Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL

Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL Presentations
Mary Thumann
Sign Language Studies, Volume 13, Number 3, Winter 2013, pp. 316-349
(Article)
Published by Gallaudet University Press

DOI: 10.1353/sls.2013.0010
For additional information about this article

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/sls/summary/v013/13.3.thumann.html
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MARY TH U M A N N
Identifying Recurring
Depiction in ASL
Presentations
Abstract
By using depiction, language users are able to provide information
about what an entity or event is like, what it looks like, or even what
it acts like. When giving a presentation, signers may use and reuse
instances of depiction and may switch from one instance to another.
In an examination of 160 minutes of video of American Sign Lan-
guage (ASL) presentations,1 the presenters averaged twenty instances
of depiction (of varying lengths) per minute. The high occurrence
of depiction in these ASL presentations suggests that it is necessary
to be able to recognize depiction in ASL discourse.
In this article I introduce the term depiction as it relates to ASL,
provide examples, and report on changes that aid in identifying depic-
tion, particularly recurring depiction, in ASL presentations. I describe
my analysis of the nonmanual changes (e.g., change in direction of
eye gaze) that occur just prior to and at the onset of depiction and
also discuss manual changes.
Th e u se of languages enables us to perform two major
types of communicative acts.2 The first involves real, or literal, behav-
iors that are actually happening at the time they are observed. The
second includes nonliteral behaviors that are not actually happening
but are, rather, a representation of behaviors or events (Goffman 1974).
These representations, also known as depiction, involve the act of show-
ing what something “looks like or is like” (Streeck 2008, 289; emphasis
in the original) by the use of words, vocal intonation, gestures, or
Mary Thumann received her PhD from the Department of Linguistics at Gallaudet
University; her dissertation was on identifying depiction in ASL presentations.
316
Sign Language Studies Vol. 13 No. 3 Spring 2013
Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL Presentations | 317
partial physical demonstrations. In order to ensure accurate compre-

hension, addressees must be able to distinguish instances of depiction
from instances of behavior and dialogue that are actually occurring.
Depiction of an entity or event is understood by first recognizing that
the entity or event is not literally occurring, then by understanding
it as if it were the actual entity or event.
Although depiction can occur in both spoken languages and in
signed languages, I focus on depiction in ASL. Drawing from and
expanding on the work of Liddell (2003) and Dudis (2007), I identify
depiction as the representation of aspects of an entity, event, or ab-
stract concept by signers’ use of their articulators, their body, and the
signing space around them. A partial demonstration or representation
of entities or events, also referred to as depiction, occurs throughout
language use.
An instance of depiction occurs when a signer represents an en-
tity or event that is not actually present. Although addressees are not
able to see the entities or events discussed, signers use role shifting,
classifiers and classifier predicates, and space to make certain aspects
visible. In each depiction, signers may associate a fragment of a sign, a
location in signing space, or the signers themselves with the depicted
behavior or entity. In this way, addressees are provided visual infor-
mation that they can use to form their own conceptualization of the
entity or event.
When signers use depiction, they may utilize different parts of their
bodies or various locations in their signing space (see figure 1).
Fig ure 1. Use of articulators; use of space; use of head, body position, and facial
expression.
318 | Sign L ang uag e Studi e s
The images in figure 1 show the signers using their articulators,

face, head, torso, and signing space to depict various aspects of infor-
mation in their presentations (e.g., |roadrunner|3 [hands and arms]; a
|teacher| sitting outside watching a |group of students| [hands and
space], and a |teacher| having a conversation with |students| [head
and body position, facial expression]). In ASL, the language user is
able to portray certain information, thereby conveying the signer’s
conceptualization of the entity or event in question.
Previous Research on Features of ASL

Previous researchers have reported on features of ASL using terms
such as role shifting, spatial mapping, referential shift in discourse, shift in
perspective, constructed action, and constructed dialogue to label those that
involve depiction. Their work has identified various changes in sign-
ers that occur when such features are used for depiction, including
changes in torso orientation, eye gaze, and head position, as well as
directing signs toward locations in signing space.
With regard to the significance of head and body position, eye
gaze, and facial expression, several studies have found that changes in
these nonmanual features may convey role shifts, referential shifts, and
changes in perspective (Padden 1986; Roy 1989; Winston 1991, 1995;
van Hoek 1992, 1996; Poulin and Miller 1995; Metzger 1995; Fridman-
Mintz and Liddell 1998; Liddell 1998; Swabey 2002; Janzen 2004);
the utilization of locations in signing space as evidence of the use of
surrogates or tokens (Fridman-Mintz and Liddell 1998; Liddell 2003;
Dudis 2007); evidence of which mental space is active for the signer
(Liddell 2003); and evidence of depiction (Liddell 2003; Dudis 2007).
Because the features these researchers discuss are encompassed by
depiction, their findings are relevant to the identification of depiction.
Liddell (2003) analyzes sequences of surrogate spaces (i.e., loca-
tions in signing space that represent a life-sized entity) in a narrative
and finds that changes in the signer’s eye gaze, face, or body posture
help the addressee distinguish between different |entities| (2003).
Additional research has identified the significance of body shifts and
eye gaze when signers switch from one character to another or in
sequences of surrogate spaces (Padden 1986; Winston 1993; Fridman-
Mintz and Liddell 1998; Liddell 2003). Researchers have also reported
on ways of marking referential shifts with changes in body position,

facial expression, orientation of shoulders, and eye gaze (Poulin and
Miller 1995; Janzen 2004).
Janzen (2004) finds that signers’ use of space, phonological changes,
and the morphological construction of some ASL verbs provide evi-
dence of their conceptualization of events. Phonological changes can
signal a perspective shift. The way some signs are articulated may
also signal a transition from one |subject|’s perspective to that of
another |subject|. In addition, signers create sequences of simpler
spatial representations based on how they conceptualize the events of
a narrative; some entities may have more than one spatial placement
(Fridman-Mintz and Liddell 1998).
My examination extends the findings of earlier research by focus-
ing more specifically on the identification of depiction, describing
some of the changes that aid in identifying depiction, and reporting
on the occurrence of these changes in ASL presentations. My observa-
tions corroborate the findings of these researchers, whose work laid
the foundation for my analysis of adjacent and recurring depiction
in ASL presentations. I maintain that certain nonmanual adjustments
(e.g., in head position or facial expression) and manual ones (e.g.,
producing signs in specific locations) aid in identifying a switch in
depiction. In addition, information in the context, frame, and content
of an utterance helps to distinguish between recurring instances of
depiction. In the remainder of this article I discuss such information.
Identifying Depiction
Depiction provides additional information to lexical items used in
ASL discourse. Because depiction involves the use of a signer’s ar-
ticulators and other parts of a signer’s body, changes in these features
may signal switches from one instance of depiction to another. The
nonmanual changes that occur just prior to and at the onset of depic-
tion may not only signify instances of depiction but also indicate a
switch from one instance of depiction to another.
Data for This Study

In 2008 the American Sign Language Teachers’ Association (ASL-
TA) published a set of DVDs titled About Teaching ASL, produced
by the Communication Service for the Deaf (CSD), which show

presentations given by Deaf professionals in ASL education. These
presentations were intended for the professional development of ASL
teachers although no actual audience is present and no interaction
takes place between the presenters and any participants.
I selected a sample of presentations from the videos that were
representative of natural ASL use. The sample includes presentations
given by four Caucasian Deaf presenters, Betti Bonni, Keith Cagle,
Ken Mikos, and Tom Riggs. Each presentation demonstrated ASL con-
ventions in grammar, semantics, vocabulary, sign production, fluidity,
register, prosody, and affect. All four presenters, as well as the president
of ASLTA, graciously permitted me to analyze these presentations.
The presentations were examined for frequency of occurrence of
depiction.The 160 minutes analyzed contained more than three thou-
sand instances of depiction of all three types (i.e., abstract depictions,
setting depictions, and event depictions); there were even depictions
within depictions (e.g., token spaces within constructed dialogue). In a
closer examination of 25 percent of these presentations (approximately
40 minutes), there were 987 instances of depiction, the majority of
which were preceded by, or occurred with, the same types of changes
reported by previous researchers.
Nonmanual changes, including shifts in eye gaze, facial expres-
sion, or a slight shift in the signer’s head or body position, occurred
in 82 percent of 987 instances of depiction. A change in the direc-
tion of the presenter’s eye gaze occurred in 35 percent of instances
just prior to and at the onset of an instance of depiction. A change
in head position (i.e., when the presenter’s head turned from side to
side or moved up and down) occurred most frequently, in fact, in 42
percent of all occurrences of the changes that indicated depiction. A
change in a signer’s facial expression (i.e., when a signer’s expression
changed from that understood as the presenter’s to that representing
a |subject|) occurred in 12 percent of the occurrences of nonmanual
changes indicating depiction. The least frequent change was a change
in the signer’s body position, which occurred in 11 percent of changes
identifying depiction.
In the data, the majority (66 percent) of the nonmanual changes
occurred in combination with at least one other change just prior to
Table 1. Number of Changes prior to or at Onset of Depiction

Total # of 0 1 2 3 4
depictions changes change changes changes changes
Total # 987 179 156 423 205 24
Percentage 18% 16% 42% 21% 2%
of total
and at the onset of depiction. The most frequent nonmanual changes

that co-occurred were those in head position and eye gaze. In 21
percent of the instances of depiction, three changes occurred just
prior to or at the onset of depiction. In the majority (83 percent) of
those instances, two of the three changes involved eye gaze and head
position.
The following tables summarize the number and types of changes
that occurred in the data, as well as the number of instances in which
changes co-occurred.
Table 1 shows the total number of instances of depiction as well as
the number of changes that preceded or coincided with the onset of
each instance. As the table shows, the majority of instances of depic-
tion occurred with two nonmanual changes.
Table 2 summarizes the information (by type) on nonmanual and
manual changes that preceded or occurred at the onset of instances
of depiction. The row showing the percentage of instances reveals the
percentage of the 987 instances of depiction that were preceded by
each of these changes. With many instances of depiction more than
one change occurred.
Although nonmanual changes occurred in 82 percent of the 987
instances of depiction, the remaining 18 percent had no observable
Table 2 . Occurrence of Nonmanual Changes

Changes by Type prior to and at Onset of Depiction (987 Instances)
# of head body
nonmanual position eye gaze expression position
changes change change change change
Totals 1,719 720 602 210 187
Percentage of 82% 73% 61% 21% 19%
987 depictions
nonmanual changes. Instead, these instances of depiction involved

manual changes (discussed later).
As stated earlier, the two most frequently occurring changes were
a change in head position and eye gaze, which most often occurred
in combination with other changes. Of the instances with two or
more nonmanual changes, 43 percent involved a combination of two
changes just prior to or during an instance of depiction. There were
205 instances of depiction (21 percent of 987) in which three non-
manual changes occurred; the majority of these included a change
in eye gaze and head position (83 percent). The information in these
tables shows how frequently changes in head position and eye gaze
occur just prior to and during instances of depiction.
The changes identified in this analysis do not predict depiction;
rather, they serve as indications to the addressee that an instance of
depiction either may occur or is occurring. These manual and non-
manual changes thus help addressees identify instances of depiction.
They can occur alone, but more often they co-occur with at least
one other change, most frequently variations in head position and
eye gaze. In the 18 percent of instances of depiction with no observ-
able nonmanual changes prior to and at the onset of the depiction,
manual information aided the identification of the instance of depic-
tion.These manual changes included buoys (discussed later), indicating
or depicting verbs, or identifying information in the context of the
segment. This information includes previously associated locations in
signing space, buoys, and indicating or depicting verbs.
Recurring Depiction
As signers use depiction throughout discourse, a single depiction or
depiction type may be continuously manifested. Throughout each
presentation I examined, there was evidence that the signers used
certain depictions or locations in their signing space repeatedly. I iden-
tified these as recurring depiction, which involves repeated instances of a
depiction type for different entities (e.g., a particular token space) or
the repeated use of a location in signing space (e.g., the area ahead of
the signer) to represent the same entity or event. Recurring depiction
may be used to represent either the same or various entities or events
throughout an ASL text.
[write-on]→|blackboard| [write-on]→|blackboard| [write-on]→|blackboard|
Fig ure 2 . Different locations for the same object, |blackboard|.
Many second-language learners of ASL report that they are taught

that once an entity has been established in a location, it must remain in
that location throughout the discourse. The data I analyzed, however,
revealed instances in which one entity was established in different
locations, for example, in the Riggs presentation, where he utilizes
three locations for a |blackboard|.
Figure 2 illustrates that Riggs associated the blackboard with the
space to his left, the space to his right, and the space ahead of him.
Several researchers report on signers’ use of different locations for
the same entity (Padden 1986; van Hoek 1992, 1996; Poulin 1995).
The change in location for the same entity may be related to shifts in
setting or shifts in frame (Padden) or to signers’ conceptualization of
the events they discuss in each segment of the discourse (van Hoek
and Poulin).
Although Riggs did not appear to limit his use of each |black-
board| for specific contexts, he tended to use the same location de-
pending on what he was discussing in the segment. In thirteen out
of fifteen instances in which Riggs depicted the blac k board to
his right he discusses the no-voice policy in his class. In twelve of
the instances in which Riggs uses the blac kboard on his left, his
utterances involve written English. Riggs depicted the blackboard
as being in front of him four times; two of these occurred during
his discussion of the no-voice policy in class, one occurred when he
talked about writing Spanish, and the fourth occurred when he talked
about drawing pictures rather than writing English words.
This supports earlier findings that show that an entity or refer-

ent can be associated with various locations in signing space. These
locations may change according to the topic, the signers’ conceptu-
alization of an entity or event, and which mental space is active in a
particular segment of discourse (Padden 1986; van Hoek 1992, 1996).
If the perspective of an entity or event changes, the location associated
with it may change as well (Poulin 1995).
For my analysis, I selected one form of recurring depiction from
each presenter, which resulted in a total of twenty-eight entities as-
sociated with ninety-eight instances. At times the presenter utilized a
depiction type associated with either the same or a different |entity|
or |event| (i.e., abstract two-dimensional map). Mikos utilized the
space ahead of him 23 times throughout his presentations. Bonni
used the token space to her upper right 18 times; Cagle associated
the token space in front of him 15 times; and Riggs used the signing
space to his left 30 times.
Figure 3 shows the number of instances of recurring depictions by
signer and the |entity| or |event| associated with each. The figure
also shows the twenty-eight entities associated with repeated depic-
tions in the data. The majority of these depictions occurred in the
same general location.4 Bonni employed the token space located to
her upper right (i.e., near her right shoulder) and associated it with
Fi g ure 3. Recurring depiction by signer.

five different entities: |linguists|, |Sam Supalla|, |Brenda Schick|,

|language|, and |Ella Mae Lentz|. In his presentation, Cagle associ-
ated the area in front of him with plural instances of eleven entities. As
he pointed to several locations in the space ahead of him, he used this
space to represent asl teache r s, asl prog rams, and s tude nts
(i.e., p ro - p l →|teacher|, p ro - p l →|ASL program|). Mikos associated the lo-
cation in the signing space in front of him with four entities: a |map|,
|language expressions|, the |face| of a signer, and |context|. Riggs
associated the space to his left with four entities throughout his pre-
sentation and further associated one of the entities, a |blackboard|,
with three different locations in his signing space.
Once an entity has been associated with a depiction or a location
in signing space, it appears to remain associated with that entity until
the signers produce a noun phrase as they specifically associate the
location with a new entity. When a new entity was associated with
the same location in signing space, the signer marked this change in
some way. In my analysis, the first instance of a new entity in a re-
curring depiction or location in signing space was accompanied by
a definite descriptor (e.g., noun phrase). The remaining instances as-
sociated with the same entity were understood through the context,
frame, or content of the utterance.
Context, Frame, and Content in Distinguishing Depictions

Language expressions have meaning potential and are fully understood
only in context; the immediate context of an utterance directs ad-
dressees to appropriate stores of knowledge (i.e., frames) with which
to understand the expression (Langacker 1986; Fauconnier 1997). By
taking into consideration the context of an utterance or instance of
depiction, addressees gain information regarding the organization of
these stores of knowledge and are better able to make sense of them
(Langacker 1986; Streeck 2008). With the information provided by
the context (and the content), the addressee is prompted to evoke the
appropriate frame(s) and use the information in order to identify the
entity to associate with an instance of depiction.
Shifts from one instance of depiction to another are marked by
one or more changes in head position, eye gaze, facial expression,
and body position. In addition to these nonmanual changes, manual

information (e.g., frame, context, and content of the segment) also
aids in distinguishing between instances of depiction. Knowing the
appropriate frame in which recurring depictions occur may provide
information that aids in distinguishing between these instances of
depiction.
Frame
Frames, which contain information based on knowledge and experi-
ence, provide structure and information necessary for addressees to
understand the signer’s depiction. This information may help the ad-
dressee to know which entity (i.e., which mental space) is associated
with an instance of depiction.
For example, consider a presenter’s depiction of a conversation
between two individuals. A conversation frame includes two or more
people who are communicating with each other and are likely tak-
ing turns. If addressees are familiar with a conversation frame, they
should be able to use that information in constructing the intended
meaning from the depictions and language used in that segment of the
conversation. The conversation frame, along with the context and the
content of the segment, facilitates the interlocutors’ comprehension.
Content
The content of an utterance also helps listeners access the appropriate
frame in order to understand an utterance. Definite descriptors (e.g.,
nouns, names, phrases) enable addressees to understand which frame
to apply to the utterance. In addition, other signs produced by the
presenter (e.g., noun phrases, depicting verbs), as well as the semantic
information available phonologically (i.e., the |entity| toward which
an indicating verb is directed or the location where a sign is pro-
duced), are all part of the content; they help listeners determine which
depiction, or mental space, is currently active (Fauconnier 1997).5
Content: Nouns Identifying an Entity

In the data I examined, noun phrases, which aid in identifying the
entity associated with depiction, occurred 562 times before or after
instances of depiction. There were 438 noun phrases (82 percent)
Table 3. Summary details of Noun Phrases.

Noun Phrases
# of noun phrases 438 noun phrases 124 noun phrases
before or after before or during after (23%)
any instance of (82%)
depiction (562)
# of noun phrases 26 immediately 17 immediately 41 in immediate
with recurring before depiction after depiction context (within 1
depiction (86) (30%) (20%) minute of instance
of depiction) (48%)
2 during depiction
(2%)
that occurred before an instance of depiction and 124 noun phrases

(23 percent) that occurred after an instance of depiction (some in-
stances of depiction had noun phrases both before and after). Noun
phrases often identified entities associated with instances of depic-
tion (e.g., s t u d e n t sh oul d look - at →|teacher|, t e a c h e r te nd
write →|write on board|). In the data, when a noun did not identify an
entity, the information about that entity was available in the context
or the frame associated with the segment (e.g., stude nt s look at
|teachers|, teac h e r s write on |boards|). Table 3 summarizes the
occurrence of noun phrases with instances of depiction in the data.
Noun phrases help identify entities associated with recurring de-
piction. Out of 86 instances, 41 involved a noun or noun phrase in the
immediate context of the depiction. In 26 instances, a noun phrase was
produced before the depiction. In 2 instances, the presenter produced
a noun phrase during the depiction, and in 17 instances, the noun
phrase was produced after the depiction. In three of the four presen-
tations, the first time a new entity was associated with an instance of
depiction, the immediate context (i.e., the content) of the utterance
included a noun phrase.
Addressees expect the noun phrase to be relevant or connected
to entities (either physically present or conceptual) in the discourse
(Liddell 2003). In the data discussed here, noun phrases provided in-
formation about the depiction just prior to or following the noun
phrase. In those utterances without a noun phrase or definite descrip-
tor in the immediate context of the depiction, an earlier instance of
depiction or location in signing space had been associated with the

entity or event in question.
Content: Nouns That Did Not Identify an Entity

In the data examined, after the first instance of depiction, repeated uses
of the same depiction can be understood by the context or by lexical
items in the content. In some cases, the signer used noun phrases that
did not identify the entity associated with the depiction. Although
these noun phrases did not specifically identify the entity, they sup-
plied addressees with details about it. These lexical items included
pronouns or other signs directed toward locations that had been previ-
ously associated with an entity or a location in signing space.
An example of this is taken from a series of depictions in the
Riggs presentation. The images in figure 4 are from a segment in
which Riggs discussed an activity in an ASL 1 class involving pic-
tures on a wall. In this example, Riggs used a setting depiction to
represent the pictures. The first instance of |pictures| was preceded
by the noun pi c ture. When he referred to the depiction again, he
produced additional noun phrases before each instance of p ro →|x|
(i.e., he pointed to a location in space, identified as |x|, which rep-
resented various entities) (e.g., #m - a - i - l-man, house, woman ).
These nouns provided information about the entity depicted (i.e.,
the image in the picture). In this example, the depiction type is the
same for each instance (i.e., setting depiction). The entity associated
with the setting is a picture, and the noun phrase with each instance
provides additional information about each |picture|.
As the segment continues, the noun phrases do not identify the
entity, |pictures|, associated with depiction. Instead they identify the
specific image in each |picture| (e.g., #m-a-i-l-man, house).
Content: Nonpointing Signs. Liddell (2003) reports on signs that are

nonpointing in their citation form but are spatially directed in some
instances of discourse; the meaning they express is associated with
the location toward which these signs are directed. All four present-
ers produced signs in locations in order to associate the location with
the meaning of the nonpointing sign. As the presenters in the data
returned to previously activated depictions, they produced pointing
have picture |pictures| none word none
se nte nce none |picture| pro →|picture| same
m-a-i-l man
# pro →|picture| [mailman] pro →|picture| [house] house
“I use pictures with no English text. The first picture might be a mailman, the next one
a house.”
Fig ure 4 . Nouns providing additional information.
signs such as pronouns (e.g., p ro →|entity|) or indicating verbs (ibid.),

verbs that point to entities involved in an utterance. The signers also
used nonpointing signs directed toward specific locations in the sign-
ing space.
One such example is taken from the Mikos presentation and oc-
curs with a two-dimensional entity, a |map|. In several depictions
associated with a |map|, Mikos produced [lang uag e ]→|map| or
[g ram mar]→|map| just before, during, or after an instance of depic-
tion (see figure 5), prompting the addressee to apply these concepts
to the |map|.
In this segment, the signer discusses languages, specifically gram-
mar, in different European countries. Because the citation form of the
nouns lang uag e and g ram mar are nonpointing, directing these
signs toward the |map| provides additional information about his
intended meaning. These signs thus aid the addressee in distinguishing
between two instances of depiction associated with the same location
[language]→|map|
g rammar [g rammar]→|map|
F i g ure 5. Signs meaningfully directed toward a location in signing space.
in space, the location representing a map of Europe and a map of the

United States.
Recurring Depiction throughout Discourse

As signers use depiction throughout their discourse, a single depiction
or depiction type may be continuously manifested. In addition, they
may repeatedly use a location in signing space to represent an entity
or event. Recurring depiction may be used to represent either the
same or different entities or events throughout.
Liddell (2003) reports on various signs that depict entities, in-
cluding list buoys and token spaces. List buoys are signs that serve as
a landmark, in effect guiding an addressee throughout a segment of
discourse, and token spaces are three-dimensional locations in the space
ahead of a signer that represents an entity (ibid.). In the data discussed
here, instances of recurring depiction included list buoys, token spaces,
and two-dimensional abstract depiction. There were instances of de-
piction in which signers created a surrogate blend using their own
body in order to depict constructed action or constructed dialogue;
they also associated different entities with the same location.
Mikos utilized what appears to be a two-dimensional plane in
the signing space in front of him twenty-three times, creating two-
Entity: |map| Europe |map| America |signer’s face| |context|

Time code: 1:04.40 1:09.60 27:50.49 31:07.26
Fig ure 6 . Use of similar depiction or location throughout discourse.
dimensional abstract depictions, a surrogate blend, and token blends.

Although these instances of depiction occur in the same location in
signing space, different entities are depicted. In some instances, the
depiction can be understood by its immediate context, and at other
times both the context and the content aid in comprehension. The
images in figure 6 show the signer depicting various entities in the
area in front of his chest.
Using different types of depiction, Mikos associated this location
with four different entities (|map|, |language expression|, |face|,
and |context|). Although these instances of depiction occur in the
same location in signing space, some represent one entity and others,
different entities. Table 4 shows three types of depiction associated
with different entities.
Table 4 . Different Entities Associated with Same Location

Instance of Depiction Immediate Context and
Depiction Type Entity Time Code Content of Utterance
1 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:04:40 have many different
(Europe) language [dv: container-
in-front-of-signer]
area →map| (np before)
6 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:09:60 not like (same) here
(United States) america [same] english
(np before and after)
17 surrogate |face| 00:27:50:49 face that [dv: container-
in-front-of-signer] [gesture
“area”] (np before)
22 token |context| 00:31:07:26 [dv: container-in-front-
of-signer] [gesture “area”]
(np before)
The columns in table 4 include information about the depiction

type, the time code, and the immediate context of the utterance.
Table 5 includes all instances of depiction (in Mikos’s presentation)
associated with the location in the signing space in front of the signer.
The twenty-three instances of depiction associated with the loca-
tion in the signing space in front of Mikos include two-dimensional
abstract depictions, a surrogate, and token blends. Table 5 includes the
identifying number for each instance, the type of depiction, the entity
associated with the depiction, the time code, and some of the content
of the utterance in which the depiction occurs.
As table 5 shows, the first fifteen instances are associated with a
map.This |map| represents a map of Europe in fourteen of the fifteen
Table 5. Chart of Recurring Instances of Depiction in Mikos’s Presentation.

1 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:04:40 have many different
(Europe) language [dv: container-
in front-of-signer] area→
|map| (np before)6
2 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:04:08 [gesture “area”] [dv: container-
in-front-of-signer] (np 2
seconds before)
3 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:05:06 [different] (np 3 seconds
before)
4 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:06:14 country [dv: many-items-in-
area] (np before; context; noun
europe was 4 seconds before)
5 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:07:05 [different] language (np
after; context of preceding 5
seconds)
6 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:09:60 not like (same) here
(United States) america [same] english
(np before and after)
7 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:10:13 different (smaller area)
PRO→ Europe [different]
(np before)
8 abstract 2-D |map| 00:01:14:07 france germany spain
holland different [gesture
“area”] (languages in Europe)
(np before) (France, Germany,
Spain, Holland)
Table 5. (Continued)

9 abstract 2-D |map| 00:02:39:14 not [same] (languages not
same) (context)
10 abstract 2-D |map| 00:02:40:09 [language++++] (languages
not same) (context)
11 abstract 2-D |map| 00:02:41:21 not [same++++] (languages
not same) (context)
12 abstract 2-D |map| 00:02:42:18 [g rammar] not (grammar
not same) (context)
13 abstract 2-D |map| 00:05:23:07 g rammar not [same] (np
after: language different France,
Germany, Spain, Holland)
14 abstract 2-D |map| 00:06:20:16 function easy because
[same] (context)
15 abstract 2-D |map| 00:06:23:08 #all people [same] like
(same) goal pro-1 want
(np before)
16 token |language 00:11:14:14 know what mean that
expressions| g roup [gesture “area”]
(context)
17 surrogate |face| 00:27:50:49 face that [dv: container-in-
front-of-signer] that [gesture
18 surrogate |face| 00:27:58:04 [dv: container-in-front-of-
signer] (expanded) [gesture
“area”] (np 5 seconds before @
27:44; context)
19 surrogate |face| 00:30:58:15 [dv: container-in-front-of-
signer] (big area)
20 token |context| 00:31:00:00 [dv: container-in-front-of-
signer] [gesture “area”] (np
before) fs (context)
21 token |context| 00:31:06:22 [dv: container-in-front-of-
signer] [gesture “area”] (np
before previous depiction)
22 token |context| 00:31:07:26 [dv: container-in-front-
of-signer] [gesture
23 token |context| 00:31.09.05 [dv: container-in-front-
of-signer] [gesture “area”]
context (used the same sign
two seconds earlier)
instances. In one instance, the |map| represents the United States. In

the next instance the same space is associated with language expres-
sions; the next three instances are associated with the face of a signer.
In the last four instances in which Mikos utilizes depiction in this
location, he associates the location with the context of a sign.
Depiction Associated with a Map

In figure 7 Mikos utilizes the two-dimensional plane in front of him
to first depict a map of Europe and then a map of the United States.
In these adjacent depictions, Mikos switches from the |map| of Eu-
rope to the |map| of the United States and back to the |map| of
Europe again. These two |maps| occur within seconds of each other
in the same segment of the presentation.
The content, context, and frame of the utterance are critical to
our understanding of the depiction in this segment. The content of
the utterance, the signs p ro →Europe and e urope, and the context of
the utterance (i.e., the discussion of the linguistic situation in Europe)
invoke the map frame. The map frame includes information about
maps based on experience, cultural knowledge, and other sources.
The addressee uses this knowledge to help comprehend this segment
of the presentation.
In line 1 Mikos points toward the area to his upper right and signs
e urope. He then states that there are many different languages there
(see figure 7, line 1). The first image in line 2 shows Mikos using a
depicting sign in which his hands illustrate a container-like entity.
With this sign, Mikos associates the two-dimensional plane in front
of him with a map of Europe. The map frame, along with the definite
descriptor e urope, and the signs produced in the two-dimensional
signing space all serve to activate the |map| of Europe. This blended
space, a |map|, now activated, is utilized throughout this segment of
the presentation as the signer continues to talk about Europe and the
different languages there (lines 1–2).
The images in line 2 show that the signer directs the sign glossed
as di f f e re nt toward the |map| twice. Doing so prompts the ad-
dressee to make the association between the meaning of diffe re nt
and the |map|. The sign [lang uag e ]→|map| is also directed toward
the |map|, indicating the association between lang uag e and the
|map|. The immediate context of Mikos’s discussion of various lan-

guages facilitates the correct association of the meaning expressed by
these signs and their location.
Line 3 shows the images of the signs that aid in the comprehen-
sion of the second instance of depiction. The first four signs (not
sam e h e re am e ri ca) are nondepictive and inform the addressee
that what follows is in contrast to what Mikos previously signed. The
noun ame rica precedes the next instance of depiction and indicates
to the addressee that this |map| is to be understood as a map of the
United States. The signer signs [sam e]→|map| e nglish (figure 7, line
3). The combination of the phrase not same he re ame rica and
the fact that he then directs the sign [same]→|map| toward the |map|,
followed by e ng l i sh , reinforces the idea that this time the |map| is
associated with am e ri ca .
The images in line 4 (in figure 7 and again in figure 8) show the
third instance of depiction in this segment. In this instance, the |map|
of Europe has been reactivated. When the signer signs pro →Europe, this
prompts the addressee to return to the |map| of Europe.
The reactivation of the |map| of Europe is reinforced when Mikos
signs [di f f e re nt]→|map|. The content of the utterance informs the
addressee that the presenter is discussing different countries and lan-
guages. The immediate context of the utterance is Mikos’s description
of the linguistic nature of Europe.
In the segment, the presenter uses two different |maps|. The first
|map| is of Europe, and the second |map| is of the United States.
They are activated one at a time. Throughout this segment of the pre-
sentation, the specific content of the utterance is crucial to one’s un-
derstanding of the depiction. Definite descriptions allow the addressee
to understand which entity to associate with each instance of depic-
tion. In addition, the signer’s ability to produce signs in locations other
than those used in the citation forms prompts specific associations
between the meaning of these signs and the entity depicted. Mikos
signs e urope and di f f e re nt when the |map| represents Europe,
then signs not same he re ame rica when the |map| is intended
to represent the United States. The combination of the context, the
signer’s eye gaze, the placement of certain signs, and the “map” frame
provides information that aids the addressee in comprehension.
336
Line 1 @ 1:01.8 – 1:10.1
know pro →Europe europe have many different language

Line 2 First instance |map|
[dv: container-in-front-of-signer] [area]→|map| [different]→|map| country

[dv: many-items-in-area++]→|map| [diffe re nt]→|map| [language]→|map|
Line 3 Second instance |map|
not same here america [same] →|Map| english

Line 4 Third instance |map|
pro →Europe [different+++]→|map| france germany . . .

“There are many different languages in Europe, unlike in the United States, where everyone uses English.”
F igure 7. Recurring use of signing space in front of signer.
337
Third instance |map|
pro →Europe [diffe re nt+++]→|map| france germany . . .

“In Europe different languages are used . . . ”
Figure 8 . Reactivation of |map| of Europe.
Mikos depicts a map three more times, beginning at time code

5:22.5. He does not use definite descriptors prior to these instances
associated with a two-dimensional map; however, he repeats some
of the signs used earlier. Again, the content of each utterance, signs
directed toward the |map| and specific nouns (e.g., france, ge r -
many, spai n), and the context of the depictions (i.e., different lan-
guages) all signal that this |map| is associated with Europe.
Signing Space Associated with Language Expressions

After Mikos uses the depiction associated with a map fifteen times,
the same location is associated once with language expressions (see
figure 9). At 10:46.1 Mikos displays a slide with a list of “notions” (e.g.,
nouns, verbs, adverbs, expressions). He reads each item on the list to
the addressee, stopping at the item “expressions.” At 11:05.7 Mikos
spells the term fs (e x p re s si on s ), explains it, and provides examples
of language expressions. Then he produces the signs glossed as know
what m ean that g roup [ area]→|language expressions| (see table 6).
know what mean that g roup [area]→|language expressions|

Figure 9 . Utterance with depiction involving |language expression|.
Table 6 . Details of Depiction Associated with Language Expressions

16 abstract |language 00:11:14:14 know what mean that
token expressions| g roup [gesture “area”
(context)]
After producing [area]→|language expressions|, Mikos goes on to give

additional examples of language expressions.
The definite description (i.e., the fingerspelled word), along with
the examples, informs the addressee that the entity language ex -
pre ssions is associated with this instance of depiction. After this sin-
gle instance of depiction associated with language expressions, Mikos
does not utilize this location in the signing space ahead of him for
depiction again until approximately fifteen minutes later.
Signing Space Associated with a Signer’s Face

At 27:49.0 Mikos again depicts an entity in the signing space in front
of him; this time the space is associated with a signer’s face. Although
this depiction occurs in a new presentation, Mikos actually did both
presentations in the same sitting (K. Mikos, pers. comm., January 20,
2010). In his second presentation, “Strategies for Learning ASL,” Mikos
utilizes the same signing space in front of him (earlier associated with
a map) for eight additional depictions.
These eight instances, however, are not associated with a two-
dimensional entity. Because this new presentation introduces a new
context, the addressee should be prepared for the signer to construct
new blends. The instances of depiction in this presentation are likely
to have new entities associated with previously used locations in the
signing space. I focus only on those instances in which he produces
signs similar to those in previous examples.
Mikos presents a title slide at this point (24:37.7) and explains that
he will now talk about strategies for learning ASL. The second strat-
egy is introduced at time code 27:38.2, when he signs {two}-list,
depicting the |list| of these strategies. This provides the context for
the next depiction.
F i g ure 10 . Similar signs used in repeated depiction.
The first cluster of instances I discuss are those in which Mikos

utilizes the same location in signing space in front of him and pro-
duces signs similar to those in previous instances of depiction.
These depicting verbs are produced in the space in front of Mikos
and occur in the segment of the presentation from time code 27:39.1
to 27:59.1 (figure 10).
Table 7 shows three instances of |face| in this segment. Mikos
first constructs a surrogate blend in the signing space in front of him,
which he utilizes to talk about where students should look (i.e., at a
signer’s |face|). Although Mikos does not explicitly state that each
depiction is associated with a signer’s face, the immediate context (i.e.,
where students should look) and the content (i.e., the signs and ges-
tures produced before and during the instance of depiction) prompt
the appropriate frame.
The context associated with a signer’s face begins with the utter-
ance just prior to the first instance of depiction in this segment. Mikos
has introduced this portion of the discussion by asking a rhetorical
question about where students should look when someone is signing.
Table 7. Chart of Depiction Associated with a Signer’s Face

17 surrogate |face| 00:27:49:74 face that [dv: container-in-front
of-signer] that [gesture “area”];
np before
18 surrogate |face| 00:27:50:24 [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]
[gesture “area”] (np 5 seconds
before; context)
19 surrogate |face| 00:27.58.34 [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]
(big area)
look-at →|hand| hand gesture ‘no’ look-at →|face| face ‘this area’ ‘here’
Figure 11. Content and context for signer’s face.
Because this discussion occurs in the segment of Mikos’s presentation

in which he talks about strategies to aid students in learning ASL, this
question prompts the addressee to evoke what they know about the
frame of using ASL to communicate. The signer does not conceptual-
ize a map in this segment but appears to conceptualize a |subject|,
more specifically, a |signer|, as he signs look-at →|face|.
Mikos tells students that they should not look at the signer’s hands
but at the signer’s face instead. The surrogate is established first; then
the presenter uses the surrogate space to illustrate where the students
should look. He begins by signing look - at →|signer’s hands| and then
says no, they should look at the signer’s face (see figure 11). The noun
tells the addressee which entity to associate with these instances of
depiction.
In this segment, the signing space in front of Mikos is now associ-
ated with a |signer’s face|. The presenter signs face and ‘this area’ to
indicate where students should look (figure 11 and lines 2–3 in figure
12). Figure 12 shows the segment of Mikos’s presentation that contains
several instances of recurring depiction.
This example shows that the space in front of the presenter, which
was previously associated with a map, is now associated with a signer’s
face. In this instance the noun phrase preceding the depiction, the
signer’s use of a definite descriptor (fac e), and the context provide
information about which entity to associate with this depiction.
The content of the utterance provides the addressee with informa-
tion needed to understand each instance of depiction throughout this
segment. The context of these instances also aids in comprehension.
The space in front of the signer, previously used for a two-dimensional
abstract depiction, is now used to depict the signer’s face in seven
instances of depiction.
342
Line 1
two-list-d2 |list| pro-1 te ll stude nt pro →|student/addressee| look-at →|signer|

Line 2
where look-at sign where look-at →|hands|

Line 3
hand gesture ‘no’ look-at →|face| face ‘this area’ ‘here’

Line 4
‘here’ ‘this area’ look-at ‘this area’ again [dv: container-in-front-of-signer] ‘this area’
Line 5
that look-at →|face| [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]→|face| [‘this area’]→|face|

“The second thing I tell students is to look at the signer’s face, not their hands. If students look at the area of the face, they can also
see the signs used.”
Fi gure 12. Segment of presentation with depiction of signer’s face.
343
F i g ure 13. Depiction associated with context.
Recurring Depiction Associated with Context

In this section I discuss the final cluster of instances in Mikos’ discus-
sion illustrating the recurring use of the space in front of the signer.
This segment begins at 30:58.5.
In this series of depictions (see table 8), Mikos uses the same loca-
tion in front of him four times in approximately eleven seconds. This
space is associated with context.
In this segment Mikos discusses the fact that students will be able
to understand the meaning of a sign through repeated exposure and
context. At time code 30:49.3 he signs p ro-1 |student| can learn
f rom p ro →teacher| k now p ro →addressee |student| sh oul d new
si g n p op - up not worry p ro -1 w i l l i n fs (context) late r
catc h m ean (see figure 14 for some of the images).
In line 1 the presenter spells “context” with his right hand at
30:51.2. He immediately spells it again at 30:52.4, pointing toward
his right hand with his left hand. (Although he has spelled the word
Table 8 . Chart of Instances Depicting Context

20 token |context| 00:30:58:80 [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]
[gesture “area”] (np before) fs
(context) of the signing
21 token |context| 00:31:00:30 [dv: container-face-of-signer]
[gesture “area”] area (np 2 before)
22 token |context| 00:31:07:23 [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]
[gesture “area”] (context)
23 token |context| 00:31.09.05 [dv: container-in-front-of-signer]
[gesture “area”] context
Line 1
pro-1 wi ll in fs: (context) fs: (context) pro →|student|

Line 2
student wi ll late r catch mean

“Students will be able to understand the meaning in context.”
Figure 14 . Introduction of the term conte xt.
earlier, it was not associated with a location in space at that time.)

Spelling the word twice allows the addressee to understand that the
word conte xt is significant in this utterance. In this way the pre-
senter introduces the noun with which to associate the instances of
depiction in this segment.
Within six seconds, at 30:57.9, Mikos reiterates that students will
understand the meaning of a new sign when they see it in context.
He spells the word “context” again (figure 15), then produces the
depicting verb [dv: container-in-front-of signer].
The presenter spells this entity, |context|, several times as he as-
sociates this area in signing space with the concept (see figures 14–15).
However, with the next instances of the association of the signing
space with context, which occur within ten seconds, at time code
31:07.1–31:10.4, the signer does not spell the word again. Because the
signer has not changed the context or topic of his presentation, both
the context and the content provide information to help distinguish
the entity associated with this instance of the use of space in front of
the signer.
These examples from the Mikos’s presentation illustrate the recur-
ring use of depiction associated with a location in signing space.When
Line 1
fs: (context) pro →addressee [dv: container-in-front-of-signer] “area”→|context| pro-1 sign-asl

Line 2
“this area” |context| pro →|student| stude nt unde r stand

“Students will understand an ASL sign when it is used in context.”
Figure 15. Second time spelling “context.”
a blend was activated, the signer produced a noun that identified the
entity. Throughout the presentation clusters of instances of depiction
associated with the same entity occurred. Although the signer did
not always use a noun to reactivate a blend, the context provided the
information necessary for comprehension.
Conclusion
Signers shift between different instances of depiction (e.g., when they
shift between various characters in the same segment of a presenta-
tion). They may use several locations in signing space for the same
entity (e.g., |blackboard|) or associate the same location in sign-
ing space with a variety of entities throughout their presentations.
Regardless of whether signers establish tokens, surrogates, or two-
dimensional abstract depictions in various locations, they provide in-
formation about which depiction is currently active for the signer.
In the data discussed here, the evidence available to the addressee to
help distinguish between recurring depictions included changes in
head and body position, direction of eye gaze, and facial expression. In
addition, the context, frame, and content of the utterances containing
depiction also provide important information.
When signers use a depiction throughout discourse, they must

be clear about the entity associated with it. Although I found no
predictable patterns, noun phrases or definite descriptors were typi-
cally used with the first instance of a depiction. Throughout each
presentation, these noun phrases occurred before or after the first
instance of depiction. In subsequent uses of the depiction, definite
descriptors were not used. Instead, the context and content of the
utterance provided information about which entity to associate with
the depiction. These changes in head and body position, eye gaze,
and facial expression help listeners to identify the depiction to be
activated or reactivated.
Notes
1. The data involve four videos in the About Teaching ASL series of the
American Sign Language Teacher’s Association (ASLTA); these videos were
used with permission from ASLTA, Betti Bonni, Keith Cagle, Ken Mikos,
and Tom Riggs.
2. This chapter is adapted from my doctoral dissertation.
3. Following Liddell (2003), I use vertical brackets to identify the concept
depicted. Entities and events associated with an instance of depiction are
enclosed by these brackets, as in |teacher|, when a signer uses depiction to
represent a teacher.
4. The following terms identify general locations in signing space: area
in front of the signer, area to the left of the signer, and area to the right of
the signer. Each area was further divided into upper, middle, and lower areas
(e.g., upper right, lower left).
5. For a detailed discussion on mental space construction see Fauconnier
(1985, 1997).
6. Square brackets indicate depictive items (e.g., depicting verbs, signs,
and gestures), and parentheses indicate explanations and commentary.
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Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL

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Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL

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Identifying Recurring Depiction in ASL Presentations

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partial physical demonstrations. In order to ensure accurate compre-

The images in figure 1 show the signers using their articulators,

Previous Research on Features of ASL

on ways of marking referential shifts with changes in body position,

Data for This Study

by the Communication Service for the Deaf (CSD), which show

Table 1. Number of Changes prior to or at Onset of Depiction

and at the onset of depiction. The most frequent nonmanual changes

Table 2 . Occurrence of Nonmanual Changes

nonmanual changes. Instead, these instances of depiction involved

[write-on]→|blackboard| [write-on]→|blackboard| [write-on]→|blackboard|

Fig ure 2 . Different locations for the same object, |blackboard|.

Many second-language learners of ASL report that they are taught

This supports earlier findings that show that an entity or refer-

Fi g ure 3. Recurring depiction by signer.

five different entities: |linguists|, |Sam Supalla|, |Brenda Schick|,

Context, Frame, and Content in Distinguishing Depictions

and body position. In addition to these nonmanual changes, manual

Content: Nouns Identifying an Entity

Table 3. Summary details of Noun Phrases.

that occurred before an instance of depiction and 124 noun phrases

depiction or location in signing space had been associated with the

Content: Nouns That Did Not Identify an Entity

Content: Nonpointing Signs. Liddell (2003) reports on signs that are

have picture |pictures| none word none

se nte nce none |picture| pro →|picture| same

Fig ure 4 . Nouns providing additional information.

signs such as pronouns (e.g., p ro →|entity|) or indicating verbs (ibid.),

F i g ure 5. Signs meaningfully directed toward a location in signing space.

in space, the location representing a map of Europe and a map of the

Recurring Depiction throughout Discourse

Entity: |map| Europe |map| America |signer’s face| |context|

Fig ure 6 . Use of similar depiction or location throughout discourse.

dimensional abstract depictions, a surrogate blend, and token blends.

Table 4 . Different Entities Associated with Same Location

The columns in table 4 include information about the depiction

Table 5. Chart of Recurring Instances of Depiction in Mikos’s Presentation.

Table 5. (Continued)

instances. In one instance, the |map| represents the United States. In

Depiction Associated with a Map

|map|. The immediate context of Mikos’s discussion of various lan-

know pro →Europe europe have many different language

[dv: container-in-front-of-signer] [area]→|map| [different]→|map| country

not same here america [same] →|Map| english

pro →Europe [different+++]→|map| france germany . . .

F igure 7. Recurring use of signing space in front of signer.

Third instance |map|

pro →Europe [diffe re nt+++]→|map| france germany . . .

Figure 8 . Reactivation of |map| of Europe.

Mikos depicts a map three more times, beginning at time code

Signing Space Associated with Language Expressions

know what mean that g roup [area]→|language expressions|

Table 6 . Details of Depiction Associated with Language Expressions

After producing [area]→|language expressions|, Mikos goes on to give

Signing Space Associated with a Signer’s Face

F i g ure 10 . Similar signs used in repeated depiction.

The first cluster of instances I discuss are those in which Mikos

Table 7. Chart of Depiction Associated with a Signer’s Face

Figure 11. Content and context for signer’s face.

Because this discussion occurs in the segment of Mikos’s presentation