doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3121.2006.00688.

The early interaction between the Caribbean Plateau and the NW

South American Plate
Cristian Vallejo,1 Richard A. Spikings,2 Leonard Luzieux,1 Wilfried Winkler,1 David Chew2 and Laurence
Page3
1
Geological Institute, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland; 2Department of Mineralogy, University of Geneva, CH-1205 Geneva,
Switzerland; 3Department of Geology, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, 223 62 Lund, Sweden

ABSTRACT
The determination of accurate and precise ages for the timing
of collision between oceanic plateaus and continental crust
requires an understanding of how the indenting and buttressing
plates respond to the collision. We present geochronological,
thermochronological, geochemical and isotopic analyses of
magmatic rocks from the Ecuadorian Andes, which relate to the
collision of the Late Cretaceous Caribbean Plateau and Great
Arc sequence with NW South America. The cessation of
subduction magmatism during 65–64 Ma beneath the eastern
edge of Caribbean Plateau was synchronous with accelerated
surface uplift and exhumation within the buttressing continen-
tal margin during 75–65 Ma. We interpret this as the collision
of the leading edge of the Caribbean Plateau and arc sequence
with the South American Plate at 75–65 Ma. A U/Pb (zircon)
SHRIMP age of 87.10 ± 1.66 (2r) Ma, yielded by an accreted
fragment of the plateau, precludes previous estimates of
collision at 85–80 Ma if the plateau erupted above the
Galápagos hotspot.
Terra Nova, 18, 264–269, 2006

Introduction
There is a consensus that a majority
of thickened, allochthonous oceanic
mafic material exposed in the west-
ern part of the Northern Andes in
Ecuador and Colombia represents
relict fragments of the Caribbean
Plateau, which erupted above an
oceanic hotspot. Several studies have
proposed that the Caribbean Plateau
erupted above the Galápagos hotspot
(e.g. Duncan and Hargraves, 1984;
Ross and Scotese, 1988; Hoernle
et al., 2004), whereas other authors
suggest it may have erupted above
more than one hotspot, some of
which may have a southern Pacific
origin (e.g. Reynaud et al., 1999;
Kerr and Tarney, 2005). Knowledge
of the timing of accretion of the
plateau with the continental margin
is paramount to any plate recon-
struction model of the Caribbean
Plate, as it temporally constrains
the onset of its fragmentation. Pre-
vious estimates of the timing of
collision between the Caribbean Plat-
eau and the Ecuadorian continental
margin cluster at either 85–65 Ma
Correspondence: Dr Cristian Vallejo, Geo-
logisches Institut, ETH Zentrum HAD,
Haldenbachstrasse 44, 8092 Zürich, Swit-
zerland. Tel.: +41 1 632 6129; fax: +41 4
4632 1422; e-mail: cristian.vallejo@erdw.
ethz.ch
(e.g. Lebrat et al., 1987; Aspden
et al., 1992; Kerr et al., 2002; Spi-
kings et al., 2005) or the Late Cam-
panian–Maastrichtian (e.g. 75–
65 Ma; Spikings et al., 2001; Hughes
and Pilatasig, 2002; Jaillard et al.,
2004). We present new geochrono-
logical, geochemical and isotopic evi-
dence from the accreted oceanic
rocks, which, when combined with
previous sedimentological and
thermochronological analyses, argues
against previous models of accretion
during 85–80 Ma and strongly
supports a model of Late Campa-
nian–Maastrichtian (75–65 Ma) colli-
sion between the Caribbean Plate
and the Ecuadorian continental
margin.
The age and origin of the mafic
oceanic basement in western
Ecuador
Basaltic lavas and hyaloclastites of
the Pallatanga Unit, which form the
basement of the Pallatanga Terrane,
represent fragments of the Caribbean
Plateau that collided against the
South American Plate (Kerr et al.,
2002). These rocks are exposed in
fault-bound slivers along the eastern
margin of the Western Cordillera
(Fig. 1). Their major oxides, trace
elements and isotope geochemistry
suggest that they erupted in an
oceanic plateau setting (Reynaud
et al., 1999; Lapierre et al., 2000;
Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al.,
2003), with geochemical similarities
with mafic rocks of the Caribbean–
Colombian Oceanic Plateau. Ultra-
mafic cumulates and gabbros of the
San Juan Unit are in faulted contact
with the Pallatanga Unit and are
considered to represent the ultrama-
fic root component of an oceanic
plateau sequence (Cosma et al., 1998;
Lapierre et al., 2000; Mamberti
et al., 2004).
Radiometric ages from the mapped
San Juan Unit range between 123 and
87 Ma, suggesting that the lithological-
ly defined unit may comprise unrelated
rock sequences. Lapierre et al. (2000)
report an Early Cretaceous amphi-
bole–plagioclase–whole rock internal
Sm/Nd isochron age of 123 ± 13 Ma
(2r) from a gabbro (their sample
98SJ13) in the San Juan Unit. Mam-
berti et al. (2004) presented a weighted
mean 40Ar/39Ar (hornblende) age of
99.2 ± 1.3 Ma (2r) from a gabbro,
which is mapped as part of the San
Juan Unit. This 40Ar/39Ar age is
derived from the youngest steps of a
saddle-shaped age spectrum, which is
typical of mineral phases that contain
excess 40Ar, and their age should be
considered as a maximum age (e.g.
Harrison and McDougall, 1981). Fi-
nally, zircons extracted from a layered
gabbro of the San Juan Unit yield a
weighted mean U/Pb (SHRIMP) age

264
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Terra Nova, Vol 18, No. 4, 264–269
.............................................................................................................................................................
Fig. 1 Simplified geology of Ecuador showing the juxtaposition of oceanic mafic
rocks of the Pallatanga Terrane (which includes the San Juan Unit, Pujilı́ Mélange,
Yunguilla Unit and the Rio Cala Arc sequence) and continental rocks of the Eastern
Cordillera and the Amotape Terrane.
of 87.10 ± 1.66 Ma (2r; Fig. 2). La-
pierre et al. (2000) interpreted their
Early Cretaceous Sm/Nd age as evi-
dence for a distinct, oceanic plateau
sequence that predates the Pallatanga
Unit (e.g. Jaillard et al., 2004), whereas
we interpret our Late Cretaceous U/Pb
age as the time of crystallization of
mafic components of the Pallatanga
Unit. Consequently, we suggest that
the San Juan unit is inaccurately
mapped, and both Early and Late
Cretaceous ultramafic and mafic rocks
define the basement sequence in the
easternmost Western Cordillera. The
U/Pb (zircon) age obtained in this
study overlaps with the peak of ages
(92–88 Ma) obtained from basalts of
the present day Caribbean Plateau
using the 40Ar/39Ar method (Sinton
et al., 1998; Kerr et al., 2003). The U/
Pb age is also indistinguishable from a
plateau hornblende 40Ar/39Ar age of
88.8 ± 1.6 Ma (2r), obtained from
geochemically defined oceanic plateau
rocks of the Piñón Fm. in the coastal

2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
C. Vallejo et al. • Caribbean Plateau–South American Plate collision
forearc of Ecuador (Luzieux et al.,
2005), suggesting that both units may
comprise parts of the same plateau
sequence. Palaeomagnetic data from
both the Piñon Fm. and its sedimentary
cover rocks imply that they crystallized
at latitudes between 0 and 5S and
experienced a clockwise rotation event
during the Campanian (Luzieux et al.,
2005).
The Early Cretaceous rock se-
quences reported by Lapierre et al.
(2000) may represent detached frag-
ments of the Early Cretaceous ultra-
mafic–mafic Peltetec Unit, which
yields island arc geochemical affinities,
and accreted to the South American
continent during the Aptian (Lither-
land et al., 1994). This interpretation
is also supported by a negative Nb
anomaly in some of the rocks included
in the San Juan Unit (Mamberti et al.,
2004), typical for rocks formed in a
subduction zone.
Zircons from a granitic block (Pujilı́
Granite) entrained in a tectonized
zone of the Pallatanga Unit (Pujilı́
Mélange; Fig. 1) yield a weighted
mean U/Pb (SHRIMP) age of 85.5 ±
1.4 (2r) Ma. White mica from the
same granite yields an indistinguish-
able plateau 40Ar/39Ar age of 86 ±
1 Ma (Spikings et al., 2005). These
ages, combined with positive (juven-
ile) eNdi values (+6.9), high concen-
trations of LILE elements (Ba, Sr),
and negative Nb anomalies (Fig.
3A,B) indicate a subduction-related
origin for the granite in an intra-
oceanic setting. The U/Pb age of the
Pujilı́ Granite is indistinguishable
from the Pallatanga Unit, and hence
may have formed as a fractionated
intrusive fragment produced during
the initiation of westward subduction
beneath the Caribbean Plateau,
shortly after the eruption of the plat-
eau, resulting in the formation of part
of the Great Arc of the Caribbean.
Earlier interpretations, which pro-
posed that the Pujilı́ Granite repre-
sents fragments of Triassic plutons
that are currently exposed in the
Eastern Cordillera, and became incor-
porated into the mélange zone during
ocean–continent collision (Hughes
and Pilatasig, 2002; Spikings et al.,
2005) are no longer plausible. The
association of Late Cretaceous gra-
nitic rocks with island arc signatures
and Late Cretaceous mafic oceanic
plateau rocks is also described on the
Island of Aruba. White et al. (1999)
interpreted the Aruba Batholith as
being produced by partial melting of
the Caribbean Plateau above an inci-
pient subduction zone with an ano-
malously hot mantle wedge. The
Aruba Batholith (c. 85 Ma, 40Ar/39Ar
hornblende; White et al., 1999) and
the Pujilı́ Granite share a similar
crystallization age (c. 85 Ma, U/Pb
zircon), and very distinctive trace
element distribution (e.g. high LILE,
high La/Yb, high Sr/Y and HREE
depletion) and isotopic geochemistry
(eNdi approximately 7), inferring that
both sequences may have formed in
the same subduction system.
The Totoras amphibolite sequence
is located in the central Western
Cordillera (Fig. 1). The amphibolites
yield an oceanic plateau geochemical
affinity (e.g. Jaillard et al., 2004;
Beaudon et al., 2005) and are juxta-
posed against unmetamorphosed ma-
fic rocks of the Pallatanga Unit.
Beaudon et al. (2005) suggested the
265
Caribbean Plateau–South American Plate collision • C. Vallejo et al.
.............................................................................................................................................................
(A)
Gabbro
(B) Hornblende, Totoras Amphibolite
Biotite, Triassic migmatite
White mica, Triassic migmatite
Terra Nova, Vol 18, No. 4, 264–269
(Figs 1 and 2B), which we interpret
Granite
as being indicative of rapid cooling
through 380–330 C during the Late
Maastrichtian.
Aspden et al. (1992) report wide-
spread resetting of K/Ar ages acquired
from Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous
rocks in the Eastern Cordillera during
85–65 Ma. However, it is impossible
to assess whether any individual age is
partially or fully reset and conse-
quently these data cannot be used to
distinguish between Santonian–Early
Campanian and Late Campanian–
Maastrichtian cooling. Consequently,
there is no thermochronological sup-
port from the buttressing continental
margin for reactivation by collision
during 85–80 Ma.

Evidence from sedimentary rocks

that span the age of collision
Pyroxene, Natividad Unit
Prominent Late Cretaceous sedimen-
tary formations to the east and west of
the developing contemporaneous An-
dean chain provide a further record of
the accretion of the oceanic plateau in
the forearc. During the Maastrichtian,
Fig. 2 (A) Tera-Wasserburg concordia diagrams for U/Pb (zircon) data yielded by erosion of the Napo Group marine
the San Juan Unit (UTM: 759961/9967463) and the Pujili Unit (UTM: 755300/
sequence in the developing Amazon
9898600) using SHRIMP analysis. Errors are given at the 2r level. (B) 40Ar/39Ar age
Foreland Basin (Fig. 1) was followed
spectra (25W CO2-IR laser; 2r errors) from the Totoras amphibolite (UTM: 730223/
by deposition of continental redbeds of
9809289), the Triassic migmatites exposed in the southern Eastern Cordillera (UTM:
758038/9669978) and basaltic lavas of the Natividad Unit (UTM: 771610/9996629). the Tena Formation (Aspden and Li-
Analytical details and data tables are stored in the data repository. UTM coordinates therland, 1992; Jaillard, 1997). Sedi-
are indicated in the Prov. S. Amer. 56 system. mentary rocks of the Tena Formation
are the oldest within the foreland basin
to host a significant assemblage of
amphibolites were formed by meta- metamorphic mineral grains derived
Thermochronological constraints
morphism of an oceanic plateau at from the Eastern Cordillera (Ruiz
from the buttressing Late
800–850 C and 6–9 kbar. We ob- et al., 2004). Furthermore, fission-
Cretaceous continental margin
tained a hornblende 40Ar/39Ar plat- track ages of detrital zircons in the
(Eastern Cordillera)
eau age of 84.69 ± 2.23 (2r) Ma same rocks are indistinguishable from
from the amphibolite (Fig. 2B). Con- Palaeozoic–Early Cretaceous meta- their stratigraphic age, which is indic-
sidering an estimated thickness of the sedimentary and intrusive rocks of ative of extremely rapid exhumation in
Caribbean Plateau of approximately the Eastern Cordillera and the Amo- the supplying Eastern Cordillera (Ruiz
20 km (Sinton et al., 1998; Revillon tape Complex (Fig. 1) define the Late et al., 2004). At the same time, detrital
et al., 2000) and a geothermal gradi- Cretaceous continental margin (i.e. supply from the Guyana Shield dimin-
ent of 40 C km)1, the peak tempera- prior to collision). The earliest signi- ished. In the forearc, the coeval (Late
ture and pressure conditions acquired ficant cooling and exhumation event Campanian–Maastrichtian) turbiditic
from the amphibolites could have detected along the continental margin Yunguilla Unit was being deposited in
been reached at the base of the by 40Ar/39Ar (white mica, biotite) and a basin partly floored by the Pallatanga
plateau. The high geothermal gradi- fission track (zircon, apatite) thermo- Unit (e.g. Jaillard et al., 2004; Fig. 1).
ent was probably supported by the chronology occurred during 75– The turbidites were partially sourced
same mantle plume that produced 65 Ma (Spikings et al., 2001, 2005). from metamorphic rocks of the Eastern
the oceanic plateau. Retrogression of This has been confirmed by new indis- Cordillera and from mafic volcanic
the amphibolites through approxi- tinguishable plateau 40Ar/39Ar ages rocks. These sedimentary sequences
mately 500 C at 84.69 ± 2.23 Ma from Triassic migmatites (U/Pb zircon attest to the topographic growth of
is probably a consequence of thermal age of 227 ± 2 Ma; Litherland et al., the Eastern Cordillera, located prox-
relaxation of the oceanic plateau, 1994) of 68.5 ± 0.4 (2r; white mica) imal to the zone of ocean–continent
subsequent to drift away from the and 68.6 ± 0.5 (2r; biotite) Ma from collision, during the Latest Campa-
hotspot. the southern Eastern Cordillera nian–Maastrichtian.

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Terra Nova, Vol 18, No. 4, 264–269 C. Vallejo et al. • Caribbean Plateau–South American Plate collision
.............................................................................................................................................................
intercalated with volcanic rocks of the
(A)
Rio Cala Unit, indicate they were

Rock/primitive mantle
derived exclusively from a mafic vol-
canic source region. Collectively, these
data support the hypothesis that the
Rio Cala Arc developed in an intra-
oceanic setting, and has a pre-accre-
tionary origin.
Sedimentary rocks intercalated
within boninitic pillow basalts of the
La Portada Unit (Van Thournout
(B) et al., 1992; Kerr et al., 2002) yield a
Santonian–Campanian biostrati-
graphic age (Boland et al., 2000). A
prevailing interpretation for boninitic
rocks is that they define the early stage
of an island arc (Pearce et al., 1992;
Stern and Bloomer, 1992), formed
beneath very young and hot oceanic
crust (Stern et al., 1991).
Lavas intercalated in the Natividad
Unit yield a plateau 40Ar/39Ar (clino-
Fig. 3 (A) Primitive mantle normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) multi-element pyroxene) age of 64.3 ± 0.4 Ma (2r;
diagram for the Pallatanga Unit and the Rio Cala Arc sequence. The subduction Fig. 2B) and volcanoclastic strata of
nature from the Rio Cala Arc sequence is evident by the relative enrichment in LILE the Natividad Unit yield Campanian
elements and the Nb anomaly, the latter not observed in rocks from the Pallatanga
to Maastrichtian microfossils (Boland
Unit (i.e. whole-rock data shown in grey field; Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002). (B) eNdi–
et al., 2000).
eSri correlation diagram for the Rio Cala Arc sequence (Rio Cala, Pilatón, Mulaute
We interpret the Rio Cala Arc
and Natividad units), including data from Cosma et al. (1998) and Mamberti et al.
(2004). The eNdi ratios of these rocks (+6 to +9) imply an intra-oceanic setting and sequence to have originated by west
may be a continuation of the Great Arc of the Caribbean (e.g. Burke, 1988). The shift dipping subduction of the proto-
towards higher eSri values in the Pujilı́ Granite can be accounted for by hydrothermal Caribbean oceanic crust beneath the
alteration, possibly associated with serpentinization of the host mafic rocks. relatively buoyant Caribbean Plateau
(e.g. Burke, 1988) during the Santo-
nian–Early Campanian (Fig. 4). The
Kerr et al. (2002) proposed that termination of the arc in the Maas-
The lifespan of the Rio Cala Arc
volcanic rocks of the Rio Cala Unit trichtian–Danian period corresponds
sequence
were produced by eastward subduc- to clogging of the subduction zone by
The Rio Cala Arc sequence, exposed tion below an already accreted oceanic collision between the Caribbean Plat-
in the northern Western Cordillera plateau in a continental arc setting. eau and the South American Plate.
(Fig. 1), is defined here as a series of This interpretation was based on the The absence of regional igneous
volcanoclastic turbidites (Natividad, more evolved nature of rocks from the activity on the continental margin
Pilatón and Mulaute units), with Rio Cala Unit, as shown by an during 85–65 Ma may be attributable
intercalated and juxtaposing, fault- enrichment of LREE concentrations, to a cessation of subduction beneath
bounded sequences of basaltic lavas despite relatively high MgO contents the continental margin as a conse-
(e.g. the Rio Cala and La Portada (approximately 8%). However, geo- quence of ocean basin closure being
units). Primitive mantle-normalized chemical evidence led Allibon et al. solely accommodated by westward
multielement plots of these volcanic (2005) to suggest that the lavas of the subduction beneath the Caribbean
rock sequences (Fig. 3A) indicate high Rio Cala Unit originated from sub- Plateau.
concentrations of LILE elements (Sr duction beneath thickened oceanic A significant quantity of material
and Ba) and distinctive negative Nb crust in an intra-oceanic arc. The derived from the Eastern Cordillera
anomalies, typical of rocks formed via LREE enrichments are accounted for occurs in the uppermost Mulaute Unit
subduction. High eNdi values of (+6 by the assimilation of oceanic plateau (Spikings et al., 2005), which con-
to +9) have been obtained from the rocks. Similarly, initial Nd and Pb formably overlies Maastrichtian to
Rio Cala Arc sequence, which overlap isotope ratios indicate that the rocks Palaeocene volcanic-derived turbidites
with those acquired from basalts in of the Rio Cala Unit result from the of the Pilatón Unit. This data suggest
the present-day Caribbean region (e.g. mixing of Pacific MORB mantle, sub- that the island arc system was close to
Thompson et al., 2003). The chemical ducted pelagic sediments and an ocea- the continent during the Palaeocene.
composition of clinopyroxenes extrac- nic plateau component (Allibon et al.,
ted from both basalts and sandstones 2005), which is consistent with an
intra-oceanic island arc setting. Fur- Summary and conclusions
in the Rio Cala arc sequence indicates
a tholeiitic island arc setting (data thermore, heavy mineral assemblages A new zircon U/Pb (SHRIMP) age
repository item). (Vallejo et al., 2003) within turbidites of 87.10 ± 1.66 Ma from basement

2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 267

Caribbean Plateau–South American Plate collision • C. Vallejo et al.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Fig. 4 Reconstruction of the Caribbean Plateau during the Santonian–Maastrichtian
(modified and simplified from Ross and Scotese, 1988). Schematic postulated
extensions to the Great Arc of the Caribbean have been made to include the Rio Cala
Arc sequence. The Pallatanga Terrane is shown as a fragment of the Caribbean
Plateau. GHS: Galápagos hot spot.
mafic rocks of the previously mapped
Early Cretaceous San Juan Unit,
within the eastern Western Cordill-
era, suggests that the San Juan Unit
is inaccurately mapped and the Early
Cretaceous rocks may only exist as
small-scale (e.g. several metres wide),
fault-bounded slivers. Our new Late
Cretaceous U/Pb age is the first
radiometric age from mafic basement
rocks of the Pallatanga Unit, which,
when combined with its geochemical
characteristics, supports a derivation
from the coeval Caribbean Plateau.
The U/Pb age is consistent with
volcanism associated with the Carib-
bean Plateau during 92–88 Ma (Sin-
ton et al., 1998; Kerr et al., 2003) and
an 40Ar/39Ar age of 88 ± 1.6 Ma
from oceanic plateau rocks of the
Piñón Fm., located along present-day
coastal Ecuador (Luzieux et al.,
2005). Palaeomagnetic analyses of
the Piñón Fm. (Luzieux et al., 2005)
strongly indicate that these oceanic
plateau remnants were derived from
an oceanic plateau formed at equa-
torial palaeolatitude, which is consis-
tent with a Galapagos hotspot origin
(Fig. 4).
The initiation of west-dipping sub-
duction at the leading edge of the
plateau, was probably responsible for
the generation of the ocean island-arc
related Pujilı́ Granite at c. 85.5 Ma, via
partial melting of the plateau, similar
to what has been proposed by White
et al. (1999) for the Aruba Batholith.
Furthermore, Santonian–Campanian
boninites of the La Portada Unit
(Rio Cala Arc sequence) were also
produced during the early stages of arc
magmatism via subduction beneath
268
the Caribbean Plateau, and may be
partly coeval with the Pujilı́ Granite.
The time-span between the eruption of
oceanic plateau basalts and the island-
arc related Pujilı́ Granite and boninites
of the Rio Cala Arc sequence suggests
that migration of the Caribbean Plat-
eau and subsequent initiation of west-
ward subduction below the plateau
occurred c. 2 Myr after the eruption of
the plateau.
The oceanic plateau and overlying
island arc subsequently drifted to the
northeast and collided with the South
American continental margin during
the Campanian, although subduction-
related magmatism terminated at the
Maastrichtian–Danian transition,
suggesting that the collision may have
been oblique. It is likely that the
collision between the South American
Plate and the Caribbean Plateau resul-
ted in rapid surface uplift in the
Eastern Cordillera, with erosion and
deposition in the fore- and backarc.
Furthermore, the onset of rapid exhu-
mation throughout the Late Creta-
ceous continental margin at 75–65 Ma
temporally corroborates the onset of
clastic sedimentation derived from the
continental margin during the Late
Campanian–Maastrichtian.
Collectively, this evidence strongly
favours the hypothesis that the colli-
sion between the Caribbean Plateau
and the Ecuadorian margin occurred
in the Late Campanian–Maastrichtian
(75–65 Ma).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their
thanks to Arturo Egüez and Richard
Terra Nova, Vol 18, No. 4, 264–269
Hughes, regarding accretionary events in
western Ecuador and the Caribbean re-
gion. John Aspden and Andrew Kerr
provided constructive reviews of the manu-
script. Field sampling benefited from the
assistance and knowledge of Peter Hochuli,
Friedrich Heller, Efraı́n Montenegro, Wil-
liam Lugo and Diego Villagomez. This
work was supported by the Swiss National
Science Foundation (projects 2-77193-02
and 2-77504-04).
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Received 15 March 2006; revised version
accepted 17 May 2006
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