Strength-Reducing Defects In Timber

Group III
Aira – Danielle – Russel – Joice – Takahiro - Allen
Knots

On the cut board, it is most easily marked by its conspicuously darker appearance and harder character.

Cross Grain

One form of it is produced in lumber by the method of sawing and has no reference to the natural arrangement of the
wood elements.If the fibers of the wood in a normal tree are not parallel to the axis of growth (length of timber), then it
is considered cross grain.

Shakes

Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth
ring of a timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods

CHECKS

Checks occur as the wood seasons after the tree is felled. Check is a
kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from one end to another. Too rapid drying can cause severe
checking.
COMPRESSION WOOD

Compression wood is a form of "reaction wood," in which an unsymmetrical growth pattern has been caused by long-
term bending stresses in the live tree. For example, a tree that leans badly during its growth will have to resist a high
bending moment caused by the tree's own weight.

WANE

Often wane consists of bark remaining on the surface of the finished lumber. Obviously, the strength is reduced by
wane, so wane is taken into account in the allowable design stresses assigned to a given grade of lumber.

DECAY

Decayed spots represent portions of the wood that should be considered to have no strength, since the wood fibers are
interrupted by the decay. Wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect in wood. Further,
decay can easily spread to adjacent areas. Wood with decay should not be used in new construction.

II. Seasoning of Timber or Drying of Wood

Seasoning of timber is the process by which moisture content in the timber is reduced to required level. By reducing
moisture content, the strength, elasticity and durability properties are developed. A well-seasoned timber has 15%
moisture content in it.

Methods of Seasoning of Timber

1. Natural seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning

Natural Seasoning

AIR SEASONING
 ADVANTAGES

 No expensive equipment needed

 Small labor cost

DISADVANTAGES

 Slow drying rate

 Large area of space required for a lot of timber
 Only dries to approximately 20% moisture content

Water Seasoning

ARTIFICAIL SEASONING

1. Seasoning by Boiling

2. Chemical seasoning

3. Kiln seasoning

4. Electrical seasoning

Seasoning by Boiling

Seasoning by boiling wood logs in hot water is called seasoning by boiling. Drying is done after proper boiling.

Advantages

• It takes a short amount of time. Generally, 3-4 hours is good enough.

• Develops the strength and elasticity.

Disadvantages

• It is serviceable basically for a small quantity of wood, not convenient for a large amount.

• The cost is high.

Chemical Seasoning

Reduction of moisture using salt solution is called chemical seasoning. After the absorption of water by the solution logs
are let to dry.

Advantage

• It increases the strength of the timber.

Disadvantage

• Chemical reagents can sometimes reduce strength.

• It can cause a problem in gluing or finishing or corrosion while using.

Kiln Seasoning

Seasoning of wood by using a large chamber or oven where there is a good process for the circulation of hot air.

Advantages

• Most effective seasoning.

• Quicker due to higher temperatures, ventilation and air circulation.

Disadvantages

• Is expensive

• Uses a lot of energy

Kiln seasoning can be done by 2 processes such as:

• Progressive kiln Seasoning: Wood log is entered through the kiln and the temperature and humidity
differentials are maintained through the length of the kiln to maintain proper drying.

• Compartmental Seasoning: Its maintained by enclosed container or buildings.

Electric Seasoning

Dry wood is non-conductor of electricity while green timber is a conductor, so, can pass alternating current. Thus in this
method alternating current is used for drying the cells of wood by creating heat.

Advantage:

• Using this method quick drying is obtained.

Disadvantages:

• The equipment required is very costly.

• It is an uneconomic process as a high rate of electricity is consumed.

Grading of Lumber

Hardwoods

The most common trees you’ll see hardwood lumber come from are oak, maple, walnut, hickory, and mahogany.

Grades of Hardwood

Hardwood grades are based on the size and number of clear pieces that can be obtained from a board when it is cut up
to be used to make a product.

Hardwood lumber grades:

Firsts and Seconds (FAS)
The best and most expensive grade. Boards 6" and wider, 8' and longer. Yields 83.3 percent of clear face cuttings with
minimum sizes of 4" x 5', or 3" x 7'. Board is graded from the poorer face. Suitable for fine furniture, cabinetry and
applications where clear, wide boards are needed.

FAS One Face(F1F)

The same as FAS except the board is graded from the better face.

Selects(SEL)
Face side is FAS, back side is No. 1 Common. Boards are 4" and wider, 6' and longer. Yields 83-1/3 percent clear face
cuttings with minimum sizes of 4" x 5', or 3" x 7'. A cost effective substitute for FAS when only one good face is required
or smaller cuttings are acceptable.

No. 1 Common
A typical thrift or "shop" grade. Boards are 3" and wider, 4' and longer. Yields 66-2/3 percent clear face cuttings with
minimum sizes of 4" x 2', or 3" x 3'. Provides good value, especially if relatively small pieces can be used.

No. 2A Common
The Number 2A Common grade is often referred to as the ‘economy grade’ because of its price and suitability for a wide
range of furniture parts. The Number 2A Common grade includes boards that are a minimum of 3” wide and 4’ long that
yield from 50% , but not including, the minimum requirement for Number 1 Common (66.6%). The smallest clear cutting
allowed is 3” by 2’ and the number of these cuttings depends on the size of the board.

Grade Min. board Min. board Min. cutting Min. Area of

width length size clear cuttings
required

Firsts and Seconds 6" 8' 4" x 5' or 83.33%

3" x 7'

FAS One Face 6" 8' 4" x 5' or 83.33%

3" x 7'

Select 4" 6' 4" x 5' or 83.33%

3" x 7’

No. 1 Common 3" 4' 4" x 2' or 66.6%

3" x 3'

No. 2A Common 3" 4' 3" x 2' 50%

Grading of Lumber

Lumber is graded on how it will be used. The fewer knots and defects, the higher the grade and the more expensive it is.
Since the price can often double from one grade to the next, it’s important not to buy a better grade of lumber than
needed.

Softwoods
Lumber from cone bearing trees—like pine, redwood, and fir—are grouped together as softwoods.

Grades of Softwoods

Softwoods are divided into dimensional lumber, with a grade based on strength, and appearance boards, which are
typically used for woodworking projects. Grading of softwoods is overseen by a number of different agencies, so you will
be more likely to find some variations in terminology. Grades listed here are from highest to lowest.
Grade What It Means
C Select Almost completely clear of defects. Widely used for interior trim and cabinets.
D Select Fine appearance, similar to C Select. May have dime-sized knots.
Best material for high quality pine with a knotty look. Knots will be tight, meaning they won't fall out, and
1 Common
generally small.
Tight knots, but larger than found in 1 Common. Often used for paneling and shelving. Very suitable for
2 Common
general woodworking projects.

Grade 1 Pine Grade 2 Pine

Grade 3 Pine Grade 4 Pine

The common grades found at your local lumberyard from best to worst are:

 #1: Construction grade.

 #2: Standard grade.
 #3: Utility grade.
 #4: Economy grade.

Softwood lumber that is graded for appearance is used mainly for facing boards and other finish work. The highest
quality appearance lumber is known as “finish” followed by “select.”
Each category is graded from best to worst as:

 A: Clear with no knots.

 B: Contains a few minor defects. Often combined with A and sold as B & Better.
 C: Some small tight knots.
 D: A few knots and defects.

Some specialty softwoods—such as redwood and western cedar—are graded on the amount of rotresistant heartwood
as well as defects.
The more common grades of redwood are:

 Clear all heart: No defects and all heartwood on the graded side.
  Heart B: Heartwood with a few knots allowed.
 Construction Heart: Heartwood with larger knots allowed.
 Deck Heart: Similar to construction heart, but graded for strength.
 Clear: No defects but some sapwood.
 Construction common: Knots and sapwood allowed.

Softwood lumber contains a stamp indicating the name or number of the mill where the lumber was processed, the
species of wood, how it was dried, the grade it received, and the organization that certified the grading.
Some of the common species abbreviations found on softwoods are:

 D FIR: Douglas fir.

 DOUG FIR-L: Douglas fir or larch.
 HEM-FIR: Hemlock or fir.
 IWP: Idaho white pine.
 PP: Ponderosa pine.
 PP-LP: Ponderosa pine or lodgepole pine.
 S-P-F: Spruce, pine, or fir.
 SYP: Southern yellow pine.
 WEST CDR: Western cedar.