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WATER-QUALITY ENGINEERING
in Natural Systems
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WATER-QUALITY ENGINEERING
in Natural Systems

DAVID A. CHIN
University of Miami
Coral Gables, Florida

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

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Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Chin, David A.
Water-quality engineering in natural systems / David A. Chin.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-471-71830-7 (cloth)
ISBN-10: 0-471-71830-0 (cloth)
1. Water quality management. I. Title.
TD365.C485 2006
628.1'68—dc22 2005023394

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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To my wife, Linda Sue, for her love and support

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CONTENTS

PREFACE xiii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Principles of Water-Quality Control / 3
1.2 Sources of Water Pollution / 5
1.2.1 Point Sources / 6
1.2.2 Nonpoint Sources / 9
1.3 Laws and Regulations / 12
1.3.1 Clean Water Act / 13
1.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act / 14
1.4 Strategy for Water-Quality Management / 18
1.4.1 Use-Attainability Analysis / 19
1.4.2 Total Maximum Daily Load Process / 19
Summary / 20
Problems / 21

2 WATER-QUALITY STANDARDS 22
2.1 Introduction / 22
2.2 Measures of Water Quality / 23
2.2.1 Physical Measures / 23
2.2.2 Chemical Measures / 28
2.2.3 Biological Measures / 49
2.3 U.S. Surface-Water Standards / 63
2.3.1 Designated Beneficial Uses / 64
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viii CONTENTS

2.3.2 Water-Quality Criteria / 65

2.3.3 Antidegradation Policy / 80
2.3.4 General Water-Quality Management Practices / 80
2.4 U.S. Ground-Water Standards / 86
2.5 Background Water Quality / 87
2.6 Computer Codes / 89
Summary / 89
Problems / 90

3 FATE AND TRANSPORT IN AQUATIC SYSTEMS 91

3.1 Mixing of Dissolved Constituents / 91
3.2 Properties of the Diffusion Equation / 95
3.2.1 Fundamental Solution in One Dimension / 96
3.2.2 Principle of Superposition / 101
3.2.3 Solutions in Higher Dimensions / 108
3.2.4 Moment Property of the Diffusion Equation / 114
3.2.5 Nondimensional Form / 116
3.3 Transport of Suspended Particles / 118
Summary / 121
Problems / 121

4 RIVERS AND STREAMS 124

4.1 Introduction / 124
4.2 Transport Processes / 126
4.2.1 Initial Mixing / 126
4.2.2 Longitudinal Dispersion / 135
4.3 Spills / 139
4.3.1 Governing Equation / 139
4.3.2 Fate of Volatile Organic Compounds in Streams / 145
4.4 Continuous Discharges / 149
4.4.1 Oxygen Demand of Wastewater / 150
4.4.2 Reaeration / 151
4.4.3 Streeter–Phelps Model / 154
4.4.4 Other Considerations / 157
4.5 Restoration and Management / 175
4.5.1 Nonstructural Techniques / 175
4.5.2 Structural Techniques / 178
4.6 Computer Codes / 183
Summary / 185
Problems / 186
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CONTENTS ix

5 LAKES AND RESERVOIRS 192

5.1 Introduction / 192
5.2 Natural Processes / 196
5.2.1 Flow and Dispersion / 196
5.2.2 Light Penetration / 197
5.2.3 Sedimentation / 198
5.2.4 Eutrophication and Nutrient Recycling / 198
5.2.5 Thermal Stratification / 207
5.3 Water-Quality Models / 212
5.3.1 Zero-Dimensional (Completely Mixed) Model / 212
5.3.2 One-Dimensional (Vertical) Models / 217
5.3.3 Two-Dimensional Models / 218
5.4 Restoration and Management / 221
5.4.1 Control of Eutrophication / 221
5.4.2 Control of Dissolved-Oxygen Levels / 226
5.4.3 Control of Toxic Contaminants / 232
5.4.4 Control of Acidity / 232
5.4.5 Control of Aquatic Plants / 234
5.4.6 Attainability of Lake Uses / 238
5.5 Computer Codes / 238
Summary / 239
Problems / 240

6 WETLANDS 243
6.1 Introduction / 243
6.2 Natural Wetlands / 245
6.2.1 Marshes / 245
6.2.2 Swamps / 246
6.2.3 Bogs / 248
6.2.4 Fens / 248
6.3 Delineation of Wetlands / 249
6.3.1 Vegetation / 250
6.3.2 Soils / 251
6.3.3 Hydrology / 251
6.4 Wetland Hydrology / 253
6.4.1 Net Surface-Water Inflow / 254
6.4.2 Net Ground-Water Inflow / 254
6.4.3 Evapotranspiration / 255
6.5 Case Study: The Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp / 255
6.6 Constructed Treatment Wetlands / 256
6.6.1 Surface-Flow Wetlands / 257
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x CONTENTS

6.6.2 Subsurface-Flow Wetlands / 259

6.6.3 Wetland Regulations in the United States / 260
6.6.4 Basic Principles for Wetland Restoration and Creation / 262
6.6.5 Design of Constructed Treatment Wetlands / 262
6.6.6 Wetlands for Treating Roadway Runoff / 278
Summary / 279
Problems / 280

7 GROUND WATER 281

7.1 Introduction / 281
7.2 Natural Ground-Water Quality / 281
7.3 Contaminant Sources / 283
7.3.1 Septic Tanks / 284
7.3.2 Leaking Underground Storage Tanks / 285
7.3.3 Land Application of Wastewater / 285
7.3.4 Irrigation and Irrigation Return Flow / 287
7.3.5 Solid-Waste Disposal Sites / 290
7.3.6 Waste-Disposal Injection Wells / 292
7.3.7 Agricultural Operations / 292
7.4 Fate and Transport Models / 292
7.4.1 Instantaneous Point Source / 295
7.4.2 Continuous Point Source / 297
7.4.3 Continuous Plane Source / 299
7.5 Transport Processes / 302
7.6 Fate Processes / 311
7.6.1 Sorption / 312
7.6.2 First-Order Decay / 320
7.6.3 Combined Processes / 322
7.7 Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids / 325
7.8 Remediation of Subsurface Contamination / 329
7.8.1 Remediation Goals / 330
7.8.2 Site Investigation / 331
7.8.3 Remediation Strategies / 345
7.9 Computer Models / 380
Summary / 382
Problems / 383

8 OCEANS AND ESTUARIES 390

8.1 Introduction / 390
8.2 Ocean-Outfall Discharges / 391
8.2.1 Near-Field Mixing / 394
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8.2.2 Far-Field Mixing / 412

8.3 Water-Quality Control in Estuaries / 420
8.3.1 Classification of Estuaries / 422
8.3.2 Physical Conditions / 424
8.3.3 Chemical Conditions / 431
8.3.4 Biological Conditions / 432
8.3.5 Use-Attainability Evaluations / 433
8.4 Computer Models / 433
Summary / 435
Problems / 435

9 WATERSHEDS 439
9.1 Introduction / 439
9.2 Source-Water Protection / 441
9.3 Watershed-Generated Pollutant Loads / 443
9.4 Urban Watersheds / 448
9.4.1 Sources of Pollution / 449
9.4.2 Fate and Transport Processes / 454
9.4.3 Best Management Practices / 462
9.5 Agricultural Watersheds / 482
9.5.1 Sources of Pollution / 483
9.5.2 Fate and Transport Processes / 487
9.5.3 Best Management Practices / 513
9.6 Airsheds / 522
9.6.1 Nitrogen Compounds / 524
9.6.2 Mercury / 524
9.6.3 Other Metals / 526
9.6.4 Pesticides / 526
9.6.5 Combustion Emissions / 526
9.7 Computer Models / 527
Summary / 530
Problems / 531

APPENDIX A UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 533

A.1 Units / 533
A.2 Conversion Factors / 534

APPENDIX B FLUID PROPERTIES 537

B.1 Water / 537
B.2 Organic Compounds Found in Water / 540
B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure / 540
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xii CONTENTS

APPENDIX C U.S. WATER-QUALITY STANDARDS 541

C.1 Water-Quality Criteria for Surface Waters / 541
C.2 Water-Quality Criteria for Drinking Water / 547
C.3 Priority Pollutants / 551

APPENDIX D STATISTICAL TABLES 553

D.1 Areas Under the Standard Normal Curve / 553

APPENDIX E SPECIAL FUNCTIONS 557

E.1 Error Function / 557
E.2 Bessel Functions / 558
E.2.1 Definition / 558
E.2.2 Evaluation of Bessel Functions / 559
E.3 Gamma Function / 563

APPENDIX F PIPE SPECIFICATIONS 565

F.1 PVC Pipe / 565
F.2 Ductile Iron Pipe / 565
F.3 Concrete Pipe / 567

REFERENCES 569
INDEX 601
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PREFACE

Water-quality engineering is a specialty area in environmental engineering that includes

the subspecialties of water treatment, wastewater treatment, and water-quality control in
natural systems. This textbook is intended to encompass the latter subspecialty, and the
content of this book constitutes baseline knowledge expected of water-quality engineers
and managers. The need for competent water-quality engineers and managers is apparent
when one realizes that in the United States over 50% of natural surface-water bodies do
not meet their designated water uses and statutory water-quality goals. In addition, many
shallow aquifers are contaminated by anthropogenic contaminants such as nitrates and
organic chemicals, primarily pesticides and solvents. It is clear that water-quality
engineering in natural systems will be an important practice area for the foreseeable future.
The practice of water-quality engineering is significantly influenced by laws and regu-
lations, and practitioners must be fully aware of all applicable statutory requirements. The
phenomenological foundations of water-quality control in natural systems are the rela-
tionships between contaminant concentrations in the aqueous phase and other phases
(solid, vapor), the biochemical reactions of the contaminant in the environment, and the
flows that transport the contaminant in the environment. The fundamental phenomenolog-
ical relationships are typically brought together in a single fate and transport equation
whose solution is closely tied to the advection–dispersion equation. Although the generic
fate and transport equation can be applied in most natural waters, the physical, chemical,
and biological differences between various types of water bodies dictate that these water
bodies be considered separately to focus more closely on the processes that are important
to that particular water body. For example, nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) is a pri-
mary concern in lakes and reservoirs, whereas toxic substances released from spills or
leaking storage facilities is a primary concern in ground waters. The major categories of
natural waters are rivers and streams, lakes and reservoirs, wetlands, ground water, and
oceans and estuaries. Aside from assessing the fate and transport of contaminants pur-
posely discharged into natural waters, remediation of contaminated waters also requires
an understanding of the relationship between contaminant-generating activities in the
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xiv PREFACE

surrounding watershed and the contaminant input to the receiving water body. In this
regard, terrestrial fate and transport processes and their relationship to various best man-
agement practices must be understood and quantified.
The book begins with an introduction to the principles of water-quality control and the
laws and regulations relating to water-quality control in the United States. Particular atten-
tion is given to use-attainability analyses and the estimation of total maximum daily loads,
both of which are essential components of water-quality control in natural systems.
Chapter 2 covers the essential components of water-quality standards, including the phys-
ical, chemical, and biological measures of water quality. Chapter 3 covers the mathemati-
cal formulation of fate and transport processes in aquatic systems, including the derivation
of the advection–dispersion equation from first principles and the mathematical solution
and properties of this fundamental equation. The advection–dispersion equation is appli-
cable to all natural waters. Chapter 4 covers fate and transport processes in rivers and
streams, including lateral and longitudinal mixing from both instantaneous spills and con-
tinuous discharges, the fate of volatile organic compounds in streams, and the depletion of
dissolved oxygen in streams resulting from the discharge and accumulation of biodegrad-
able organics. Guidelines for the restoration and management of polluted rivers are also
provided. Chapter 5 describes water-quality processes in lakes and reservoirs, with par-
ticular emphasis on quantitative relationships describing flow and dispersion, sedimen-
tation, eutrophication, nutrient recycling, and thermal stratification. Techniques to control
eutrophication, dissolved-oxygen levels, toxic contaminants, acidity, and aquatic plants
are all covered. Chapter 6 describes the occurrence, function, and hydrology of wetlands,
the delineation of jurisdictional wetlands, and the design, construction, and operation of
artificial (constructed) wetlands. Particular attention is given to factors controlling the
contaminant-removal efficiencies in constructed wetlands. Chapter 7 covers water-qual-
ity-related processes in ground water, including the natural quality of ground water;
quantification of sources of ground-water contamination; advection, dispersion, and sorp-
tion onto aquifer materials; biochemical decay; and the fate and transport of nonaqueous
phase liquids in ground water. Detailed coverage is provided on the application of fate and
transport principles to the remediation of contaminated ground water. Chapter 8 covers
water-quality processes in oceans and estuaries, with particular emphasis on the design and
operation of domestic wastewater outfalls, and water-quality control in estuaries as they
relate to the physical, chemical, and biological conditions in the estuary. Chapter 9 covers
water-quality-based watershed management where the primary focus is on estimating the
contaminant loading on receiving waters from activities within the watershed. Detailed
attention is given to sources of pollution and fate and transport processes associated with
urban and agricultural watersheds. Atmospheric loading on natural waters due to airshed
activities is also covered.
The material covered in this book is most appropriate for seniors and first-year gradu-
ate students in environmental and civil engineering programs. Others with backgrounds in
environmental science might also find the contents of this book useful.
The practice of water-quality engineering in natural systems as described in this book
reflects the reality that the fate and transport of anthropogenic contaminants introduced
into natural waters must be understood and manipulated to minimize the impact of con-
taminant discharges into these waters. By controlling the quality, quality, timing, and dis-
tribution of contaminant discharges into the environment, the effects of human activities
on natural waters can be controlled. The design of effective remediation measures in
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PREFACE xv

contaminated waters is based on these same principles, with additional technological

considerations relating to the efficacy of various cleanup systems. The essential back-
ground for all these practices is provided.

DAVID A. CHIN

University of Miami