AVVY CHARLOTTE R.

TUNAC
CHAPTER 5
LIFE'S SUPPORT AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

THE NEED FOR EXTRA PROTECTION AND SUPPORT

ANIMAL PROTECTION
INTEGUMENT - outer covering of an animal's body.
- the protective waterproof wrapping, which includes skin and its surface
glands and other structures derived from or associated with it, compose the
integumentary system.
SKIN STRUCTURES DIFFER AMONG ANIMAL GROUPS
REPTILES - have scales
BIRDS - have feathers
MAMMALS - are covered with hairs
*Most mammals, like bears, have a thick coat that provides warmth. Many species also
have certain hairs for special uses, such as for protection or for sense functions.
Whiskers - grow on the lips and cheeks of most mammals, but they also occur on other
parts of the body. These hairs help the animals feel their way through narrow or dark
places.
*Aside from providing warmth, hair also provides various kinds of protection for
animals. The hair color of many species of mammals blends with their surroundings
and helps them hide from their enemies.
*Manufacturers use animal hair in making various products. The thick soft fur that
covers some mammals, like the sheep, is used for coats and other warm clothing,
blankets, and rugs.
*Bristles the short stiff hair of pigs, are used in making various kinds of brushes.
HUMAN SKIN AND ITS LAYER
*The human skin, which makes up about 15% of your total body weight and has surface
area of 1.4 to 1.9 square meters, is the largest organ of the body. An average person's
skin weighs about 3kg more than twice as much of the brain.

LAYERS of SKIN TISSUE

1. epidermis
2. dermis
3. subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis

EPIDERMIS
*the outermost layer, is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body.
*It is made up of several epithelial cells.
*The outermost cells of the skin are continuously shed and replaced by a layer of
actively dividing cells at the base of the epidermis. As new skin cells, called
keratinocytes, form, they move upward through the epidermis, producing large amount
of keratin.

Keratin - is a protein that makes the skin tough and waterproof by preventing fluids
and certain substances from passing through the skin.
Melanin - a substance that gives color to the skin
- melanin is actually a pigment that range in color yellow reddish
brown to black.
- melanin absorbs UV radiation, protecting the skin from its harmful effect.
*Skin color depends mainly in the amount of pigment called melanin. Cells, known as
melanocytes, produce less amount of melanin in light-skinned people while more
melanin is produced in people with dark skin

DERMIS
*The middle layer, is between 15 and 40 times thick as the epidermis.
*Also known as the true skin
*Connective tissues in the dermis make the skin tough and elastic.
*The dermis contains nerve cells, blood cells, hair follicles, and specialized skin cells.
*Sensations of touch, temperature, and pain originate in nerve cells within the dermis.
*Arrector pili - tiny muscles in the dermis, that are attached to the hair follicles.

*A network of blood vessels in the dermis also nourishes the living cells of the skin.
These blood vessels also help regulate body temperature by either radiating heat in the
air or conserving heat. This process is called thermoregulation.

Perspiration - the process of removing excess body heat by the help of glands, such as
sweat glans in the dermis.

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
*The inner most layer, varies greatly thickness among individuals.
*A layer of connective tissues made mostly of fat.
*This skin layer acts a shock absorber, provides additional isolation to help conserve
body heat and stores energy.

MODIFICATION OF THE SKIN

*A follicle, a pouch-like structure, surrounds the root of the hair. The base of the root
is shaped like a bulb surrounded by capillaries and nerve fibers. This site undergoes
rapid cell division where cells are pushed upward, die slowly, and form the hard hair
shaft.
*The shaft is made up of dead, hard protein, called keratin in three layers:

Cuticle - outermost region, which protect the inner layer.

Cortex - layer contains the pigment, melanin, and the structural protein, keratin. The
thickness and strength of our hair of our hair is determined by the cortex.
Medulla - the innermost part of some hair, a layer with soft, spongy mass of tissue.
Coarse hair generally has this layer while it is absent in fine hair.

Three parts of nails:

1. matrix - lies under the surface of the skin at the base nail. Most of the
matrix is covered by skin. Near the root of the nail, where growth
begins, part of the matrix forms a whitish half moon called the lunula.
2. plate - hard outer part of the nail. It consists of many layers of flat,
dead cells that contain keratin.
3. bed - lies under the plate

*Newly formed cells push the older ones toward tip of the nail. This pushing process
results in the growth of the nail.
*The skin has two kinds of glands, the sebaceous and sweat glands
*Most hair follicles contain an oil gland called the sebaceous gland. This gland secretes
an oil, called sebum, into the follicle.
*Sebaceous secretion is under control of the endocrine system.
*Sweat gland maintain the normal temperature of the body through the cooling process
(perspiration).

TWO TYPES OF SWEAT GLAND

1. Eccrine glands - produce the sweat that cools the body. They are located throughout
the surface of the skin but are particularly numerous on the forehead,
palms,and soles.
2. Apocrine glands - produce sweat that has no important function. They releases their
secretions into the hair follicles.

EXTERNAL PROTECTION IN PLANTS

Protection in Non woody Plants
Functions of the dermal tissue system
*On the parts of a plant that are above the ground (stems, leaves), dermal tissues
prevent the plant from drying out by reducing water loss from
evaporation. Here, the epidermis secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle.
*The thick cuticle on the leaves 4of a wax palm is a source of carnauba wax used to
make candles and lipsticks.
*In a young seedling, the dermal of young plants and the mature non woody plants
forms a covering called epidermis.
PROTECTION IN WOODY PLANTS
*In trees and woody shrubs, however, the epidermis is replaced by periderm, the outer
areas of the bark. The dermal tissue on woody stems and roots consists of
several layers of dead cells that are referred to as cork.
*Cork cells contain a waterproof chemical and are not covered by a waxy cuticle.
Several layers of cork protect the trees. Corks cells have thick walls that
contain a waxy, waterproof substance called suberin.
*Suberin protects the plant from losing water and prevents gases from passing in and
out. Gases enter and leave the tree or shrub through lenticels, which are
round or oval blisters in the surface of the bark.

THE NEED TO PROVIDE BODILY SHAPE AND SUPPORT FOR INTERNAL ORGANS

Skeleton - gives physical support and protection for the body and often provides surfaces for
the attachment of muscles.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF SKELETON IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM:
1. Hydrostatic skeleton - some animals, such as the earthworm, are supported by liquid in their
bodies.
2. Exoskeleton - Having a hard external covering like corals, mollusks, crabs, and insects.
3. Endoskeleton - this skeleton are found in higher forms of animals, particularly vertebrates,
like fishes, frogs, chickens, as well as humans.

THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

Functions of the bones and joints of the skeletal system:
*provides shape and support for the body
*protects internal organs
*provides attachment for major muscles so muscles and bones can work together to move the
body.
*produces blood cells in the red marrow of certain bones.

-the 206 bones that make up the adult skeletal system are among the strongest structures in the
body.

DIVISIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

2 Division Axial & Appendicular
AXIAL SKELETON
*About 80 bones form the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, ribs, breastbone,
and vertebral column(backbone). he most complex part of the axial
skeleton is the skull.
*The skull also contains 14 facial bones, six middle-ear bones, and a single cone that
supports the base of the tongue

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
*The other 126 bones compose the appendicular skeleton, which is made up of all the
bones attached to the axial skeleton.
*The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages or limbs-the shoulders, arms, hips,
and legs.
*The arms and legs are attached to the axial skeleton at the shoulders and hips,
respectively.
*The shoulder attachment, called the pectoral girdle, contains two, large, flat shoulder
blades or scapulas and two slender, curved collarbones or clavicles.
*The clavicles connect the scapulas to the upper region of the sternum (breastbone) and
hold the shoulder apart.
*The hip attachment, called the pelvic girdle, contains two large pelvic bones.
TYPES OF BONES
Long bones - those bones found in the legs and arms. They are hollow, yet strong and
lightweight.
Flat bones - found in ribs, breastbones, pelvis, bones of the skull, and the scapula.
Short bones - like those in the hands and feet, support weight and allow many small
movements.
Sesamoid bones - are small and rounded in appearance. They assist in the proper
functioning of the muscles. These bones are enclosed in a tendon and
located adjacent to joints. The patella is the largest among the sesamoid
bones.

BONE STRUCTURE
*From the outside, many bones are covered and protected by a tough, white membrane
called periosteum, which is made up of connective tissues and bone-
forming cells involved in the growth and repair of the bone.
*Compact bone - a dense connective tissue that provides support.
*Spongy bone - a loosely structured network of separated connective tissues, which
looks like a honeycomb.
*Bone Marrow - cavities in a spongy bone filled with a soft tissue.
*Cartilage - a flexible nonvascular tissue that acts like a cushion that absorbs shock at
the joints and reduces friction, allowing easier movement.
BONE GROWTH
Haversian canals or osteon
- are new bones or osteocytes are added in layers around narrow, hollow channels
shaped liked concentric rings.
- it extend down the length of a bone, forming columns that enable the bone to withstand
stress.
- Haversian canals also contain blood vessels that enter the bone through the
periosteum, which supply osteocytes with nutrients needed for their.

JOINTS: FASTEN BONES TOGETHER

Joints - connects almost all of the 206 bones of the human body.
Cartilage - a tough, smooth, shiny substance that covers the end of each bone.
Synovial fluid - a thin film of slippery fluid that kept apart the cartilage-coated bone
ends.
Ligaments - a stretchy bands hold the bones together. They help stabilize joints and
prevent joints from moving too far in one directions.
Tendons - a dense connective tissue that connect bones to muscles.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Fixed or immovable joints - occur when bones are fused together by a protein called
collagen, thus little or no movement is allowed.
2. Slightly movable joints - permit joints to have limited movement.
3. Freely movable joints - ligaments, which are connective tissues that are able to
stretch, connect the bones in movable joints.

THE NEED TO MOVE FOR VARIOUS LIFE ACTIVITIES

What is muscle?
- are organs made up of thousands of cells called muscle fibers. These muscle fibers
shorten when a muscle contracts. Each muscle fiber consists of
threadlike, small cylindrical structures called myofibrils.
Functions:
*Muscles help maintain normal temperature
*Muscles allow you to digest
*Muscles allow you to move
*Muscles hold your skeleton together
*Muscles affect the rate of blood flow
*Muscles allow you to do various positions
TYPES OF MUSCLES IN HUMANS
Skeletal muscles - voluntary, which means you can control them by thinking. Other
two types are involuntary, which means they work automatically.
Smooth muscles - move food along the digestive system.
Cardiac muscles - responsible for the pumping of heart and never stop working.
HOW DO MUSCLES WORK?
*The ability of the muscle to contract provides the force that moves different parts of
the body. Certain kinds of movement, such as walking, lifting, and using
the arms, require that the muscular organ and skeletal system work
together.
*The 639 muscles in the body are each comprise of around 10 million muscle cells also
known as muscle fibers.
*Each of these cells is like a motor containing 10 cylinders, called, myofibrils, arranged
in a row.
Sarcomere - thick filaments, myosin, and thin filaments, actin, are that are arranged
alternatively.
SKELETAL MUSCLES WORK IN PAIRS
Antagonistic pair - pair of muscle working together. A muscle can only pull in one
direction so it needs another muscle pull it in the opposite direction to
return a bone to its original position.
Extensor muscle - the muscle that causes something to extend and straighten.
Flexor muscle - the muscle that causes sometg to bend, or flex.
PLANT GROWTH AND SUPPORT
OPEN GROWTH
Meristems - a growth region of a plant where growth occurs.
Merismatic tissues - types of tissues found meristems.

TWO TYPES OF MERISTEM GROWTH:

1. Apical - Primary growth, elongation of stems and roots.
2. Lateral - Secondary growth, the thickening of the stem.

CHAPTER 5
LIFE'S SUPPORT AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

THE NEED FOR EXTRA PROTECTION AND SUPPORT

ANIMAL PROTECTION
An animal’s boy is protected by an outer covering called integument.
INTEGUMENT - outer covering of an animal's body.
 - the protective waterproof wrapping, which includes skin and its surface
glands and other structures derived from or associated with it, compose the
integumentary system.
SKIN STRUCTURES DIFFER AMONG ANIMAL GROUPS
REPTILES - have scales
BIRDS - have feathers
MAMMALS - are covered with hairs
We all know that the skin is the largest organ of the body, isn’t it? It protects us by
giving a waterproof wrapping around the body against the outside world.
*Most mammals, like bears, have a thick coat that provides warmth. Many species also
have certain hairs for special uses, such as for protection or for sense functions.
Whiskers - grow on the lips and cheeks of most mammals, but they also occur on other
parts of the body. These hairs help the animals feel their way through narrow or dark
places.
*Aside from providing warmth, hair also provides various kinds of protection for
animals. The hair color of many species of mammals blends with their surroundings
and helps them hide from their enemies.
*Manufacturers use animal hair in making various products. The thick soft fur that
covers some mammals, like the sheep, is used for coats and other warm clothing,
blankets, and rugs.
*Bristles the short stiff hair of pigs, are used in making various kinds of brushes.
HUMAN SKIN AND ITS LAYER
*The human skin, which makes up about 15% of your total body weight and has surface
area of 1.4 to 1.9 square meters, is the largest organ of the body. An average person's
skin weighs about 3kg more than twice as much of the brain.
LAYERS of SKIN TISSUE
1. epidermis
2. dermis
3. subcutaneous tissue or hypodermis

EPIDERMIS
*the outermost layer, is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most parts of the body.
*The cells of the epidermis are continuously damaged by the environment. They are
scraped, ripped, worn away by friction,and dried out because of moisture loss. You’re
body deals with this damage not by repairing cells, but by replacing.
*It is made up of several epithelial cells.
*The outermost cells of the skin are continuously shed and replaced by a layer of
actively dividing cells at the base of the epidermis. As new skin cells, called
keratinocytes, form, they move upward through the epidermis, producing large amount
of keratin.
Keratin - is a protein that makes the skin tough and waterproof by preventing fluids
and certain substances from passing through the skin.
Melanin - a substance that gives color to the skin
- melanin is actually a pigment that range in color yellow reddish
brown to black.
- melanin absorbs UV radiation, protecting the skin from its harmful effect.
*Skin color depends mainly in the amount of pigment called melanin. Cells, known as
melanocytes, produce less amount of melanin in light-skinned people while more
melanin is produced in people with dark skin
DERMIS
*The middle layer, is between 15 and 40 times thick as the epidermis.
*Also known as the true skin
*Connective tissues in the dermis make the skin tough and elastic.
*The dermis contains nerve cells, blood cells, hair follicles, and specialized skin cells.
*Sensations of touch, temperature, and pain originate in nerve cells within the dermis.
*Arrector pili - tiny muscles in the dermis, that are attached to the hair follicles.
*A network of blood vessels in the dermis also nourishes the living cells of the skin.
These blood vessels also help regulate body temperature by either radiating heat in the
air or conserving heat. This process is called thermoregulation.
Perspiration - the process of removing excess body heat by the help of glands, such
as sweat glans in the dermis.
Destruction of the dermis in serious burns can lead to scars or may even require skin
grafts. But, interestingly,third-degree burns are usually painless because sensory
receptors in the skin have already been destroyed.

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
*The inner most layer, varies greatly thickness among individuals.
*A layer of connective tissues made mostly of fat.
*This skin layer acts a shock absorber, provides additional isolation to help conserve
body heat and stores energy.
The thickness of the subcutaneous tissue varies in different parts of the body. For
example, your eyelids have a very thin subcutaneous tissue whereas the buttocks and
thighs may have more.
MODIFICATION OF THE SKIN
IN THE BOOK ABOUT WHERE THE HAIR GROWS.
*A follicle, a pouch-like structure, surrounds the root of the hair. The base of the root
is shaped like a bulb surrounded by capillaries and nerve fibers. This site undergoes
rapid cell division where cells are pushed upward, die slowly, and form the hard hair
shaft.
*The shaft is made up of dead, hard protein, called keratin in three layers:
Cuticle - outermost region, which protect the inner layer. Healthy-shiny unhealthy-
lifeless crown (crown means hair)
Cortex - layer contains the pigment, melanin, and the structural protein, keratin. The
thickness and strength of our hair of our hair is determined by the cortex. When you a
split ends on your hair, you are seeing the cortex at its worst.
Medulla - the innermost part of some hair, a layer with soft, spongy mass of tissue.
Coarse hair generally has this layer while it is absent in fine hair.
A nail is a tough plate that covers the upper surface at the end of each of your finger.
It is produced by a specialized cells located at the light, semicircular area at the base
of each nail.
Three parts of nails:
1. matrix - lies under the surface of the skin at the base nail. Most of the
matrix is covered by skin. Near the root of the nail, where growth
begins, part of the matrix forms a whitish half moon called the lunula.
2. plate - hard outer part of the nail. It consists of many layers of flat,
dead cells that contain keratin.
3. bed - lies under the plate
*Newly formed cells push the older ones toward tip of the nail. This pushing process
results in the growth of the nail.
*The skin has two kinds of glands, the sebaceous and sweat glands
*Most hair follicles contain an oil gland called the sebaceous gland. This gland
secretes an oil, called sebum, into the follicle.
Hair brushing causes the sebum to cover the hair shaft, making the hair shiny.
*Sebaceous secretion is under control of the endocrine system.
This glands secretes actively during the puberty stage, resulting in acne problems
among teenagers, and it subside later in life, resulting in dry skin
problems.
*Sweat gland maintain the normal temperature of the body through the cooling
process (perspiration).
Perspiration is like a shower, it is the body’s own way of cooling down quickly.
TWO TYPES OF SWEAT GLAND
1. Eccrine glands - produce the sweat that cools the body. They are located
throughout the surface of the skin but are particularly numerous on the
forehead, palms,and soles. Others produce secretions continually others
became active only when the person is under physical or emotional
stress.
3. Apocrine glands - produce sweat that has no important function. They releases
their secretions into the hair follicles. Most of these glands are in the
armpits and around the genitals.
 Sweat is odorless until after it been broken down by bacteria on the skin surface. Most
sweat is about 99 %of water and 1% dissolved salts and acid. After this process, sweat has
what many people consider an unpleasant odor. The reason for this is that sweat glands
located in the body areas with dense hair, such as the armpits also secrete proteins and fatty
acids. Since these substances produce a rich food source for bacteria, stale sweat often
releases the offensive odor of bacterial waste products.
EXTERNAL PROTECTION IN PLANTS
Protection in Non woody Plants
Functions of the dermal tissue system
*On the parts of a plant that are above the ground (stems, leaves), dermal tissues
prevent the plant from drying out by reducing water loss from
evaporation. Here, the epidermis secretes a waxy layer called the
cuticle.
*The thick cuticle on the leaves 4of a wax palm is a source of carnauba wax used to
make candles and lipsticks.
*In a young seedling, the dermal of young plants and the mature non woody plants
forms a covering called epidermis.
PROTECTION IN WOODY PLANTS
*In trees and woody shrubs, however, the epidermis is replaced by periderm, the outer
areas of the bark. The dermal tissue on woody stems and roots consists
of several layers of dead cells that are referred to as cork.
*Cork cells contain a waterproof chemical and are not covered by a waxy cuticle.
Several layers of cork protect the trees. Corks cells have thick walls that
contain a waxy, waterproof substance called suberin.
*Suberin protects the plant from losing water and prevents gases from passing in and
out. Gases enter and leave the tree or shrub through lenticels, which are
round or oval blisters in the surface of the bark.
THE NEED TO PROVIDE BODILY SHAPE AND SUPPORT FOR INTERNAL ORGANS

Skeleton - gives physical support and protection for the body and often provides surfaces for
the attachment of muscles.
THREE BASIC TYPES OF SKELETON IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM:
1. Hydrostatic skeleton - some animals, such as the earthworm, are supported by liquid in
their bodies.
2. Exoskeleton - Having a hard external covering like corals, mollusks, crabs, and insects.
3. Endoskeleton - this skeleton are found in higher forms of animals, particularly vertebrates,
like fishes, frogs, chickens, as well as humans.
THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
Functions of the bones and joints of the skeletal system:
*provides shape and support for the body
*protects internal organs
*provides attachment for major muscles so muscles and bones can work together to move the
body.
*produces blood cells in the red marrow of certain bones.
-the 206 bones that make up the adult skeletal system are among the strongest structures in
the body. When you where born, your skeleton had around 350 bones. By the
time you became an adult, some of your bones fused together to form a single
bone.

DIVISIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM

2 Division Axial & Appendicular
AXIAL SKELETON
*About 80 bones form the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, ribs, breastbone,
and vertebral column(backbone). he most complex part of the axial
skeleton is the skull.
The most complex part of the axial skeleton is the skull. Of the 29 bones of the skull,
8 bones from the cranium encases the brain.
*The skull also contains 14 facial bones, six middle-ear bones, and a single cone that
supports the base of the tongue
The skull is attached to the top of the spine curving column of 26 vertebrae that
supports the center body. Curving to the middle of the vertebrae are 12
pair of ribs which protects the lung, heart, and other vital organ.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
*The other 126 bones compose the appendicular skeleton, which is made up of all the
bones attached to the axial skeleton.
*The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages or limbs-the shoulders, arms, hips,
and legs.
*The arms and legs are attached to the axial skeleton at the shoulders and hips,
respectively.
*The shoulder attachment, called the pectoral girdle, contains two, large, flat shoulder
blades or scapulas and two slender, curved collarbones or clavicles.
*The clavicles connect the scapulas to the upper region of the sternum (breastbone)
and hold the shoulder apart.
*The hip attachment, called the pelvic girdle, contains two large pelvic bones.
TYPES OF BONES
Long bones - those bones found in the legs and arms. They are hollow, yet strong and
lightweight.
Flat bones - found in ribs, breastbones, pelvis, bones of the skull, and the scapula.
Protection for soft or vital organs of the body.
Short bones - like those in the hands and feet, support weight and allow many small
movements.
Sesamoid bones - are small and rounded in appearance. They assist in the proper
functioning of the muscles. These bones are enclosed in a tendon and
located adjacent to joints. The patella is the largest among the sesamoid
 bones.

BONE STRUCTURE
If you were to examine a bone carefully, you would find that its surface is made of
bumps, ridges, tough areas and even holes. Many of this bumps and
ridges provide attachments for muscles and ligaments. Ligaments are
bands of especially strong tissues that connect bones with other bones.
*From the outside, many bones are covered and protected by a tough, white
membrane called periosteum, which is made up of connective tissues
and bone-forming cells involved in the growth and repair of the bone.
*Compact bone - a dense connective tissue that provides support.
*Spongy bone - a loosely structured network of separated connective tissues, which
looks like a honeycomb.
*Bone Marrow - cavities in a spongy bone filled with a soft tissue.
*Cartilage - a flexible nonvascular tissue that acts like a cushion that absorbs shock
at the joints and reduces friction, allowing easier movement.
BONE GROWTH
Cite examples.. have you ever carried a baby? Cartilage not bones as grow older the
cartilage are replaced by bones by depositing minerals. That’s why
babies drink milk
Haversian canals or osteon
- are new bones or osteocytes are added in layers around narrow, hollow channels
shaped liked concentric rings.
- it extend down the length of a bone, forming columns that enable the bone to
withstand stress.
- Haversian canals also contain blood vessels that enter the bone through the
periosteum, which supply osteocytes with nutrients needed for their.

JOINTS: FASTEN BONES TOGETHER

Joints - connects almost all of the 206 bones of the human body.
Cartilage - a tough, smooth, shiny substance that covers the end of each bone.
Synovial fluid - a thin film of slippery fluid that kept apart the cartilage-coated bone
ends.
Ligaments - a stretchy bands hold the bones together. They help stabilize joints and
prevent joints from moving too far in one directions.
Tendons - a dense connective tissue that connect bones to muscles.
TYPES OF JOINTS
1. Fixed or immovable joints - occur when bones are fused together by a protein
called collagen, thus little or no movement is allowed. Example bones in
the skull
2. Slightly movable joints - permit joints to have limited movement. Example
vertebrae
3. Freely movable joints - have wide range of body movement. Example elbows,
hips, shoulders, and knees.
THE NEED TO MOVE FOR VARIOUS LIFE ACTIVITIES
What is muscle?
- are organs made up of thousands of cells called muscle fibers. These muscle fibers
shorten when a muscle contracts. Each muscle fiber consists of
threadlike, small cylindrical structures called myofibrils.
Functions:
*Muscles help maintain normal temperature
*Muscles allow you to digest
*Muscles allow you to move
*Muscles hold your skeleton together
*Muscles affect the rate of blood flow
*Muscles allow you to do various positions
TYPES OF MUSCLES IN HUMANS
Skeletal muscles - voluntary, which means you can control them by thinking. Other
two types are involuntary, which means they work automatically.
Smooth muscles - move food along the digestive system.
Cardiac muscles - responsible for the pumping of heart and never stop working.
HOW DO MUSCLES WORK?
*The ability of the muscle to contract provides the force that moves different parts of
the body. Certain kinds of movement, such as walking, lifting, and using
the arms, require that the muscular organ and skeletal system work
together.
*The 639 muscles in the body are each comprise of around 10 million muscle cells
also known as muscle fibers.
*Each of these cells is like a motor containing 10 cylinders, called, myofibrils,
arranged in a row.
Sarcomere - thick filaments, myosin, and thin filaments, actin, are that are arranged
alternatively.
SKELETAL MUSCLES WORK IN PAIRS
Antagonistic pair - pair of muscle working together. A muscle can only pull in one
direction so it needs another muscle pull it in the opposite direction to
return a bone to its original position.
Extensor muscle - the muscle that causes something to extend and straighten.
Flexor muscle - the muscle that causes sometg to bend, or flex.
PLANT GROWTH AND SUPPORT
OPEN GROWTH
Meristems - a growth region of a plant where growth occurs.
Merismatic tissues - types of tissues found meristems.

TWO TYPES OF MERISTEM GROWTH:

1. Apical - Primary growth, elongation of stems and roots.
2. Lateral - Secondary growth, the thickening of the stem.