The Solid Earth

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The Solid Earth
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Cambridge University Press
0521893070 - The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics, Second Edition
C. M. R. Fowler
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The Solid Earth
From the citation for the Prestwich Medal of the Geological Society, 1996
(awarded for the contribution made by The Solid Earth to geophysics teaching
and research) by the then President Professor R. S. J. Sparks F.R.S.
The Prestwich Medal is given for major contributions to earth science, and
provides an opportunity for the Society to recognise achievements in areas that
can lie outside the terms of reference of its other awards. This year, the
Prestwich Medal has been given to Mary Fowler for the contribution of her
book, The Solid Earth, which has had an enormous impact. The book has been
acclaimed by today’s leading geophysicists. There is consensus that, although
there are many books covering various aspects of geophysics, there are only a
small number that can be seen as landmarks in the subject. Mary’s book has
been compared to Jeffreys’s The Earth and Holmes’s Physical Geology.
The Solid Earth is recognised by her peers as a monumental contribution. In
this book she displays a wide knowledge of a very broad range of geological
and geophysical topics at a very high level. The book provides a balanced and
thoroughly researched account which is accessible to undergraduates as well as
to active researchers.
The book has been described as one of the outstanding texts in modern earth
sciences.
(Geoscientist, Geological Society, 1996, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 24.)
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

C. M. R. Fowler
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The Solid Earth

An Introduction to Global Geophysics
Second Edition
C. M. R. Fowler
Royal Holloway
University of London

C. M. R. Fowler
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p u b l i s h e d b y t h e p r e s s s y n d i c at e o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f c a m b r i d g e
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
cambridge university press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011–4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
http://www.cambridge.org

C Cambridge University Press 2005
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typefaces Times NR 10/13 pt. and Universe System LATEX 2ε [tb]
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Fowler, C. M. R.
The solid earth: an introduction to global geophysics / C. M. R. Fowler. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 58409 4 (hardback) – ISBN 0 521 89307 0 (paperback)
1. Geophysics. 2. Earth. I. Title.
QC806.F625 2004
550 – dc22 2003065424
ISBN 0 521 58409 4 hardback

ISBN 0 521 89307 0 paperback

C. M. R. Fowler
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TO MY FAMILY
Magna opera domini exoquisita in omnes voluntates ejus.
The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein.
Psalm 111.2: at the entrance to the old Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge.

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Contents
Preface to the first edition page xi

Preface to the second edition xv
Acknowledgements to the first edition xvi
Acknowledgements to the second edition xviii
1 Introduction 1
References and bibliography 3
2 Tectonics on a sphere: the geometry of plate tectonics 5

2.1 Plate tectonics 5
2.2 A flat Earth 11
2.3 Rotation vectors and rotation poles 14
2.4 Present-day plate motions 15
2.5 Plate boundaries can change with time 24
2.6 Triple junctions 26
2.7 Absolute plate motions 32
Problems 37
3 Past plate motions 43

3.1 The role of the Earth’s magnetic field 43
3.2 Dating the oceanic plates 54
3.3 Reconstruction of past plate motions 67
Problems 93
4 Seismology Measuring the interior 100

4.1 Waves through the Earth 100
4.2 Earthquake seismology 111
4.3 Refraction seismology 140
4.4 Reflection seismology 157
Problems 178
vii

C. M. R. Fowler
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viii Contents
5 Gravity 193
5.1 Introduction 193
5.2 Gravitational potential and acceleration 193
5.3 Gravity of the Earth 196
5.4 The shape of the Earth 198
5.5 Gravity anomalies 202
5.6 Observed gravity and geoid anomalies 213
5.7 Flexure of the lithosphere and the viscosity of the mantle 218
Problems 228
6 Geochronology 233
6.2 General theory 234
6.3 Rubidium–strontium 244
6.4 Uranium–lead 247
6.5 Thorium–lead 249
6.6 Potassium–argon 251
6.7 Argon–argon 252
6.8 Samarium–neodymium 254
6.9 Fission-track dating 258
6.10 The age of the Earth 262
Problems 265
7 Heat 269
7.2 Conductive heat flow 270
7.3 Calculation of simple geotherms 275
7.4 Worldwide heat flow: total heat loss from the Earth 285
7.5 Oceanic heat flow 288
7.6 Continental heat flow 298
7.7 The adiabat and melting in the mantle 303
7.8 Metamorphism: geotherms in the continental crust 308
Problems 321
8 The deep interior of the Earth 326

8.1 The internal structure of the Earth 326
8.2 Convection in the mantle 353
8.3 The core 371

C. M. R. Fowler
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Contents ix
9 The oceanic lithosphere: ridges, transforms, trenches and

oceanic islands 391
9.2 The oceanic lithosphere 397
9.3 The deep structure of mid-ocean ridges 409
9.4 The shallow structure of mid-ocean ridges 417
9.5 Transform faults 440
9.6 Subduction zones 458
9.7 Oceanic islands 487
Problems 492
10 The continental lithosphere 509

10.2 The growth of continents 517
10.3 Sedimentary basins and continental margins 557
10.4 Continental rift zones 584
10.5 The Archaean 595
Problems 601
Appendix 1 Scalars, vectors and differential operators 615

Appendix 2 Theory of elasticity and elastic waves 620
Appendix 3 Geometry of ray paths and inversion of earthquake
body-wave time–distance curves 630
Appendix 4 The least-squares method 636
Appendix 5 The error function 638
Appendix 6 Units and symbols 640
Appendix 7 Numerical data 648
Appendix 8 The IASP91 Earth model 650
Appendix 9 The Preliminary Reference Earth Model, isotropic
version – PREM 651
Appendix 10 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (abridged
version) 654
Glossary 655
Index 666
The colour plates are situated between pages 398 and 399.

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Preface to the first edition
Geophysics is a diverse science. At its best it has the rigour of physics and the
vigour of geology. Its subject is the Earth. How does the Earth work? What is
its composition? How has it changed? Thirty years ago many of the answers to
these questions were uncertain. We knew the gross structure of our planet and
that earthquakes occurred, volcanoes erupted and high mountains existed, but we
did not understand why. Today we have a general knowledge of the workings of
the planet, although there is still much to be discovered.
My aim in writing this book was to convey in a fairly elementary way what we
know of the structure and dynamics of the solid Earth. The fabric of geophysics
has changed dramatically in the decades since the discovery of plate tectonics.
The book places a strong emphasis on geophysical research since the initial
formulation of plate theory, and the discussion centres on the crust and upper
mantle. It also outlines the recent increases in our knowledge of the planet’s
deeper interior.
To whom is this book addressed? It is designed to serve as an introduction
to geophysics for senior undergraduates in geology or physics and for graduate
students in either subject who need to learn the elements of geophysics. My hope
is that the book will give them a fairly comprehensive basis on which to build an
understanding of the solid Earth.
Part of the challenge in writing a geophysics text is to make the book accessible
to both types of student. For instance, some students enter the study of geophysics
from a background in the Earth sciences, others from physics or mathematics:
only a few enroll directly in geophysics programmes. Geology students tend to
know about rocks and volcanoes, but possess only the basics of calculus. In
contrast, students of physics have good mathematical skills, but do not know
the difference between a basalt and a granite. I have attempted throughout the
book to explain for the geologists the mathematical methods and derivations
and to include worked examples as well as questions. I hope that this will make
the book useful to students who have only introductory calculus. For the non-
geologists, I have tried to limit or explain the abundant geological terminology.
There is a glossary of terms, to rescue physics students lost in the undergrowth
of nomenclature.
For more advanced students of either geological or physical training I have
in places included more mathematical detail than is necessary for a basic
xi

C. M. R. Fowler
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xii Preface to the first edition
introductory course. This detail can easily be by-passed without either interrupt-
ing the continuity of the text or weakening the understanding of less mathematical
students. Throughout the book I have attempted to give every step of logic so that
students can understand why every equation and each conclusion is valid.
In general, I have tried to avoid the conventional order of textbooks in which
geophysical theory comes first, developed historically, followed in later sections
by interesting and concrete examples. For instance, because the book focuses to
a large extent on plate-tectonic theory, which is basic to the study of the crust and
mantle, this theory is introduced in its proper geophysical sense, with a discussion
of rotation, motions on plate boundaries and absolute plate motions. Most geo-
logical texts avoid discussing this, relying instead on two-dimensional cartoons
of ridges and subduction zones. I have met many graduate students who have no
idea what a rotation pole is. Their instructors thought the knowledge irrelevant.
Yet understanding tectonics on a sphere is crucial to geophysics because one
cannot fully comprehend plate motion without it.
The next chapters of the book are concerned with past plate motions, magnet-
ics, seismology and gravity. These are the tools with which plate tectonics was
discovered. The exposition is not historical, although historical details are given.
The present generation of geophysicists learned by error and discovery, but the
next generation will begin with a complete structure on which to build their own
inventions.
These chapters are followed by discussions of radioactivity and heat. The
Earth is a heat engine, and the discovery of radioactivity radically changed our
appreciation of the physical aspects of the planet’s history, thermal evolution and
dynamics. The study of isotopes in the Earth is now, perhaps unfairly, regarded as
an area of geochemistry rather than of geophysics; nevertheless, the basic tools
of dating, at least, should be part of any geophysics course. Understanding heat,
on the other hand, is central to geophysics and fundamental to our appreciation of
the living planet. All geology and geophysics, indeed the existence of life itself,
depend on the Earth’s thermal behaviour. Heat is accordingly discussed in some
detail.
The final chapters use the knowledge built up in the earlier ones to create
an integrated picture of the complex operation of the oceanic and continental
lithosphere, its growth and deformation. The workshops of geology – ridges
and subduction zones – are described from both geophysical and petrological
viewpoints. Sedimentary basins and continental margins employ most of the
world’s geophysicists. It is important that those who explore the wealth or perils
of these regions know the broader background of their habitat.
SI units have been used except in cases where other units are clearly more
appropriate. Relative plate motions are quoted in centimetres or millimetres per
year, not in metres per second. Geological time and ages are quoted in millions
or billions of years (Ma or Ga) instead of seconds. Temperatures are quoted in

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Preface to the first edition xiii
degrees Centigrade (◦ C), not Kelvin (K). Seismic velocities are in kilometres per
second, not in metres per second.
Most geophysicists look for oil. Some worry about earthquakes or landslips, or
advise governments. Some are research workers or teach at universities. Uniting
this diversity is a deep interest in the Earth. Geophysics is a rigorous scientific
discipline, but it is also interesting and fun. The student reader to whom this book
is addressed will need rigour and discipline and often hard work, but the reward
is an understanding of our planet. It is worth it.

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Preface to the second edition
Since the first edition was published in 1990 computers have revolutionized geo-
physics and all of the Earth sciences just as they have our daily lives. Huge datasets
can be manipulated, complex computations performed and detailed colour images
plotted. An understanding of the fine details of the workings of the many pro-
cesses taking place within the Earth is becoming achievable and a synthesis of the
interactions of the hitherto rather separate disciplines of geochemistry, dynamics,
heat and seismology has become possible. This has been an exciting decade for
advances in our comprehension of the interior working of the Earth.
I have kept the overall format and structure of the book unchanged from the
first edition. Many people have contacted me and seemed to like the approach
that I used. I have taken many of their detailed suggestions into consideration
when preparing this new edition. Changes have not been made for the sake of
using the latest publications, but where there have been significant advances.
Older references and sources have been retained in order to lead students to
papers of value that they would not otherwise meet, and to show how major
steps in understanding were achieved. The major change from the first edition is
that the deep internal structure of the Earth and mantle and core processes are
now covered in a separate chapter rather than being included in the chapters on
seismology and heat. The other substantial change is the addition of a section of
colour plates.
xv

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Acknowledgements to the first edition
Textbooks are not easy to write. They need to have an author, of course, but
much of the work is done by an array of encouragers, teachers and critics. Lady
Jeffreys introduced me to Sir Edward Bullard, who made geophysics sound fun.
To Drummond Matthews, Dan McKenzie and Brian Kennett, as well as to those
who were students with me, I owe much. Ships and rocks are much more exciting
than a life crouched over computers and equations.
In writing this book I have been helped by many people. P. H. Fowler, D. P.
McKenzie, E. G. Nisbet, A. Prugger, C. Sammis and P. J. Smith, together with
several anonymous reviewers, read most or all of the manuscript, making many
useful suggestions and pointing out errors. Since the manuscript was long the task
was large. I am very grateful. For detailed critiques of individual chapters I am
indebted to M. J. Bickle, P. van Calsteren, S. R. Fowler, D. Gubbins, E. Hegner,
J. A. Jacobs, T. K. Kyser, J. B. Merriam, B. I. Pandit, J. A. Pearce, G. M. Purdy,
G. Quinlan, R. S. White and P. J. Wyllie. The expertise and solid criticism of these
kind people helped greatly in my quest for accuracy in so many fields in which I
am not a specialist. Many people, including T. Atwater, D. R. Barraclough, R. M.
Clowes, R. G. Coleman, A. M. Dziewonski, Sir Charles Frank, R. G. Gordon,
A. G. Green, N. B. W. Harris, W. Haxby, E. Irving, J. A. Jackson, C. E. Keen,
S. Klemperer, K. D. Klitgord, R. A. Langel, R. D. Lindwall, H. Nevanlinna, N. W.
Peddie, J. A. Percival, G. M. Purdy, M. P. Ryan, J. G. Sclater, C. R. Scotese, A. G.
Smith, J. F. Sweeney, J. Verrall and M. L. Zoback, have given advice on specific
details, and sent prints of their figures or preprints and reprints of their articles. I
am very appreciative of their help. The geodynamics lectures given in Cambridge
by Geoff King provided the basis for my presentation of relative plate motions in
Chapter 2. Most of all, I wish to acknowledge the generous and painstaking help
of Walter Pilant, who read the text not once but twice, and pointed out much error
and infelicity. Despite all this help there are bound to be mistakes. For these I
apologise; they are entirely my fault, either as errors of understanding or as errors
of printing. My hope is that they will be few.
I should like to thank W. G. E. Caldwell and H. E. Hendry, who as respec-
tive chairmen of the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of
Saskatchewan provided the facilities and encouragement that enabled me to
undertake this project. A. Heppner showed immense tolerance and patience in
typing many versions of the enormous manuscript, while A. C. Williamson made
xvi

C. M. R. Fowler
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Acknowledgements to the first edition xvii
it possible for me to write. Lindsay Embree drew many of the figures. Peter-John
Leone’s enthusiasm and the diligent, careful work of Mary Nevader and Glenn
Cochran created a book from a pile of paper. Thank you.
I thank my children for their forbearance over the past few years. In fact,
without a family I would probably not have had the opportunity and time to
undertake the writing of this book; I would have been too busy doing other
things such as writing papers and sitting on committees. Finally, I thank Euan for
constant encouragement, help and advice.

C. M. R. Fowler
Frontmatter
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Acknowledgements to the second edition
A second edition should, I thought, be much easier to write than the first. Now I am
not so sure! Pruning, altering and adding to the first edition of The Solid Earth in
order to create the second edition has not been easy. I have been helped and encour-
aged greatly by many friends and colleagues without whom this book would not
be the same. Many people have helped enormously by letting me know how they
used the book for teaching and which sections they felt could be improved or
extended and by pointing out spelling and typographical errors and inconsis-
tency. Some have helped by sending reprints and preprints. Others have provided
invaluable assistance by sending data and figures. They include Robin Adams,
Falk Amelung, Donna Blackman, Derek Blundell, Carl Bowin, Mike Brudzinski,
Peter Bunge, Joe Cann, Rudolphe Cattin, Cindy Ebinger, Cliff Frohlich, Saskia
Goes, Steve Grand, Akira Hasegawa, Wilfried Jokat, Hans-Gert Kahle, Dan
MacKenzie, Didier Massonnet, Guy Masters, Jim Mechie, Neil Mitchell, Walter
Mooney, Christian Mueller, David Price, Barbara Romanowicz, Peter Shearer,
Wim Spakman, Rob van der Hilst, George Zandt and Doug Wiens. Others have
read and commented on chapters and sections for me: J. Baker, M. F. Thirlwall,
R. Cattin, C. Chauvel and E. G. Nisbet. Graeme Eagles undertook the huge
task of preparing large numbers of figures and plates. Other people who have
helped by drafting figures and to whom I am very grateful are James McGrow,
Nicola Wilson, Nigel Rata, Louise Anderson, Susan Macmillan, Kylara Martin
and Grace Nisbet. Many figures have been produced using the GMT software of
Paul Wessel and Walter H. F. Smith (Wessel, P. and Smith, W. H. F. 1991. EOS
Trans. Am. Geophys. Un., 72, 441). I am most grateful to everyone, named and
anonymous – thank you all very much indeed for your contributions.
I am indebted to The Geological Society, who awarded me their Prestwich
Medal in 1996, its centenary year, for The Solid Earth. That was an honour that
quite amazed me; I just hope that this new edition continues to be as useful and
helpful to students, teachers and researchers as the first edition seems to have
been.
As ever, my final thanks must go to my family for their continual encourage-
ment, advice and tolerance.
xviii

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The Solid Earth

Book · February 2005

The Solid Earth View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

The Solid Earth

(Geoscientist, Geological Society, 1996, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 24.)

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

The Solid Earth

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

cambridge university press

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 2005

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typefaces Times NR 10/13 pt. and Universe System LATEX 2ε [tb]

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

ISBN 0 521 58409 4 hardback

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Preface to the ﬁrst edition page xi

2 Tectonics on a sphere: the geometry of plate tectonics 5

3 Past plate motions 43

4 Seismology Measuring the interior 100

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

8 The deep interior of the Earth 326

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

9 The oceanic lithosphere: ridges, transforms, trenches and

10 The continental lithosphere 509

Appendix 1 Scalars, vectors and differential operators 615

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Preface to the ﬁrst edition

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

xii Preface to the ﬁrst edition

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Preface to the ﬁrst edition xiii

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Preface to the second edition

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Acknowledgements to the ﬁrst edition

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Acknowledgements to the ﬁrst edition xvii

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Acknowledgements to the second edition

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

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