral action toward the war or conflict in 1955 by the Norodom Sihanouk

declaration) and Pathet Lao. While the forces and support that send by many countries

like Uni Soviet, China, Thailand, UK, and Australia were only as supporter for each block

and not as the main actors of the war. The seed of war itself began in the transition time

after French leaved Vietnam and when Ngo Dinh Diem rejected the Geneva Conference

proposal to make an election for decided the future of Vietnam by going to U.S in 1956

and insurgency action that provocation by North Vietnam and communist party in south.

On January 1959, Ho Chi Minh stated the open war to all of people in Vietnam with

aim he wanted to unify Vietnam territory and the creation of Viet Cong in south as an

answer to the brutal leadership style by Ngo Dinh Diem. The first period of war can be

classified in year 1959-1963, when the two U.S. presidents tenure for them state; Dwight
 Eisenhower the man who declare Domino effect4 and John F. Kennedy while in Vietnam

they still had two main leader Ho and Diem. The conflict or battle in this period was

actually only fight for Viet Cong versus South Vietnam Army and to make a strong

position for Viet Cong, Ho Chi Minh and combatant in south for communism supporter

Le Duan, they established National Liberation Front (NLF) in 1960. Four years of battle

look like winning by Viet Cong army, the fact was Viet Cong successfully attacked Bien

in his Palace, Saigon and fortunately Diem could escape safe from the attack. U.S. itself

only tried sent the military but not involve the conflict directly (until the battle of Ap Bac

in 1963, U.S. army defeated by Viet Cong in the war) just shipping American military

advisors to training South Vietnam troops then military aids and John F. Kennedy made a

different approach to close to all of parties, for example in 1962, Laos, U.S. and fourteen

countries agreed to not allow Ho Chi Minh to enter the eastern part of Laos, it means

Laos take a neutrality position in this war after the agreement. In other side, power and

legitimacy of Diem in South Vietnam decreased directly after the incident that happened

to Vietnamese Buddhist group protest/demonstration to the Diem’s government that

forbid them to use Buddhist flag to celebrate their celebration while Catholic also got big

support from Diem and Monks protest ended by suicide them into fire, this situation took

the international attention and ask the reaction of U.S. toward this action. General Tran

Van Don from South Vietnam offered U.S. to coup the Diem’s government. At the end,

Kennedy and insurgent troops from South Vietnam deal to coup the Diem’s power in the

government and on 1 November, 1963, coup occurred at presidential palace and a day

after the coup Diem and his brother Nhu died in the hand of rebel in Saigon. The unstable

political situation in Saigon, gave the confident to Viet Cong to embed their power in the

4
Domino effect or domino theory is the condition when communist rise in one state (in period of Cold War) so,
the neighbour and close countries will get the effect of rising communism idea as a basic principle of state.
Introduce by Dwight Eisenhower on his speech in 1954.
South of Vietnam and after the Deim’s death Saigon became more dependent on U.S. aid

in almost all aspects. The last story in this period was end when U.S. president John. F.

Kennedy assassinated by unknown man in Dallas. Then, Lyndon B. Johnson directly took

the position of U.S. president automatically.

Next, the escalation and the top of the conflict escalate during 1964-1968 when the

war became more intensively happened. Began with the incident in Gulf of Tonkin in

1964; USS Maddox (War Ship) was attacked by North Vietnam Army, then gave Johnson

took the decision based on the Congress judgement that U.S. could take any actions even

armed military action to react the Gulf Tonkin incident. From 1965 to 1968, Johnson

shipping 720,000 U.S. troops to fight in the Vietnam’s jungle and against guerrilla

strategy from Viet Minh and Viet Cong troops that already master in the skill of disguise.

On January, 1968, Tet Offensive produced by Viet Cong and Viet Ming troops to

attack cities and towns in South Vietnam to show them that their alliance was not weak as

prediction. Open war in Saigon and Hue during Tet Operation was a massive war that

caused thousand people died for all sides (communist and U.S.) even also civilian. And

U.S. military run “search and destroy” tactic to force the enemy out of their shelter and

made an open war by bombing the enemy place. But on 16 March, 1968, “search and

destroy” tactic made a massacre in My Lai, led by lieutenant William Calley they bombed

the area and kill civilian that did not use arm moreover they did not fight back the U.S.

army. Approximately, there were more than 300 people died at that day. Then, the people

in U.S. would like to show that they did not agree and like anymore to support U.S.

government involve and battle in Vietnam because they thought that U.S. cannot win

there while if the war continued it will only cause more civilian in Vietnam died, that was

not good for them better the money was used for economic development.
 After the wars that happened in 1968, Richard Nixon elected as new U.S. president

and it signed the last period of Vietnam War in 1969 to 1975. The new policy produced

by Nixon in 1969, he Nixon tried to create a piece negotiation among conflicting parties

in Paris and “Vietnamization” plan which was the U.S. troops’ withdrawal from Vietnam

step by step; they will back off from North Vietnam first to demilitarized zone and from

south base go back U.S then trained the South Vietnam Army before to replace U.S.

troops. While situation more tention in Cambodia when there was a coup that came from

General Lon Nol, the head of state of Cambodia King Norodom Sihanouk asked the

communist Cambodia party (Khmer Rouge) that led by Pol Pot to end up the coup and

also asked North Vietnam to send their troops. U.S. took position in the Cambodia by

supporting the Lon Nol because he was a pro-U.S. regime. War happened there in

Cambodia until 1971.

The last stage to end up the conflict was started when the Paris Peace Accord on 27

January, 1973, became an agreement that signed by U.S., North Vietnam, South Vietnam

and Viet Cong. It also signed the end of conflict and U.S. intervention in Vietnam;

ceasefire was there with the agreement. On 29 March, U.S. troops leave Vietnam for the

last withdrawal based on Nixon planed. Flag of Viet Cong flew in Saigon presidential

palace; it marks the fight back from South Vietnam toward North Vietnam and Viet Cong

on 30 April, 1975.

The Second Indochina War resulted in total casualties around 791,000-1,141,100

Vietnamese died and 58,220 people from U.S. died. The effect of U.S. chemical weapon

(e.g. Agent Orange) already gave the bad thing to Vietnamese that life after one

generation and the people who was still life after the war. And the war was finalized by

the presence of Lao People’s Democratic Republic under Pathet Lao regime on 2
December, 1975. Cambodia was led by Pot Lot from Khmer Rouge group and

reunification for north and south of Vietnam on 2 July, 1976.

IV. Conclusion

Indochina war is a ‘war that did not want’ even for French and U.S. Many factors that

make they failed to win the war, such us the war strategy, underestimate minded and

battle area that they did know well about it. They did not want to involve to this war

except their desire to fight against what they though as war to glory and war to ideology.

First and second Indochina war signed the superpower countries could be defeated by

good strategic and tactic to defend. Overall, French and U.S. deserve to get title as a big

loser because at the last story, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam are still communist countries

even they fought for 27 years.

References:

- http://www.coldwar.org/articles/40s/FirstIndochinaWar.asp

- https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent7.htm

- http://asia.isp.msu.edu/wbwoa/southeast_asia/vietnam/history.htm

- http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/inch022.asp

- http://alphahistory.com/vietnam/first-indochina-war/

- Jeniffer Rosenberg. Vietnam War.

http://history1900s.about.com/od/vietnamwar/a/vietnamwar.htm. Retrieved on 15

November, 2013.

- http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/vietnam/history

- Wiesner, Louis A. (1988). Victims and Survivors Displaced Persons and Other War

Victims in Viet-Nam. New York: Greenwood Press. p.310

- Charles Hirschman et al., "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New

Estimate," Population and Development Review, December 1995.

1945 HCM wanted to unite V. 1945, 2 September. Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV)

established. 1946, 19 December - 1954, august. Indochina war began, the attacked by French

army in Hanoi. 1949, march. South Vietnam, lao n cambodia under French union. 1950, those

region recognized by US n UK. 1950, 1 april, China supported, help n recognize Hanoi. 1951,

11 March. Viet,Khmer,Lao groups alliance. On November 7, 1953, Cambodia became

independent and two days afterwards Norodom Sihanouk (1922- ) returned to form a

Government. The Conference recognized Pathet Lao as a political party with control over

Phong Saly and Sam Neua provinces. 1954, 13 March. The siege of Dien Bien Phu began on

with 11,000 French troops entrapped. The Viet Minh artillery, which was hidden in tunnels,

cut off the supply by air to the French troops. 1954, 26 April. USSR, PRC, GB, France, 1954,

7 may. Giap army had a victory.

In Cambodia, Khmer Issarack or the Free Khmers of Son Ngoc Thanh

In Laos, Pathet Lao under Souphanouvong

China gave Vietminh Viet Minh rebels with munitions, trucks, anti-aircraft guns, radar, and

technical equipment and technical advisers