Biology for Engineers

Dr. Sandeep Dahake, PhD.

Biomedical Engineering Department
Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management
 Unit I 2

• Engineering perspective of Biological Sciences

• Fundamental differences between Science and Engineering- case studies

• Hierarchy and classification of Life Forms

• Level of organization of life- Cells, Tissues, Organs, System and Organism,

• Anatomy and Physiology

 Introduction to Biology 2

Biology is a branch of science that deals with the Scientific study of life.
❖ What is life?
The condition that distinguishes animals, plants and microorganisms from inorganic matter. This includes
capacity for growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change.

❖ Biology helps to know about the diversity in the living world, the ways by which it can be conserved, more
about ourselves.

❖ Biology is a vast field. It includes the study of various aspects of living organisms and their interactions
with the non-living components.
 Branches of Biology 2

Biology has three primary branches –Botany, Zoology and Microbiology.

❖ Some areas of study in these branches: Taxonomy (the scientific process of arranging things into groups), Morphology (the form and
structure of animals and plants), Anatomy (the scientific study of the structure of human or animal bodies), Histology (the study of
the microscopic structure of tissues), Cell Biology (studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells), Genetics (study of development of
living things is controlled by qualities that have been passed on from parents to children) and Physiology (the scientific study of how living
things function).
❖ Interdisciplinary branches indicate the relationship of Biology with other branches of science like Biophysics (the science which uses the
laws and methods of physics to study biology), Biochemistry (the scientific study of the chemistry of living things), Biometry (the application of
statistical analysis to biological data) and Bioinformatics (the science of collecting and analysing complex biological data such as genetic
codes), Psychology (the scientific study of the mind and the way that people behave) and Socio-biology (involving Biology and Social
Sciences).
❖ Applied branches enable us to apply the knowledge gained from different areas to be used for welfare of man, animals and plants. These
include branches like Agriculture, Animal husbandry (the science of breeding and caring for farm animals), Aquaculture (the rearing of aquatic
animals or the cultivation of aquatic plants for food), Entomology (the scientific study of insects), Food technology, Biotechnology, Nano-
technology (study of nano particles), DNA technology (the study and manipulation of genetic material), Genetic engineering (the science of
changing the way a human, an animal or a plant develops by changing the information in its genes)etc .
 Biomedical engineering concerns the application of engineering principles and practices to living organisms and is used in areas such as
stem cell engineering, biochips and biosensors, and molecular bio-computing.
 Multidisciplinary Nature 2

 It is a difficult task to try to identify one single discipline which is responsible for the progress that can be seen in a biological system. In

fact, it is the combination of various factors, in theory treated independently of one another.

❖ The pace of technological advance in biology and medicine – across fields like data analysis, computer modelling or bio-imaging is

driving the development of new therapies and new diagnostic and measurement tools.

❖ Biomedical engineers design the instruments necessary for understanding and applying these technologies to the very latest

therapeutic methods.

 Biomimicry or Bionics, is a method for creating solutions to human challenges by taking the inspiration from nature.
 Biological Organisms and Man Made Systems 2

 Human eye and camera lenses both focus an inverted

image onto light-sensitive surface.

❖ In the case of a camera, it„s focused onto film or a sensor

chip and in our eyes on retina.

❖ Aperture in camera helps to focus light on film, while in our

eye pupil help to focus light on retina.

❖ Both the eye and a camera can adjust quantity of light

entering. In a camera, it„s done with diaphragm, while in our
eye, it„s done by iris.

❖ Finally, Retina is the sensory layer that lines the very back
of our eyes. It acts like the imaging sensor chip in a digital
camera.

❖ The retina has numerous photoreceptor nerve cells that

help change the light rays into electrical impulses and send
them through the optic nerve to the brain where an image is
finally received and perceived.
Flying Bird and Aircraft 2
 Engineering Perspective of Biological Sciences 2

• Why should Engineers know the

Biology?
• Better understanding of biological and
physiological functions
• Improvements of existing devices/methods
• Discovery of novel biomaterials
•Summary
• Better methods of drug delivery and diagnostics
•Biological engineering, or bioengineering, is the application
• Deeper integration of Engineering, Biology, and of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create
usable, tangible, economically viable products.
Medicine • We need biology to find solutions to challenges, that face
mankind.
• Biology is used in different engineering branches
 Engineering Perspective of Biological Sciences 2

• Examples

• 3D Printer

• 3D bioprinter

• Anatomical modeling

• Prosthetic development

• Customized implants development

• Tissue engineering
 Fundamental difference between Science & Engineering 2

• Generally, Science is the study of the physical world, while Engineering applies scientific knowledge to design processes, structures or equipment.

• Science is the study of systematically arranged facts that can be logically explained while engineering is a branch of science that deals with the
discipline of gaining and using scientific, mathematical, economic, and practical knowledge to design and produce machines and devices that are
useful to man.

• Science has several classifications including natural science, social science, empirical and applied sciences while engineering has four main branches
that include: chemical, mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering.

• Engineering uses different scientific fields in its pursuit of suitable designs and methods of producing devices for the benefit of man.

• Science is a collection of knowledge and validated systems while engineering is the utilization of these systems and knowledge to create devices and
structures.

• Both Engineers and Scientists will have a strong knowledge of science, mathematics and technology, but Engineering students will learn to apply
these principles to designing creative solutions to Engineering challenges.

• So when we think of a scientist versus engineer, the two aren’t separate entities but belong to each other – without science, there wouldn’t be
engineering.

• This requires not only clear communication, but also collaboration on the part of team members to analyze the design from various perspectives,
critical thinking about the how or why behind the phenomenon, what the arguments will be against a certain design or claim, and creativity in terms
of how to make a persuasive argument using evidence
 Fundamental difference between Science & Technology 2

• The terms science and technology, are often pronounced in the same breath and used as
synonyms, because they are closely intertwined, that their difference is often times ignored.
• Science is all about acquiring knowledge of the natural phenomenon along with the reasons for
such phenomenon, like Why the sky is blue? Why are leaves green? Why rainfall occurs? What are
the colors of the rainbow? How do plants make their food? And so forth.

• When this knowledge is put to practice, to solve human needs or

problems, it is termed as technology.
• So, in short, science deals with theories, principles and laws
whereas technology is all about products, processes and
designs.
 Science Vs Engineering Vs Technolgy 2

• What is the difference between Science, Engineering and Technology?

•
Science Vs Engineering Vs Technology: Case Study 3

Figure: Problem in conventional surgery

Science Vs Engineering Vs Technology: Case Study 4
 Binomial Nomenclature 2

• There are millions of plants and animals in the world; we know the plants and animals in our own area by their local
names. These local names would vary from place to place, even within a country. Probably you would recognise the
confusion that would be created if we did not find ways and means to talk to each other, to refer to organisms we are
talking about.
• Hence, there is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms such that a particular organism is known by the same
name all over the world. This process is called nomenclature.
• Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly and we know to what
organism the name is attached to. This is identification.
• Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known organisms. Each name has two
components – the Generic name and the specific epithet. This system of providing a name with two components is called
Binomial nomenclature.
• This naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over the world. This naming system
using a two word format was found convenient.
• Let us take the example of mango to understand the way of providing scientific names better. The scientific name of
mango is written as Mangifera indica. Let us see how it is a binomial name.
• In this name Mangifera represents the genus while indica, is a particular species, or a specific epithet.
 Rules of Nomenclature 2

Other universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:

1. Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics. They are Latinised or derived
from Latin irrespective of their origin.
2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component
denotes the specific epithet.
3. Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or
printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet
starts with a small letter.

5. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.

 Classification of Life Forms 2

• Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is necessary to devise some means to make
this possible. This process is classification.
• Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some
easily observable characters. For example, we easily recognise groups such as plants or animals or dogs,
cats or insects.
• ‘Dogs’, ‘Cats’, ‘Mammals’, ‘Wheat’, ‘Rice’, ‘Plants’, ‘Animals’, etc., are convenient categories we use to study
organisms. The scientific term for these categories is taxa. Here you must recognise that taxa can indicate
categories at very different levels. ‘Plants’ – also form a taxa. ‘Wheat’ is also a taxa. Similarly, ‘animals’,
‘mammals’, ‘dogs’ are all taxa – but you know that a dog is a mammal and mammals are animals.
Therefore, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’ and ‘dogs’ represent taxa at different levels.
• Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa.
• This process of classification is taxonomy.
 Hierarchy & Classification of Life Forms 2

Species: Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species.
Genus: Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to
species of other genera.
Family: The next category, Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as
compared to genus and species.
Order: You have seen earlier that categories like species, genus and families are based on a number of similar
characters. Generally, order and other higher taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates
of characters. Order being a higher category, is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar
characters.
Class: This category includes related orders. For example, order Primata comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon is
placed in class Mammalia along with order Carnivora that includes animals like tiger, cat and dog. Class
Mammalia has other orders also.
Phylum: Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals constitute the
next higher category called Phylum
Kingdom: All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom. Taxonomic categories
showing hierarchial
Animalia in the classification system of animals. arrangement in
The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, and comprises all plants from various divisions. ascending order
Hierarchy of Biological Classification 2
 Classification of Living Organism 2

•Since the dawn of civilisation, there have been many attempts to classify living organisms. It was done instinctively not using
criteria that were scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our own use – for food, shelter and clothing.
•Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification. He used simple morphological characters to
classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood and
those that did not.
•In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included
all plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular
and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
•Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to understand, but, a large number of
organisms did not fall into either category. Hence the two kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate.
•Besides, gross morphology a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode
of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc.
•Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone several changes over the time. Though plant and
animal kingdoms have been a constant under all different systems, the understanding of what groups/organisms be included
under these kingdoms have been changing; the number and nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently
by different scientists over the time.
Classification of Living Organism 2

Characteristics of the five kingdoms

 Classification of Living Organism 2

To study the diversity among living organisms in an effective way we need to arrange various kinds of organisms in a systematic
manner.

 The methods of arranging organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification.

❖ There are 1.8 million known organisms, so classification makes easier to study.

❖ Living organisms are classified based on the following criteria:

➢ Ultrastructure

➢ Cellular nature

➢ Carbon sources and

➢ Energy sources.
 Classification based on ultra structure 2

Based on the difference in cellular organization and biochemistry, the living organisms has been divided into two groups namely
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are categorised into unicellular and Multicellular.

Prokaryotes (pro=before; karyon= nucleus) Eukaryotes (Eu =true; karyon=nucleus)

Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that do not contain Fungi, algae, slime moulds and protozoa, humans are
chlorophyll. They are unicellular and do not show true branching. eukaryotes.

 These has no organelles, all the action takes place in the cytosol ❖ These cells are characterized by having a distinct,
or cytoplasmic membrane. membrane bounded nucleus.

 Most bacteria possess peptidoglycan, a unique polymer that ❖ Eukaryotic cells contains a variety of structures and cell
makes its synthesis a good target for antibiotics. organelles.

Protein synthesis takes place in the cytosol with structurally

different ribosome‟s.
 Cellular Basis of Life 2

All organisms are made of cells. Cells function differently in Unicellular and Multicellular organisms.

Unicellular Organisms:
❖ Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell that carries out all of the functions needed by the organism.

Multicellular Organisms:
❖ Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell, with groups of cells differentiating to take on specialized
functions.
In humans, cells differentiate early in development to become nerve cells, skin cells, muscle cells, blood cells, sperm cells and
other types of cells.
 Classification Based on Carbon Sources 2

Organisms can be identified according to the source of carbon & energy sources they use for metabolism (the process by which the
body changes food and drink into energy).

❖ Based on carbon sources of various organisms the organisms are classified as

➢ Autotrophs (“self”):- These organisms convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic carbon compounds. Ex: plants and
cyanobacteria.

➢ Heterotrophs (“other”):- These organisms depend on more complex organic compounds as nutrients. Ex: Humans to many
prokaryotes.
 Heterotrophs 2

Based on energy intake of food and digestion of organic substances derived from plants and animals heterotrophs are further
classified as.

➢ Saprophytic nutrients: These organisms obtain their food from dead organic matter of dead plants and animals.
Example: Fungi and many bacteria.

➢ Parasitic nutrients: These organisms derives their food from the body of another living organism (called host) without killing it.
Example: Plasmodium and round worms.

➢ Holozoic nutrients: These organisms takes the complex organic food materials into its body by the process of ingestion; the
ingested food is digested and then absorbed into the body. Example: Human beings.

These holozoic nutrients are further classified based on the type of food as: Herbivores Carnivores & Omnivores
 Classification based on energy sources 2

All organisms need energy that is derived from the transfer of electrons, but the source of electrons differs between various
types of organisms.

❖ Based on energy sources the organisms are classified as

➢ Phototrophs (“light”):- These organisms get their energy for electron transfer from light.

➢ Chemotrophs (“chemical”):- These obtain energy for electron transfer by breaking chemical bonds.
Five Kingdom Classification System 2
 Levels of organization of life- 2

Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems & Organism

Levels of Organization

•We know it all starts with the cell. And for some species it ends with the cell.

•The living world can be organized into different levels.

•For example, many individual organisms can be organized into the following levels:

Cell: Basic unit of structure and function of all living things.

Tissue: Group of cells of the same kind.
Organ: Structure composed of one or more types of tissues. The tissues of an organ
work together to perfume a specific function. Human organs include the brain, stomach,
kidney, and liver. Plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves.
Organ system: Group of organs that work together to perform a certain function.
Examples of organ systems in a human include the skeletal, nervous, and reproductive
systems.
Organism: Individual living thing that may be made up of one or more organ systems

•An individual mouse is made up of several organ systems.

•The system shown here is the digestive system, which breaks down food into a form that
cells can use.
•One of the organs of the digestive system is the stomach.
•The stomach, in turn, consists of different types of tissues.
•Each type of tissue is made up of cells of the same type.
 Levels of organization of life- 2

Cells, Tissues, Organs, Systems & Organism

•There are also levels of organization above the individual
organism. These levels are illustrated in Figure below.

•Organisms of the same species that live in the same area make up
a population. For example, all of the goldfish living in the same
area make up a goldfish population.

•All of the populations that live in the same area make up a

community. The community that includes the goldfish population
also includes the populations of other fish, coral, and other
organisms.

•An ecosystem consists of all the living things (biotic factors) in a

given area, together with the nonliving environment (abiotic
factors). The nonliving environment includes water, sunlight, soil,
and other physical factors.

•A group of similar ecosystems with the same general type of

physical environment is called a biome.

•The biosphere is the part of Earth where all life exists, including all
This picture shows the levels of organization in nature, the land, water, and air where living things can be found. The
from the individual organism to the biosphere. biosphere consists of many different biomes.
 About Human Body 2

• About Human Body

• If we were to “break apart” the human body at the microscopic level, then the cell
would constitute its most basic unit.
• The average adult has somewhere between 30 – 40 trillion (1012) cells, and an
estimated 242 billion (109) new cells are produced every day.
• When a select group of cells with similar functions come together, it forms a tissue.
• Tissues cumulate into organs,
• Group of organs form organ systems and
• Eventually, organ system to a complete organism.

• Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ System -> Organism
 Key Points About Human Body 2

• Every human being, tissues, human body parts and the organ systems are made up of cells- the fundamental unit of life. Anatomy is the science of
understanding the structure and the parts of living organisms. Physiology, on the other hand, deals with the internal mechanisms and the
processes that work towards sustaining life.
• These can include biochemical and physical interactions between various factors and components in our body. With the progress of evolution,
organisms began to exhibit advanced characteristics and features that enabled them to be more efficient and thrive in their respective
environment.
• The human structure can be described as bipedal, with hair covering the body, presence of mammary glands and a set of extremely well-
developed sense organs.
• With respect to human body anatomy, we have a specialized circulatory system that enables the efficient transport of materials and nutrients
within the body.
• The presence of a well-developed digestive system helps to extract essential nutrients and minerals required by the body.
• A well developed respiratory system ensures the efficient gas exchange and the nervous system enables coordination and interaction within the
body and also the external environment, thereby ensuring survival.

• Human Body Parts and their Functions

• The list of human body parts vary as the standard definition of an organ is still up for debate.
• However, there are an estimated 79 organs identified to date. We also possess organs that have “lost” their function throughout our evolution. Such
organs are called vestigial organs.
• Some of these organs work together and form systems that are specialised to perform a specific function or a set of functions. Collectively, these are
known as organ systems.
• Out of these 79 organs, five are crucial for survival, and any damage to these five organs might result in termination of life.
• These five crucial human body parts are the brain, heart, liver, lungs and kidneys.

• Human Body Structure

• There are different cavities in the human body that house various organ systems.
• The cranial cavity is the space within the skull, it protects the brain and other parts of the central nervous system.
• The lungs are protected in the pleural cavity.
• The abdominal cavity houses the intestines, liver and spleen (an organ that is part of the lymphatic system).
 Human Anatomy 2

• Human Anatomy
• Human Anatomy is the scientific study of form and shapes of human beings
• Skeleton
• The human body exhibits a variety of movements from walking and running to
crawling, jumping and climbing. The framework that enables us to do all these
activities is the skeleton.
• Humans have as much as 300 bones at birth. However, the bones start to fuse with
age. At adulthood, the total number of bones is reduced to 206.
• The skeleton also protects several vital organs such as the heart, lungs and the liver.
• Bones are attached to other bones through ligaments, a fibrous connective tissue.
• Joints are the points at which two or more bones meet.
• They enable a range of movements like rotation, abduction (movement away from the
body’s midline), adduction (movement toward the centreline of body), protraction
(moving forward), retraction (moving backward) and more.
• Based on flexibility and mobility, joints can be further classified into movable joints
and immovable joints. Movable joints are flexible (shoulder) while immovable joints
(also called fixed joints)(skull, pelvic girdle) are non-flexible since the bones are
fused.
 Skull 2

• Skull
• The skull is composed of two sets of bones – cranial and facial,
that totals to 22 bones.
• Cranial bones are 8 in number.
• They form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for the
brain.
• The facial region is made up of 14 skeletal elements which form
the front part of the skull.
• A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of
the buccal cavity (oral cavity) and it is also included in the skull.
• Each middle ear contains three tiny bones – Malleus, Incus and
Stapes, collectively called Ear Ossicles.
• The skull region articulates with the superior region of the
vertebral column (cervical region) with the help of two occipital
condyles (dicondylic skull).
 Vertebral Column 2

• Vertebral Column
• Human vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called
vertebrae and is dorsally (back) placed.
• It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of
the trunk (The main part of the body that contains the chest, abdomen
(stomach and bowels), pelvis, and back.).
• Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the
spinal cord passes.
• First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles.
• The vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar
(5), sacral (1-fused) and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the skull.
• The number of cervical vertebrae are seven in almost all mammals including
human beings.
• The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and
serves as the point of attachment for the ribs and musculature (muscles)
of the back.
• Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
 Ribs & Rib Cage 2

• Ribs and rib cage

• There are 12 pairs of ribs.
• Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the vertebral
column and ventrally to the sternum.
• It has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called
bicephalic.
• First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs.
• Dorsally (back), they are attached to the thoracic vertebrae and
ventrally (front) connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline
cartilage.
• The 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the
sternum but join the seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage.
These are called vertebrochondral (false) ribs.
• Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected ventrally
and are therefore, called floating ribs.
• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage.
 Upper Limb 2

• Limb
• The bones of the limbs along with their girdles (pectorial girdles i.e.
attachment for the forelimbs, usually consisting of the scapulas (shoulder
bone) and clavicles (collar bone)) constitute the appendicular (one of two
major bone groups in the body) skeleton.
• Each limb is made of 30 bones. The bones of the hand (fore limb) are
humerus, radius and ulna, carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number),
metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in
number) (Figure 20.9).
• Each girdle is formed of two halves. Each half of pectoral girdle consists of a
clavicle and a scapula (Figure 20.9).
• Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the
thorax between the second and the seventh ribs.
• Each clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures.
• This bone is commonly called the collar bone.
•
 Lower Limb 2

• Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in the articulation of the upper and the lower
limbs respectively with the axial skeleton.
• Femur (thigh bone – the longest bone), tibia and fibula, tarsals (ankle bones – 7 in
number), metatarsals (5 in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in number) are the
bones of the legs (hind limb) (Figure 20.10).
• A cup shaped bone called patella cover the knee ventrally (knee cap).
• Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones (Figure 20.10). Each coxal bone is formed
by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis.
• At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum to which the
thigh bone articulates.
• The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis (a
joint sandwiched between left pelvic bone and right pelvic bone) containing
fibrous cartilage.
 Muscles 2

• Muscles
• Muscles are specialised tissues which assist the bones in locomotion.
• Muscles are attached to the bones through tendons.
• Movement of limbs happens due to the contraction and relaxation of the corresponding muscles
present in that region.
• Joints help in the flexibility of bones, but a bone cannot be bent or stretched until a muscle acts
on it. In other words, the muscles attached to that bone pulls it to the direction of movement.
• Furthermore, most movement involves muscles that work as a pair. For example, when we bend
our arm, muscles in that region contract, become shorter and stiffer and pull the bones to the
direction of movement.
• For relaxation (stretching), muscles in the opposite direction have to pull the bones towards it.

• List of Human Body Parts

• Human body parts comprise a head, neck and four limbs that are connected to a torso.
• Giving the body its shape is the skeleton, which is composed of cartilage (strong, flexible
connective tissue that protects your joints and bones) and bone.
• Human body internal parts such as the lungs, heart, and brain, are enclosed within the
skeletal system and are housed within the different internal body cavities.
• The spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the body.
 Human Physiology 2

• Human Physiology
• Physiology: the scientific study of how living things function
• It is referred to the physical, mechanical, and biochemical function of
humans.
• This connects health, medicine, and science in a way that studies how
the human body acquaints itself to physical activity, stress, and diseases.
• The person who is trained to study human physiology is called a
physiologist.
• Claude Bernard is referred to as the father of Physiology for his
exemplary research.
 Human Digestive System 2

• The digestive system breaks down food and assimilates nutrients

into the body, which the body then uses for growth and cell repair.
• The major components of the digestive system are: Mouth, Teeth,
Tongue, Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Gastrointestinal
tract, Small and large intestines, Rectum
• The process of digestion starts with mastication (chewing food).
Then, the saliva mixes with food and forms a bolus, a small
rounded mass that can be easily swallowed. Once swallowed, the
food travels down the oesophagus and into the stomach. The
stomach secretes strong acids and powerful enzymes that break
the food down into a paste.
• It then moves into the small intestine where the food is broken
down even more because of the bile secreted by the liver and
powerful, digestive enzymes from the pancreas. This is the stage
at which nutrients are absorbed from the food.
• The leftover materials (stool) then move on to the large intestine
where it transforms from liquid to solid, as water is removed.
Finally, it gets pushed into the rectum, ready to be eliminated
from the body.
 Human Respiratory System 2

• The respiratory process involves the intake of oxygen, and the

exhale of carbon dioxide from the body.
• This system is also known as the ventilatory system, gas
exchange system or respiratory apparatus.
• Vertebrates like human beings possess lungs for respiration.
• The process of respiration starts with the cycle of inhalation
and exhalation.
• Inhalation results in the oxygen entering into the body and
exhalation results in carbon dioxide exiting from the body.
• Anatomically, the respiratory system comprises the following
organs: Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Lungs, Diaphragm
• By diffusion, molecules of carbon dioxide and oxygen are
exchanged passively among the blood cells and external
environment.
• This swap is done through alveoli (which are the air sacs
(compartments)) in the lungs.
 Human Nervous System 2

• The voluntary and involuntary actions are maintained and taken care of by the central nervous system.
• It helps to channel the signals to and from different parts of our body.
• Nervous System is broadly classified into two categories: Central Nervous System & Peripheral Nervous
System
• The central nervous system contains the brain and the spinal cord.
• While the peripheral nervous system includes nerves and ganglia that are present outside the brain
and spinal cord. Through the axons, every part of the body gets connected.
• Central Nervous System consists of:
• Forebrain: It comprises the cerebrum, hypothalamus, and thalamus. The largest part of the brain is the
cerebrum. Thinking, perceiving, controlling motor function, receiving and processing information and
understanding language are the main functions done by this section of the brain. Also, sexual
development and emotion functions are attached to the fore-brain.
• Midbrain: It is situated between the hypothalamus and thalamus. The brain stem is associated with the
midbrain. Auditory and visual responses are controlled by the mid-brain.
• Hindbrain: The medulla, pons, and cerebellum are together, tied in the hind-brain. Interconnections of
different parts of the brain’s surface that helps to accommodate neurons and connect them to the spinal
column are done by the Hind brain.
• Peripheral Nervous System consists of:
• Somatic nervous system: The system’s primary purpose is to transmit the motor and sensory impulses
from CNS and back. It is linked to all the sensory organs, limbs and skeletal system. Imagine a scenario
where you are riding a bicycle, and suddenly, you spot an obstacle (say a dog) on the road. Your ability to
immediately swerve out of the obstacle’s path and avoid the crash is the result of the somatic nervous
system taking action.
• Autonomic Nervous System: This system works without the person’s effort. The system helps to relay
impulse from the central nervous system to smooth muscles and involuntary organs such as your heart,
lungs etc. Also, it prepares the body against any violent attacks or abnormal conditions such as high
body temperature during a fever or high rate of breathing and blood pressure after a strenuous exercise. Distribution of Nerves in humans (top)
and the Neuron (bottom)